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| {{Campaignbox War of 1812: American South}} | {{Campaignbox War of 1812: American South}} | ||
| America Won. JEOAY! | |||
| The '''War of 1812''' (known as the second American Revolution in Britain to distinguish it from the larger war with ] that occurred in the same year) was fought between the ] and the ] and its colonies, especially ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| The war was fought from ] to ], since warfare occurred after the treaty had been signed, on both land and sea. By the end of the war, 1,600 British and 2,260 American troops had died.<ref>See http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/Camp/7624/Warof1812.htm - sources at bottom. British and American forces also suffered 3,679 and 4,505 wounded, respectively. It is noteworthy that these "official" figures do not include losses to disease, casualties among American or Canadian militia forces, or losses among allied native tribes.</ref> | |||
| ] had been at war with ] since ], and to impede neutral trade with France imposed a series of restrictions that the U.S. contested as illegal under international law.<ref>Caffery, Kate pgs 56-58</ref> The Americans declared war on Britain on ], ] for a combination of reasons, including: outrage at the ] (conscription) of American sailors into the British navy; frustration at British restraints on neutral trade; anger at alleged British military support for ] defending their tribal lands from encroaching American settlers;<ref>Caffery, Kate pgs 101-104</ref> and a desire for territorial expansion of the Republic. | |||
| == Overview == | |||
| The war started badly for the Americans as an attempt to invade Canada in August 1812 was repulsed by Major-General Isaac Brock, commanding a small force composed of some 300 regular British troops supported by local ]s and ] allies, and led to the British capture of ]. A second invasion attempt on the Niagara peninsula was defeated on ] at the ]<ref> See Robert Malcomson, ''A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812'', Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 2003</ref> at which Brock was killed. The American strategy relied in part on use of militias, but they either resisted service or were incompetently led. Financial and logistical problems also plagued the American war effort. Military and civilian leadership was lacking and remained a critical American weakness until 1814. Importantly, ] opposed the war and refused to provide troops or financing.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} | |||
| Britain possessed excellent finance and logistics, but the ongoing war with France had a higher priority, so in 1812-1813, it adopted a defensive strategy. After the final defeat of ] in 1814, the British were able to send veteran armies to invade the U.S., but by then the Americans had learned how to mobilize and fight as well.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} | |||
| At sea, the powerful ] blockaded much of the American coastline (though allowing substantial exports from New England, which was trading with Britain and Canada in defiance of American laws). The blockade devastated American agricultural exports, but helped stimulate local factories that replaced goods previously imported. | |||
| The American strategy of using small gunboats to defend ports was a ], as the British raided the coast at will. The most famous episode was a series of British raids on the shores of ], including an attack on ] itself that resulted in the burning of the ], the ], the navy yard and other public buildings, later called the "]". The Americans were more successful sending out several hundred ]s to attack British merchant ships; British commercial interests were damaged, especially in the ]. Although few in number compared to the ], the American Navy's more powerful frigates prevailed in several one-on-one naval battles against British ships. | |||
| The decisive use of naval power came on the ] and depended on a contest of building ships. In 1813, the Americans won control of Lake Erie and thus cut off the British and native forces to the west from their supplies. The British ultimately held Lake Ontario, preventing any major American invasion. The Americans controlled ], and a naval victory there forced a large invading British army to turn back in 1814. | |||
| The Americans destroyed the power of the native peoples of the northwest and southeast, thus securing a major war goal. The trade restrictions and impressment by the British ended with the defeat of France, removing another root cause of the war. Both nations eventually agreed to a peace that left the prewar boundaries intact. | |||
| In January 1815 after the ] was signed but before the US Congress had received a copy to ratify, the Americans succeeded in ], and the British ] before news of the treaty reached the combatants on the south coast. | |||
| The war had the effect of both uniting Canadians and also uniting Americans far more closely than either population had been prior to the war. Canadians remember the war as a victory by avoiding conquest, while Americans celebrated victory personified in the hero of ], ], who went on to become the 7th President of the United States in 1829. | |||
| ==Causes of the war== | |||
| {{main|Origins of the War of 1812}} | |||
| On ], America declared war on Britain. The war had many causes, but at the center of the conflict was the United Kingdom’s ongoing war with ]’s ]. | |||
| ===Trade Tensions=== | |||
| The British were engaged in a life-and-death war with ] and did not wish to allow the Americans to trade with France, regardless of their theoretical neutral rights to do so. As Horsman explains, "If possible, England wished to avoid war with America, but not to the extent of allowing her to hinder the British war effort against France. Moreover...a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy." <ref> Horsman (1962) p. 264</ref> The American Merchant Marine had come close to doubling in between 1802 and 1810.<ref>Caffery, Kate, pg 51.</ref> Interestingly, the largest trading partner was the United Kingdom: some 80% of all US cotton and 50% of all other US exports were to Great Britain.<ref>Caffery, Kate, pg 50</ref> The American Merchant Marine was the largest neutral fleet in the world by a large margin. The British public and press were very resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition.<ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 281</ref> The US view was that the UK was in violation of a neutral nation's right to trade with any nation they saw fit. | |||
| ===Impressment=== | |||
| During the ], the ] had expanded to the point of having 175 ships of the line and some 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors.<ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 382</ref> While the Royal Navy was easily able to man its ships with volunteers in peace time, in time of war they were in fierce competition with ] and ]s for a small pool of experienced sailors and turned to ] when they were unable to man their ships with volunteers alone. Since a sizeable portion of the sailors in the American merchant navy (estimated to be as many as 11,000 in 1805) were in fact Royal Navy veterans or deserters who had left for better pay and conditions,<ref>Caffrey, Kate pg 60</ref> the Royal Navy vessels openly intercepted and searched American merchant ships for deserters, incensing the United States government, particularly after the ]. | |||
| At this time, Britain did not recognize naturalized American citizenship, so in addition to recovering deserters, they considered any American citizen originally born a British subject to be still liable for impressment. Exacerbating the situation was the widespread use of forged identity papers by sailors, making it difficult for the Royal Navy to distinguish Americans from non-Americans and leading to the pressing of some Americans who had never been British subjects (though at least some were released upon appeal). Anger at impressment was made worse when British frigates would station themselves just outside of US harbors in US territorial waters and begin searching ships for contraband and impressing men in view from US shores. <ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 278-279</ref> "Free trade and sailors' rights" was a rallying cry for the United States throughout the conflict. | |||
| ===Question of American expansionism=== | |||
| The idea that one cause of the war was American expansionism or desire for Canadian land was much discussed among historians before 1940, but is rarely cited by experts any more.<ref> Hacker (1924); Pratt (1925). Goodman (1941) refuted the idea and even Pratt gave it up. Pratt (1955)</ref> Some Canadian historians propounded the notion in the early 20th century, and it survives among Canadians.<ref> W. Arthur Bowler, "Propaganda in Upper Canada in the War of 1812," ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' (1988) 28:11-32; C.P. Stacey, "The War of 1812 in Canadian History" in Morris Zaslow and Wesley B. Turner, eds. ''The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812'' (Toronto, 1964)</ref> | |||
| Madison and his advisors believed that conquest of Canada would be easy and that economic coercion would force the British to come to terms by cutting off the food supply for their West Indies colonies. Furthermore, possession of Canada would be a valuable bargaining chip. Frontiersmen demanded the seizure of Canada not because they wanted the land, but because the British were thought to be arming the Indians and thereby blocking settlement of the west. <ref>Stagg (1983)</ref> As Horsman concludes, "The idea of conquering Canada had been present since at least 1807 as a means of forcing England to change her policy at sea. The conquest of Canada was primarily a means of waging war, not a reason for starting it."<ref>Horsman (1962) p. 267 </ref> Hickey flatly states, "The desire to annex Canada did not bring on the war." <ref> Hickey (1990) p. 72.</ref> Brown (1964) concludes, "The purpose of the Canadian expedition was to serve negotiation not to annex Canada."<ref> Brown p. 128.</ref> Burt, a leading Canadian scholar, agrees completely, noting that Foster, the British minister to Washington, also rejected the argument that annexation of Canada was a war goal. <ref>Burt (1940) pp 305-10. </ref> | |||
| The majority of the inhabitants of ] (Ontario) were either American exiles (]s) or post war immigrants. The Loyalists were hostile to union with the U.S., while the other settlers seem to have been disinterested. The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army, and some Americans believed that many in Upper Canada would rise up and greet an American invading army as liberators. The combination implied an easy conquest, as former president ] suggested in 1812, "the acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent." | |||
| The declaration of war was passed by the smallest margin that had ever been recorded on a war vote in the United States Congress.<ref name=toll329>Toll, Ian V. pg 329</ref> On ], Prime Minister ] was shot and killed by an assassin resulting in a change of the UK government putting ] in power. Liverpool was for a more practical relation with the United States. A repeal of the impressment orders were issued but the US was unaware as it took three weeks for the news to cross the Atlantic.<ref name=toll329/> | |||
| ==Course of the war== | |||
| Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. | |||
| The UK was still hard pressed by the ]; most of the ] was engaged in the ] (in Spain), and the Royal Navy was compelled to blockade most of the coast of ]. The total number of British regular troops present in ] in July 1812 was officially stated to be 6,034, supported by Canadian militia. | |||
| Throughout the war, the British ] was the ]. For the first two years of the war, he could spare few troops to reinforce ] and urged the ] in North America (Lieutenant General Sir ]) to maintain a defensive strategy. The naturally cautious Prevost followed these instructions, concentrating on defending ] and ]. In the final year of the War, large numbers of British soldiers became available after the abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte. Prevost launched an offensive of his own into Upper ], but is considered to have mishandled it, and was forced to retreat after the British lost the ]. | |||
| Despite years of warlike talk, the ] was not prepared to prosecute a war, for President Madison assumed that the state militias would easily seize ] and negotiations would then follow. In 1812, the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular, it offered poor pay and there were very few trained and experienced officers, at least initially. | |||
| The militia—called in to aid the regulars—objected to serving outside their home states, were not amenable to discipline, and as a rule, performed poorly in the presence of the enemy when outside of their home state. The U.S. had great difficulty financing its war, especially since it had disbanded its national bank and private bankers in the Northeast were opposed to the war. | |||
| The early disasters brought about largely by American unpreparedness and lack of leadership drove ] ] from office. His successor, ], attempted a coordinated strategy late in 1813 aimed at the capture of ], but was thwarted by logistics, uncooperative and quarrelsome commanders, and ill-trained troops. | |||
| By 1814, the ]'s morale and leadership had greatly improved, but the embarrassing ] led to Armstrong's dismissal from office in turn. The war ended before the new ] ] could develop any new strategy. | |||
| ], where ] was inspired to write "]".]] | |||
| American prosecution of the war also suffered from its unpopularity, especially in ], where anti-war spokesmen were vocal. The failure of ] to provide militia units or financial support was a serious blow. Threats of secession by ] states were loud; Britain immediately exploited these divisions, blockading only southern ports for much of the war and encouraging smuggling. | |||
| The war was conducted in three theatres of operations: | |||
| #The ] | |||
| #The ] and the Canadian frontier | |||
| #The Southern States | |||
| ===Atlantic theatre=== | |||
| ] defeats ]; a significant event during the war]] | |||
| ] had long been the world's pre-eminent naval power, confirmed by its epic victory over the French and the Spanish at the ] in 1805. In 1812, the ] had eighty-five vessels in American waters.<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pg. 180 Amirality reply to British press critism</ref> | |||
| By contrast, the ], which was not yet twenty years old, was a ] that had only twenty-two commissioned vessels, though a number of the American ] were exceptionally large and powerful for their class. Whereas the standard British frigate of the time mounted 38 guns, with their main battery consisting of 18-pounder guns, the ], ] and ] were theoretically 44-gun ships and capable of carrying 56 guns respectively, with a main ] of 24-pounders.<ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 50</ref> ] and ] were 60 gun frigates sailing US waters and had in fact been built by the UK in response to the large American frigates. | |||
| The strategy of the British was to protect their own merchant shipping to and from ] and ], and to enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Because of their numerical inferiority, the Americans aimed to cause disruption through hit-and-run tactics, such as the capture of ]s and engaging ] vessels under only favorable circumstances. | |||
| The Americans experienced early successes at sea. Days after the formal declaration of war, two small squadrons sailed, including the frigate ] and the sloop ] under Commodore ] (who had general command), and the frigates ] and ], with the brig ] under Captain ]. | |||
| Meanwhile, ], commanded by Captain ], sailed from ] on ]. On ], a British squadron gave chase. ''Constitution'' evaded her pursuers after two days. After briefly calling at Boston to replenish water, on ] ''Constitution'' engaged the British frigate ]. After a thirty five-minute battle, ''Guerriere'' had been dismasted and captured and was later burned. Hull returned to Boston with news of this significant victory.<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/war1812/const5.htm</ref> | |||
| On ], the USS ''United States'', commanded by Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate ], which he then carried back to port.<ref>Toll, Ian V. p360-365,</ref> At the close of the month, ''Constitution'' sailed south under the command of Captain ]. On ], off ], ], she met the British frigate ]. After a battle lasting three hours, ''Java'' ] and was burned after being judged unsalvageable. The USS Constitution however, was undamaged in the battle and earned the name "Old Ironside."<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/war1812/const6.htm</ref> | |||
| In January 1813, the American frigate ], under the command of Captain ], sailed into the Pacific in an attempt to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried ] allowing them to prey on American whalers, nearly destroying the industry. ''Essex'' challenged this practice. She inflicted considerable damage on British interests before she was captured off Valparaiso, Chile, by the British frigate ] and the sloop ] on ], ].<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/e5/essex-i.htm</ref> | |||
| In all of these actions—except the one in which ''Essex'' was taken—the Americans had the advantage of greater size and heavier guns. However, the United States Navy's sloops and brigs also won several victories over Royal Navy vessels of approximately equal strength. While the American ships had experienced and well-drilled volunteer crews, the cream of the over-stretched Royal Navy was serving elsewhere, and constant sea duties of those serving in North America interfered with their training and exercises.<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pgs. 405-417</ref> | |||
| The capture of the three British frigates stimulated the British to greater exertions. More vessels were deployed on the American seaboard and the blockade tightened. On ], ], off ], the frigate ], commanded by Captain ], was captured by the British frigate ] under Captain Sir ]. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Don't give up the ship!".<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pgs. 405-417</ref> | |||
| ====Blockade==== | |||
| The blockade of American ports had tightened to the extent that most American merchant ships and naval vessels were confined to port. The American frigates USS ''United States'' and USS ''Macedonian'' ended the war blockaded and ] in ]. Some merchant ships were based in Europe or Asia and continued operations. Others, mainly from New England, were issued licenses to trade by Admiral Sir ], Commander in Chief on the American station in 1813. This allowed Wellington's army in Spain to be supplied with American goods, as well as maintaining the New Englanders' opposition to the war. Because of the utilization of heavy squadrons and the blockade, the Royal Navy was able to transport British Army troops to American shores, paving the way for their attack on Washington D.C., which became known as the ] in 1814. | |||
| Following their earlier losses, the British Admiralty had instituted a new policy that the three American heavy frigates should not be engaged except by a ship-of-the-line or smaller vessels in squadron strength. An example of this was the ] by a squadron of four British frigates in January 1815 (although the action was fought on the British side mainly by ]).<ref>http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Naval_History/Vol_VI/P_363.html</ref><ref>http://www.webroots.org/library/usamilit/hotusn07.html</ref> | |||
| The operations of American privateers, some of which belonged to the United States Navy but most of which were private ventures, were extensive. They continued until the close of the war and were only partially affected by the strict enforcement of ] by the Royal Navy. An example of the audacity of the American cruisers was the depredations in British home waters carried out by the American sloop ], which was eventually captured off ] in ] by the British brig ], on ], ]. A total of 1,554 vessels were claimed captured by all American naval and privateering vessels, 1300 of which were captured by privateers.<ref>http://www.usmm.org/warof1812.html][http://www.princedeneufchatel.com/</ref><ref>http://www.msc.navy.mil/sealift/2004/May/perspective.htm</ref> However, according to the insurer Lloyd’s, the true number was only 1,175 British ships counted as taken by the Americans during the war, less 373 recaptured for a total loss of 802.<ref>''Hansard'', vol 29, pp.649-50.</ref> | |||
| ] was the Royal Navy base that supervised the blockade and it profited greatly during the war. British privateers based there seized many French and American ships, selling their prizes in Halifax, Nova Scotia. | |||
| The war was likely the last time the British allowed privateering, since the practice was coming to be seen as politically inexpedient and of diminishing value in maintaining its naval supremacy. It was certainly the swansong of Bermuda's privateers, who returned to the practice with a vengeance after American lawsuits had put a stop to it two decades earlier. The nimble ]s captured 298 enemy ships (the total captures by all British naval and privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels).{{Fact|date=November 2007}} | |||
| ===Great Lakes and Canadian theatre=== | |||
| ====Invasions of Upper and Lower Canada, 1812==== | |||
| ] skillfully repulsed an American invasion of ], but his death was a severe loss for the British cause.]] | |||
| America's leaders had assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former President Jefferson optimistically referred to the conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching." Many Americans had migrated to Upper Canada and it was assumed (by both sides) they would favor the American cause, but they did not. In pre-war Upper Canada General Prevost found himself in the unusual position of purchasing much of the provisions for his troops from the American side, and this peculiar trade persisted throughout the war in spite of an abortive attempt by the American government to curtail it. | |||
| In Lower Canada, much more populous, support for Britain came from the English elite with strong loyalty to the Empire, and from the French elite who feared American conquest would destroy the old order by introducing Protestantism, anglicization, republican democracy, and commercial capitalism. | |||
| The French habitants feared the loss to potential American immigrants of a shrinking area of good lands.<ref>Peter Burroughs, "Prevost, Sir George" in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' </ref> | |||
| In 1812-13 British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders. | |||
| Geography dictated that operations would take place in the west principally around ], near the ] between Lake Erie and ] and near ] area and ]. This was the focus of the three pronged attacks by the Americans in 1812. | |||
| Although cutting the St. Lawrence River through the capture of Montreal and Quebec would make Britain's hold in North America unsustainable, the United States began operations first in the Western frontier because of the general popularity there of a war with the British, who had sold arms to the American Indians opposing the settlers. | |||
| The British scored an important early success when their detachment at ] on ] learned of the declaration of war before the nearby American garrison at the important trading post at ] in ]. A scratch force landed on the island on ], ], and mounted a gun overlooking ]. The Americans, taken by surprise, surrendered. This early victory encouraged the Indians, and large numbers of them moved to help the British at ]. | |||
| American Brigadier General ] invaded Canada on ], ], from Detroit with an army mainly composed of militiamen. Once on Canadian soil, Hull issued a proclamation ordering all British subjects to surrender, or "the horrors, and calamities of war will stalk before you." He also threatened to kill any British prisoner caught fighting alongside an Indian. The proclamation helped stiffen resistance to the American attacks. | |||
| Despite the threats, Hull's invasion turned into a retreat after receiving news of the British victory at Mackinac and when his supply lines were threatened in the battles of ] and ]. He pulled his 2,500 troops back to ] (commonly referred to as Fort Detroit at the time). | |||
| British Major General ] advanced on Fort Detroit with 1,200 men. Brock sent a fake correspondence and allowed the letter to be captured by the Americans, saying they required only 5,000 Native warriors to capture Detroit. Hull feared the Indians and their threats of torture and ]. Believing the British had more troops than they did, Hull ] without a fight on ]. | |||
| Brock promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Lake Erie, where American General ] was attempting a second invasion. An armistice (arranged by Prevost in the hope the British renunciation of the Orders in Council to which the United States objected might lead to peace) prevented Brock from invading American territory. | |||
| When the armistice ended, the Americans attempted an attack across the ] on ], but suffered a crushing defeat at ]. Brock was killed during the battle. While the professionalism of the American forces would improve by the war's end, British leadership suffered after Brock's death. | |||
| A final attempt in 1812 by American General ] to advance north from Lake Champlain failed when his militia refused to advance beyond American territory. In contrast to the American militia, the Canadian militia performed well. ]s, who found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome, and ]s, who had fought for the Crown during the American Revolutionary War, strongly opposed the American invasion. | |||
| However, a large segment of Upper Canada's population was recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown. Nevertheless, while there were some who sympathized with the invaders<ref> See "Mallory, Behajah" in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' and "WILLCOCKS (Wilcox), JOSEPH" in ibid </ref>, the American forces found strong opposition from men loyal to the Empire. | |||
| ====American northwest, 1813==== | |||
| After Hull's surrender, General ] was given command of the American Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake Detroit, which was now defended by Colonel ] in conjunction with ]. A detachment of Harrison's army was defeated at ] along the ] on ], ]. | |||
| Procter left the prisoners with an inadequate guard, who were unable to prevent some of his North American Indian allies from attacking and killing perhaps as many as sixty Americans, many of whom were Kentucky militiamen.<ref></ref> The incident became known as the "River Raisin Massacre." The defeat ended Harrison's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin!" became a rallying cry for the Americans. | |||
| ]'s message to William Henry Harrison after the ] began with what would become one of the most famous sentences in American military history: "We have met the enemy and they are ours." This 1865 painting by William H. Powell shows Perry transferring to a different ship during the battle.]] | |||
| In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set ] in northern ]. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the Indians, but the fort held out. The Indians eventually began to disperse, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to ], a small American post on the ], only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign. | |||
| On Lake Erie, the American commander Captain ] fought the ] on ], ]. His decisive victory ensured American control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. | |||
| This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Upper Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the ] on ], ], in which Tecumseh was killed. Tecumseh's death effectively ended the North American Indian alliance with the British in the Detroit region. The Americans controlled Detroit and Amherstburg for the duration of the war. | |||
| ====Niagara frontier, 1813==== | |||
| Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the ] and the Saint Lawrence River corridor was crucial. When the war began, the British already had a small squadron of warships on ] and had the initial advantage. To redress the situation, the Americans established a Navy yard at ]. Commodore ] took charge of the large number of sailors and shipwrights sent there from New York. They completed the second warship built there in a mere 45 days. Ultimately, 3000 men worked at the shipyard, building eleven warships, and many smaller boats and transports. | |||
| Having regained the advantage by their rapid building program, Chauncey and Dearborn attacked ] (now called ]), the capital of Upper Canada, on ], ]. The ] was an American victory, marred by looting and the burning of the Parliament Buildings and a library. However, ] was strategically more valuable to British supply and communications along the St Lawrence. Without control of Kingston, the American navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line from ]. | |||
| On ], ], an American amphibious force from Lake Ontario assaulted ] on the northern end of the Niagara River and captured it without serious losses. The retreating British forces were not pursued, however, until they had largely escaped and organized a counter-offensive against the advancing Americans at the ] on ]. On ], with the help of advance warning by ] ], another American force was forced to surrender by a much smaller British and Indian force at the ], marking the end of the American offensive into Upper Canada. Meanwhile, Commodore ] had taken charge of the British ships on the lake, and mounted a counter-attack, which was nevertheless repulsed at the ]. | |||
| Late in 1813, the Americans abandoned the Canadian territory they occupied around Fort George. They set fire to the village of Newark (now ]) on ], ], incensing the British and Canadians. Many of the inhabitants were left without shelter, freezing to death in the snow. This led to British retaliation following the ] on ], ], and similar destruction at ] on ], ]. | |||
| In 1814, the contest for Lake Ontario turned into a building race. Eventually, by the end of the year, Yeo had constructed ], a ] ] of 112 guns which gave him superiority, but the overall result of the ] had been an indecisive draw. | |||
| ====St. Lawrence and Lower Canada 1813==== | |||
| ]), John Tutela, and Young Warner, three ] War of 1812 veterans.]] | |||
| The British were potentially most vulnerable over the stretch of the Saint Lawrence where it also formed the frontier between Upper Canada and the United States. During the early days of the war, there was much illicit commerce across the river, but over the winter of 1812 - 1813, the Americans launched a series of raids from ] on the American side of the river, hampering British supply traffic up the river. | |||
| On ], Sir George Prevost passed through ] on the opposite bank of the river, with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements and local militia attacked. At the ], the Americans were forced to retire. | |||
| For the rest of the year, Ogdensburg had no American garrison and many residents of Ogdensburg resumed visits and trade with Prescott. This British victory removed the last American regular troops from the Upper St Lawrence frontier and helped secure British communications with Montreal. | |||
| Late in 1813, after much argument, the Americans made two thrusts against Montreal. The plan eventually agreed upon was for Major-General ] to march north from Lake Champlain and join a force under General ] which would embark in boats and sail from ] on Lake Ontario and descend the Saint Lawrence. | |||
| Hampton was delayed by bad roads and supply problems and an intense dislike of Wilkinson, which limited his desire to support his plan. On ], his 4,000-strong force was defeated at the ] by ] smaller force of French-Canadian ] and ]. | |||
| Wilkinson's force of 8,000 set out on ] but was also delayed by bad weather. After learning that Hampton had been checked, Wilkinson heard that a British force under Captain ] and Lieutenant-Colonel ] was pursuing him, and by ], he was forced to land near ], about 150 kilometers (90 mi) from Montreal. On ], Wilkinson's rearguard, numbering 2,500, attacked Morrison's force of 800 at ] and was repulsed with heavy losses. After learning that Hampton was unable to renew his advance, Wilkinson retreated to the U.S. and settled into winter quarters. He resigned his command after a failed attack on a British outpost at ]. | |||
| ====Niagara and Plattsburgh Campaigns, 1814==== | |||
| By the middle of 1814, American generals, including Major Generals ] and ], had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. Their renewed attack on the Niagara peninsula quickly captured ]. Winfield Scott then gained a decisive victory over an equal British force at the ] on ]. | |||
| An attempt to advance further ended with a hard-fought drawn battle at ] on ]. The outnumbered Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged ]. The British raised the siege, but lack of provisions eventually forced the Americans to retreat across the Niagara. | |||
| Meanwhile, following the abdication of Napoleon, 15,000 British troops were sent to North America under four of Wellington’s most able brigade commanders. Fewer than half were veterans of the Peninsula and the remainder came from garrisons. Along with the troops came instructions for offensives against the United States. British strategy was changing, and like the Americans, the British were seeking advantages for the peace negotiations. | |||
| Governor-General Sir ] was instructed to launch an invasion into the New York-Vermont region. He had a large invasion force which was much more powerful than the Americans. On reaching ], however, he delayed the assault until the belated arrival of a fleet led by Captain George Downie in the hastily completed 36-gun "Confiance." Prevost forced Downie into a premature attack, but then unaccountably failed to provide the promised military backing. | |||
| Downie was killed and his naval force defeated at the naval ] in Plattsburgh Bay on ], ]. The Americans now had control of Lake Champlain; ] later termed it the greatest naval battle of the war. To the astonishment of his senior officers, Prevost then turned back, saying it would be too hazardous to remain on enemy territory after the loss of naval supremacy. | |||
| Prevost's political and military enemies forced his recall. In London a naval court martial of the surviving officers of the Plattsburgh Bay debacle decided that defeat had been caused principally by Prevost’s urging the squadron into premature action and then failing to afford the promised support from the land forces. Prevost died suddenly, just before his own court martial was to convene. | |||
| Prevost's reputation sank to new lows, as Canadians claimed their militia under Brock did the job and he failed. Recently, however, historians have been more kindly, measuring him not against Wellington but against his American foes. They judge Prevost’s preparations for defending the Canadas with limited means to be energetic, well conceived, and comprehensive, and against the odds he had achieved the primary objective of preventing an American conquest.<ref> Peter Burroughs, "Prevost, Sir George" in ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'' </ref> | |||
| ====American West, 1814==== | |||
| Little of note took place on Lake Huron in 1813, but the American victory on Lake Erie isolated the British there. During the winter, a Canadian party under Lieutenant Colonel ] established a new supply line from York to ] on ]. When he arrived at Fort Mackinac with supplies and reinforcements, he sent an expedition to recapture the trading post of ] in the far West. The ] ended in a British victory on ], ]. | |||
| In 1814, the Americans sent a force of five vessels from Detroit to recapture Mackinac. A mixed force of regulars and volunteers from the militia landed on the island on ]. They did not attempt to achieve surprise, and at the brief ], they were ambushed by Indians and forced to re-embark. | |||
| The Americans discovered the new base at Nottawasaga Bay and on ], destroyed its fortifications and a schooner which they found there. They then returned to Detroit, leaving two gunboats to blockade ]. On ], these gunboats were taken unawares and captured by enemy boarding parties from canoes and small boats. This ] left Mackinac under British control. | |||
| The British garrison at Prairie du Chien also fought off an attack by Major ]. In this distant theatre, the British retained the upper hand till the end of the war because of their allegiance with several Indian tribes that they supplied with arms and gifts. | |||
| ===Atlantic coast=== | |||
| When the war began, the British naval forces had some difficulty in blockading the entire U.S. coast, and they were also preoccupied in their pursuit of American privateers. The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, benefited from the willingness of the New Englanders to trade with them, so no blockade of New England was at first attempted. The ] and ] were declared in a state of blockade on ], ]. | |||
| This was extended to the coast south of ] by November 1813 and to all the American coast on ], ]. In the meantime, much illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. | |||
| Eventually the U.S. Government was driven to issue orders to stop illicit trading. This put only a further strain on the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbors. | |||
| Additionally, commanders of the blockading fleet, based at the ], were given instructions to encourage the defection of American slaves. Many black slaves came over to the Crown, with their families, and were recruited into the (3rd Colonial Battalion) ] on occupied ], in the Chesapeake. | |||
| A further company of colonial marines was raised at the Bermuda dockyard, where many freed slaves, men women and children, had been given refuge and employment, and was kept as a defensive force in case of an attack. These former slaves fought for Britain throughout the Atlantic campaign, including the attack on Washington D.C.and the Louisiana Campaign, and most were later re-enlisted into British West India regiments, or settled in ] in August, 1816, where seven hundred of these ex-marines were granted land (they reportedly organised themselves in villages along the lines of military companies). Many other freed American slaves had been recruited directly into existing West Indian regiments, or newly-created British Army units. | |||
| From the probing of the British Colony of ], Maine was an important conquest by the British. The line of the border between New Brunswick and the ] had never been adequately agreed after the American Revolution. A military victory in Maine by the British could represent a large gain in territory for New Brunswick, but more immediately it assured communication with ] via the ] and the ]. The war did not settle the border dispute, and when Maine became a state in 1820, it led to a border crisis called the ]. The border between Maine and New Brunswick was not be settled until 1842 and the "]". | |||
| In September 1814, Sir ] led a British Army into eastern Maine and was successful in capturing ], ], ], and ]. The Americans were given the option of swearing allegiance to the king or quitting the country. The vast majority swore allegiance and were even permitted to keep their firearms. | |||
| This is the only large tract of territory held by either side at the conclusion of the war and was given back to the United States by the ]. The British did not leave Maine until April 1815, at which time they took large sums of money retained from duties in occupied Maine. This money, called the "Castine Fund", was used in the establishment of ], in ], ]. | |||
| ====Chesapeake campaign and "The Star-Spangled Banner"==== | |||
| ] | |||
| The strategic location of the Chesapeake Bay near the nation's capital made it a prime target for the British. Starting in March 1813, a squadron under Rear Admiral ] started a blockade of the bay and raided towns along the bay from ] to ]. | |||
| On ], ], ], a Revolutionary War naval hero, convinced the Navy Department to build the ], a squadron of twenty barges to defend the Chesapeake Bay. Launched in April 1814, the squadron was quickly cornered in the ], and while successful in harassing the ], they were powerless to stop the British campaign that ultimately led to the "]". | |||
| This expedition, led by Cockburn and General ], was carried out between ] and ], ], as the result of the hardened British policy of 1814 (although British and American commissioners had convened peace negotiations at Ghent in June of that year). As part of this, Admiral Warren had been replaced as Commander-in-Chief by Admiral ], with reinforcements and orders to coerce the Americans into a favourable peace. | |||
| Governor-General Sir ] of Canada had written to the Admirals in Bermuda calling for a retaliation for the American sacking of York (now ]). A force of 2,500 soldiers under General Ross, aboard a Royal Navy task force composed of ], three frigates, three sloops and ten other vessels, had just arrived in Bermuda. | |||
| Released from the ] by British victory, it had been intended to use them for diversionary raids along the coasts of Maryland and Virginia. In response to Prevost's request, it was decided to employ this force, together with the naval and military units already on the station, to strike at Washington D.C. | |||
| On ], Secretary of War Armstrong insisted that the British would attack Baltimore rather than Washington, even when the British army was obviously on its way to the capital. The inexperienced American militia, which had congregated at ], ], to protect the capital, were destroyed in the ], opening the route to Washington. While ] saved valuables from the ], President James Madison was forced to flee to ].<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/burning_washington.htm#rodgers-p</ref> | |||
| The British commanders ate the supper which had been prepared for the president before they burned the President's Mansion; American morale was reduced to an all-time low. The British viewed their actions as in retaliation for destructive American raids into Canada, most notably the Americans' ] York (now ]) in 1813. Later, that same evening a furious storm swept into Washington D.C. sending one or more tornadoes into the city, causing more damage but eventually extinguished the fires with torrential rains. The naval yards were set afire at the direction of U.S. officials to prevent the capture of naval ships and supplies.<ref>http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/burning_washington.htm#johnson</ref> The British left Washington D.C. as soon as the storm subsided. | |||
| Having ], including the President's Mansion and the Treasury, the British army next moved to capture ], a busy port and a key base for American privateers. The subsequent ] began with a British landing at North Point, but withdrew when General Ross was killed at an American outpost. The British also attempted to attack Baltimore by sea on ] but were unable to reduce ], at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor. | |||
| The Battle of Fort McHenry was no battle at all. British guns had range on American cannon, and stood off out of U.S. range, bombarding the fort, which returned no fire. Their plan was to coordinate with a land force, but from that distance coordination proved impossible, so the British called off the attack and left. | |||
| All the lights were extinguished in Baltimore the night of the attack, and the fort was bombarded for 25 hours. The only light was given off by the exploding shells over Fort McHenry, which gave proof that the flag was still over the fort. The defense of the fort inspired the American lawyer ] to write a poem that would eventually supply the lyrics to "]". | |||
| ===Creek War=== | |||
| {{main|Creek War}} | |||
| In March 1814, Jackson led a force of ] militia, ] warriors, and U.S. regulars southward to attack the ] tribes, led by Chief ]. On ], Jackson and General ] decisively defeated the Creeks at ], killing 800 of 1,000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded out of approximately 2,000 American and Cherokee forces. Jackson pursued the surviving Creeks until they surrendered. Most historians consider the Creek War as part of the War of 1812, because the British supported them. | |||
| ===Treaty of Ghent and Battle of New Orleans=== | |||
| ====Factors leading to the peace negotiations==== | |||
| By 1814 both sides were weary of a costly war that seemingly offered nothing but stalemate, and were ready to grope their way to a settlement. It is difficult to measure accurately the costs of the American War to Britain, because they are bound up in general expenditure on the Great War in Europe. But an estimate may be made based on the increased borrowing undertaken during the period, with the American war as a whole adding some £25 million to the national debt.<ref>Kenneth Ross Nelson, ‘Socio-Economic Effects of the War of 1812 on Britain’, PhD Dissertation, University of Georgia, 1972, pp.129-44.</ref> In America the cost was proportionally greater at some $105 million; national debt rose from $45 million in 1812 to $127 million by the end of 1815, although through discounts and paper money the government received only $34 million worth of specie.<ref>Henry Adams, ''History of the United States of America (during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison)'', New York: A. and C. Boni, 1930, vol. 7, p.385; Donald R. Hickey, ''The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict'', Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990, p.303.</ref> By this time, the American economy was grinding to a halt thanks to the Royal Navy's blockade and US government incompetence and America faced ruin. Licensed flour exports, that had been close to a million barrels in 1812 and 1813, fell to 5,000 in 1814. By this time insurance rates on Boston shipping had reached 75 per cent, coastal shipping was at a complete standstill and New England was considering secession.<ref>Hickey, ''War of 1812'', pp.172-4; Samuel E. Morison, ''The Maritime History of Massachussets, 1783-1860'', Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co, 1941, pp.205-6.</ref> Exports and imports fell dramatically as American shipping engaged in foreign trade dropped from 948,000 tons in 1811 to just 60,000 tons by 1814, and the internal economy ground to a halt. But although American privateers found chances of success much reduced, with most British merchantmen now sailing in convoy, privateering continued to prove troublesome to the British; with insurance rates between Liverpool, England, and Halifax, Nova Scotia, rising to 30 per cent, the ''Morning Chronicle'' complained that with American privateers operating around the British Isles ‘we have been insulted with impunity’.<ref>''Morning Chronicle'', 2 November 1814; Hickey, ''War of 1812'', pp.217-18.</ref> The British could not celebrate a great victory in Europe fully until there was peace in North America, and more pertinently, taxes could not come down until there was peace in North America. Landowners particularly baulked at continued high taxation; both they and the shipping interest urged the government to secure peace.<ref>Jon Latimer, ''1812: War with America'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007, pp.362-5.</ref> | |||
| ====The Treaty of Ghent==== | |||
| ] | |||
| On ] ], diplomats from the two countries, meeting in ], ] (present ]), signed the ]. This was ratified by the Americans on ] ]. | |||
| The UK, which held approximately 10 million ]s of new territory near Lakes ] and ], in ], and on the ] coast,<ref>{{cite book | author=W.G. Dean et al. | year=1998| title=Concise Historical Atlas of Canada }}</ref> pressed for territorial concessions from the US, almost causing cessation of the talks. This position at first was reinforced by the ] however the news of the defeat at the ] and the repulse at the ] weakened the demands.<ref>Toll, Ian V, p.440</ref> The Duke of Wellington was approached about leading the British army in North America and sent the following letter: | |||
| :''I confess that I think you have no right, from the state of war, to demand any concession of territory from America... You have not been able to carry it into the enemy's territory, notwithstanding your military success and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack. you can not on any principle of equality in negotiation claim a cessation of territory except in exchange for other advantages which you have in your power... Then if this reasoning be true, why stipulate for the uti possidetis? You can get no territory: indeed, the state of your military operations, however creditable, does not entitle you to demand any.''<ref>Toll, Ian V, p.441</ref> | |||
| With a rift opening between Britain and Russia at the ] and little chance of improving the military situation in North America, Britain was prepared to forego territorial gain. In concluding the war on these terms, the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, was taking into account domestic opposition to continued taxation, especially among Liverpool and Bristol merchants keen to get back to doing business with America. But more important was concern with foreign policy considerations of far greater significance than North America, the wisdom of which course was amply justified with Napoleon’s escape from Elba the following spring.<ref>Norman Gash, ''Lord Liverpool: The Life and Political Career of Robert Banks Jenkinson, Second Earl of Liverpool, 1770-1828'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984</ref> | |||
| ====The Battle of New Orleans==== | |||
| Unaware of the peace, Jackson's forces moved to ], ], in late 1814 to defend against a large-scale British invasion. Jackson defeated the British at the ] on ], with over 2,000 British casualties and fewer than 100 American losses. It was hailed as a great victory, making Andrew Jackson a national hero, eventually propelling him to the ].<ref>http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/KENHNO/6*.html</ref><ref>http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/amh/amh-06.htm</ref> | |||
| The British gave up on New Orleans but moved to attack the town of Mobile. In the last military action of the war 1,000 British troops won the ]. When news of peace arrived on ] they sailed home. | |||
| The terms of the treaty stated that fighting between the United States and Britain would cease, all conquered territory was returned to the prewar claimant, the Americans received fishing rights in the ], and that both the United States and Britain agreed to recognize the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States. | |||
| The Treaty of Ghent, which was promptly ratified by the Senate in 1815, said nothing at all about the grievances that led to war. Britain made no concessions concerning impressment, blockades, or other maritime differences. Thus, the war ended in a stalemate with no gain for either side.<ref>b. John J. Newman, and John M. Schmalbach. United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination. AMSCO School Publications, Inc.: New York. 2006, 2004, 2002, and 1998. Page 131</ref> | |||
| ==Consequences== | |||
| {{main|Results of the War of 1812}} | |||
| This was a war in which no territory was lost nor gained by either side. None of the points of contention were addressed by the Treaty of Ghent, yet it was a war that changed much between the United States of America and Great Britain. | |||
| The Treaty of Ghent established the ''status quo ante bellum''; that is, there were no territorial changes made by either side. The issue of impressment was made moot when the Royal Navy stopped impressment after the defeat of Napoleon. | |||
| Excepting occasional border disputes and the circumstances of the ], relations between the United States and Britain remained generally peaceful for the rest of the nineteenth century, and the two countries became close allies in the twentieth century. Border adjustments between the United States and British North America were made in the ]. (A border dispute along the ]-] border was settled by the 1842 ] after the bloodless ], and the border in the ] was settled by the 1846 ].) "But the lessons of the war were taken to heart. Anti-American sentiment in Great Britain ran high for several years, but the United States was never again refused proper treatment as an independent power" <ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 458 Quote of Winston Churchill</ref> | |||
| ===United States=== | |||
| The US ended the Indian threat on its western and southern borders. The nation also gained a psychological sense of complete independence as people celebrated their "second war of independence."<ref>Stagg (1983)</ref>. Nationalism soared after the victory at the Battle of New Orleans. The opposition ] collapsed and an ] ensued. | |||
| The United States no longer questioned the need for a strong Navy and indeed completed three new 74-gun ships of the line and two new 44-gun frigates shortly after the end of the war.<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pg. 456,467</ref> (Another frigate had been destroyed to prevent it being captured on the stocks).<ref name=TR-Naval-War></ref> In 1816 the U.S. Congress passed into law an "Act for the gradual increase of the Navy" at a cost of one million dollars a year for eight years authorizing nine ships of the line and 12 heavy frigates.<ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 457</ref> The Captains and Commodores of the U.S. Navy became the heroes of their generation in the United States. Decorated plates and pitchers of Decatur, Hull, Bainbridge, Lawrence, Perry and Macdonough were made in Staffordshire, England, and found a ready market in the United States. Three of the war heroes used their celebrity to win national office: ] (]), ] (]), and ] (]). | |||
| The ] states became increasingly frustrated over how the war was being conducted, and how the conflict was affecting their states. They complained that the United States government was not investing enough in the states' defenses both militarily and financially, and that the states should have more control over their militia. The increased taxes, the British blockade, and the occupation of some of New England by enemy forces also agitated public opinion in the states. | |||
| As a result, at the ] (December-January 1814/15) held in ], New England representatives asked for New England to have its states' powers fully restored. Nevertheless, a common misconception which had been propagated by newspapers of the time was that the New England representatives wanted to secede from the Union and make a separate peace with the British. This view is not supported by what actually happened at the Convention. <ref>Benn, Carl; The War of 1812; Osprey Publishing; p259-260</ref> | |||
| ===British North America=== | |||
| The War of 1812 was seen by the people in ], and later ], as a reprieve from an American takeover. The outcome gave Empire-oriented Canadians confidence and, together with the postwar "militia myth" that the civilian militia had been primarily responsible rather than the British regulars, was used to stimulate a new sense of Canadian nationalism<ref> Erik Kaufman, "Condemned to Rootlessness: The Loyalist Origins of Canada's Identity Crisis", ''Nationalism and Ethnic Politics,'' vol.3, no.1, (1997), pp. 110-135 online at </ref>. | |||
| A long-term implication of the militia myth that remained popular in the Canadian public at least until World War I was that Canada did not need a regular professional army.<ref>CMH, "Origins of the Militia Myth" (February 2006) </ref> | |||
| The US Army had done poorly, on the whole, in several attempts to invade Canada, and the Canadians had shown that they would fight bravely to defend their country. But the British did not doubt that the thinly populated territory would be vulnerable in a third war. "We cannot keep Canada if the Americans declare war against us again" Admiral Sir David Milne wrote to a correspondent in 1817.<ref>Toll, Ian V. pg 458,459</ref> | |||
| The ] demonstrated the vulnerability of ] and ]. In the 1820s, work began on ] at ] as a defence against the United States. The fort remains an operational base of the ]. Additionally, work began on the ] to defend the port against American attacks. This fort remained in operation through World War II. | |||
| In the 1830s, the ] was built to provide a secure waterway from ] to Lake Ontario avoiding the narrows of the St. Lawrence River where ships could be vulnerable to American cannon-fire. The British also built ] at Kingston to defend the canal and remained operational until 1891. | |||
| The idea has been advanced (especially in Canada) that this was the first war the US lost, but this is a highly debatable point. | |||
| ===Bermuda=== | |||
| ] had been largely left to the defenses of its own militia and privateers prior to American independence, but the Royal Navy had begun buying up land and operating from there in 1795 as its location was a useful substitute for the lost American ports. It originally was intended to be the winter headquarters of the North American Squadron, but the war saw it rise to a new prominence. | |||
| As construction work progressed through the first half of the century, Bermuda became the permanent naval headquarters in Western waters, housing the Admiralty, and serving as a ]. The military garrison was built up to protect the naval establishment, heavily fortifying the archipelago that came to be described as the ''Gibraltar of the West''. Defence infrastructure would remain the central leg of Bermuda's economy until after the ]. | |||
| === Great Britain === | |||
| The war is scarcely remembered in Britain <ref>Caffery, Kate; p290</ref> because it was overshadowed by the far larger conflict against ]. Britain's goals of impressing seamen and blocking trade with France had been achieved and were no longer needed. | |||
| In the early years of the nineteenth century, the ] was the dominant nautical power in the world.<ref></ref> It used its overwhelming strength to cripple American maritime trade and launch raids on the American coast. However, the Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the ] had won most of the single-ship duels during the war.<ref name=TR-Naval-War/> The causes of the losses were many, but among those were the heavier broadside of the American 44-gun frigates, and the fact that the large American crews were hand-picked from among 55,000 unemployed merchant seamen in American harbors. The United States Navy had 14 frigates and smaller ships to crew at the start of the war, while Great Britain maintained 85 ships in North American waters alone. The crews of the British fleet, which numbered some 140,000 men, were rounded out with impressed ordinary seamen and landsmen.<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pg. 382–383</ref> In an order to his ships, Admiral ] ordered that less attention be paid to spit and polish and more to gunnery practice.<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pg. 382</ref> It is notable that the well-trained gunnery of HMS ''Shannon'' allowed her victory over USS ''Chesapeake''.<ref>Toll, Ian V. Pgs. 405-417</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal}} | |||
| * ] | |||
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| == Footnotes == | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| *Toll, Ian V., Six Frigates ISBN 139780393058475 | |||
| *Caffrey, Kate, The Twilight's Last Gleaming ISBN 0812819209 | |||
| *Latimer, Jon, 1812: War with America ISBN 0674025849 | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| See ] | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{external links}} | |||
| {{Wikisource|US Declaration of War against the United Kingdom}} | |||
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Revision as of 10:20, 22 January 2008
This article is about the U.S.–U.K. war. For Napoleon's invasion of Russia, see French invasion of Russia.| War of 1812 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 The Battle of Queenston Heights | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
.svg){kind=small} United States * and some Native American Allies |
British Empire:  United Kingdom The Canadian Provinces File:Bandera Eastern Shawnee.png Eastern Woodland Indians | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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James Madison Henry Dearborn Jacob Brown Winfield Scott Andrew Jackson |
 George Prevost Isaac Brock†File:Bandera Eastern Shawnee.png Tecumseh† | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
|
•United States Regular Army: 6,686 (at start of war) 35,800 (at war's end) •Rangers: 3,049 •Militia: 458,463* •US Navy: (at start of war): •Frigates:6 •Other vessels: 14 •Indigenous peoples |
•British Empire British Army: 6,034 (at start of war) 48,163 (at war's end) •Provincial Regulars: 10,000 •Militia: 4,000 •Royal Navy & Royal Marines: •Ships of the Line: 11 •Frigates: 34 •Other vessels: 52 •Provincial Marine: unknown •Indigenous peoples: 3,500 | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
|
Killed or wounded: 6,765 Disease and other: 17,205 Civilian: presumably 500 |
Killed or wounded: 4,400 Disease and other: unknown Civilian: unknown | ||||||
| |||||||
| St. Lawrence/Lake Ontario frontier | |
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| Niagara Frontier | |
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| Great Lakes / Old Northwest theater | |
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| Chesapeake campaign 1813–1814 | |
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| 1813
1814 |
| Gulf theater 1813–1815 | |
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| Prelude
1813 1814 1815 |
America Won. JEOAY!