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==Historical cases== | ==Historical cases== | ||
===Indo-Aryan India=== | ===Indo-Aryan India=== | ||
Centuries ago, ]-speaking nomadic groups invaded India and established the ], an ] form of social organization separating the |
Centuries ago, ]-speaking nomadic groups invaded India and established the ], an ] form of social organization separating the Indo-Aryan conquerors from the conquered indigenous tribes through enforcement of racial ]. In this system, the ] and other aboriginal stocks were legally subject to rigorous segregation and bound to servile occupations.<ref></ref> | ||
"If the whole of Sanskrit literature, sacred or profane, makes one thing clear, it is that there is one line no Hindu could cross, and that was the line which separated the Aryan in India from the non-Aryan. The two ethnic nouns even acquired moral connotations: to be ''Arya'' was to be noble and honourable, and to be ''Anarya'' was to be base and dishonourable. The non-Aryans were beyond the pale of Hindu society, and therefore untouchable. The Aryan Hindus regarded them with fear, hatred, contempt and disgust..." (], "Hinduism and the Aboriginals", ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Edition, 1997, p. 97). | "If the whole of Sanskrit literature, sacred or profane, makes one thing clear, it is that there is one line no Hindu could cross, and that was the line which separated the Aryan in India from the non-Aryan. The two ethnic nouns even acquired moral connotations: to be ''Arya'' was to be noble and honourable, and to be ''Anarya'' was to be base and dishonourable. The non-Aryans were beyond the pale of Hindu society, and therefore untouchable. The Aryan Hindus regarded them with fear, hatred, contempt and disgust..." (], "Hinduism and the Aboriginals", ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By'', Oxford University Press, USA; New Edition, 1997, p. 97). |
Revision as of 20:03, 24 January 2008
"Segregationist" redirects here. For the short story by Isaac Asimov, see Segregationist (short story).Part of a series on |
Racial segregation |
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Overview |
Historical examples
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Contemporary examples |
Related |
Racial segregation used to be characterised by separation of different races in daily life, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home. Segregation may be mandated by law or exist through social norms. Segregation may be maintained by means ranging from discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of housing to certain races to vigilante violence such as lynchings; a situation that arises when members of different races mutually prefer to associate and do business with members of their own race would usually be described as separation or de facto separation of the races rather than segregation. Legal segregation in both South Africa and the U.S. was required and came with "anti-miscegenation laws" (prohibitions against interracial marriage) and laws against hiring people of the race that is the object of discrimination in any but menial positions.
Segregation in hiring practices contributes to economic inbalance between the races. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, such as allowing a person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race. Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and/or mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races.
Historical cases
Indo-Aryan India
Centuries ago, Indo-European-speaking nomadic groups invaded India and established the caste system, an elitist form of social organization separating the Indo-Aryan conquerors from the conquered indigenous tribes through enforcement of racial endogamy. In this system, the Untouchables and other aboriginal stocks were legally subject to rigorous segregation and bound to servile occupations.
"If the whole of Sanskrit literature, sacred or profane, makes one thing clear, it is that there is one line no Hindu could cross, and that was the line which separated the Aryan in India from the non-Aryan. The two ethnic nouns even acquired moral connotations: to be Arya was to be noble and honourable, and to be Anarya was to be base and dishonourable. The non-Aryans were beyond the pale of Hindu society, and therefore untouchable. The Aryan Hindus regarded them with fear, hatred, contempt and disgust..." (Nirad C. Chaudhuri, "Hinduism and the Aboriginals", Hinduism: A Religion to Live By, Oxford University Press, USA; New Edition, 1997, p. 97).
Anglo-Saxon England
An apartheid-like system existed in early Anglo-Saxon England, which prevented the native British genes getting into the Anglo-Saxon population by restricting intermarriage and wiped out a majority of original British genes in favour of Germanic ones, according to a new study. According to research led by University College London, Anglo-Saxon settlers enjoyed a substantial social and economic advantage over the native Celtic Britons who lived in what is now England, for more than 300 years from the middle of the 5th century.
Visigothic Spain
The first part of the Visigothic period was characterised by a system of apartheid. Intermarriage between Visigoth migrants and Roman natives was forbidden in Visigothic France and Spain in the late 5th and early 6th century. The Germanic Visigoths and Hispano-Romans were separate; each nationality had its own priests and churches, its own courts, judges, and civil services.
Jewish segregation
Jews in Western Europe generally were forced, by decree or by informal pressure, to live in highly segregated ghettos and shtetls. By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions.
Jewish population were confined to mellahs in Morocco beginning from the 15th century. In cities, a mellah was surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. In contrast, rural mellahs were separate villages inhabited solely by the Jews.
In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews:
"…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town…; for they are considered as unclean creatures… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt… For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans… If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him… unmercifully… If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods… Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life... If... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel (Muharram)…, he is sure to be murdered."
Latin America
Many Latin American countries have caste systems based on classification by race and race mixture. An entire nomenclature developed, including the familiar terms "mulato", "mestizo", and "zambo" (whence "sambo"). The caste system was imposed during colonial rule by the Spanish who had practiced a form of caste system in Spain prior to the expulsion of the Jews and Muslims. While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of independence from Spain, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from Spanish ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system.
Nazi Germany (1933-1945)
A ban of interracial marriage was part of the Nuremberg Laws enacted by the Nazis in Germany against the German Jewish community during the 1930s. The laws prohibited marriages between Jews and Aryan Germans, which were classified as different races.
Under the General Government of occupied Poland in 1940, the population was divided into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed strips in the cities, public transportation, and assigned
- Ukrainians,
- Highlanders (Goralenvolk) - an attempt to reverse the greater "Polish" identity
- Kashubians (Kaschobenvolk) - similar attempt like with Goralenvolk, but less successful
- Poles,
- Jews
- Homosexuals
- Roma people
- Jehovah's Witnesses
During the 1930s and 40s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were made to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, and were, along with Romas (Gypsies) discriminated against by the racial laws. Jewish doctors and professors were not allowed to treat Aryan (effectively, gentile) patients or teach Aryan pupils, respectively. The Jews were also not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, and would only be able to shop from 3-5 in Jewish stores. After Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. Jews and Roma were subjected to genocide as "racial" groups in the Holocaust).
Rhodesia (20th century)
The British colony of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), under Ian Smith, leader of the white minority government, declared unilateral independence in 1965. For the next 15 years, Rhodesia operated under white minority rule until international sanctions forced Smith to hold multiracial elections, after a brief period of British rule in 1979.
Laws enforcing segregation had been around before 1965, although many institutions simply ignored them. One highly publicized legal battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new Theatre that was to be open to all races, this incident was nicknamed "The Battle of the Toilets".
South Africa (20th century)
Main article: History of South Africa in the Apartheid EraApartheid was a system which existed in South Africa for over forty years, although the term itself had a history going back to the 1910s and unofficially before that for many years. It was formalized in the years following the victory of the National Party in the all-white national election of 1948, increased in dominancy under the rule of Prime Minister Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd and remained law until 1994. Examples of apartheid policy introduced are the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1951, which made it illegal for marriage between races.
Apartheid was abolished following a rapid change in public perception of racial segregation throughout the world, and an economic boycott against South Africa which had crippled and threatened to destroy its economy.
United States (19th-21st century)
Main article: Racial segregation in the United StatesAfter the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in America, racial discrimination became regulated by the so-called Jim Crow laws, which mandated strict segregation of the races. Though such laws were instituted shortly after fighting ended in many cases, they only became formalized after the end of Republican-enforced Reconstruction in the 1870s and 80s during a period known as the nadir of American race relations. This legalized segregation lasted up to the 1960s, primarily through the deep and extensive power of Southern Democrats.
While the majority in 1896 Plessy overtly upheld only "separate but equal" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice John Marshall Harlan in his dissent protested that the decision was an expression of white supremacy; he predicted that segregation would "stimulate aggressions … upon the admitted rights of colored citizens," "arouse race hate" and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between races."
Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice by the efforts of such civil rights activists as Clarence Mitchell, Jr., Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., working during the period from the end of World War II through the passage of the Voting Rights Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 supported by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Many of their efforts were acts of non-violent civil disobedience aimed at disrupting the enforcement of racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding sit-ins at all-white diners.
By 1968 all forms of segregation had been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court and by 1970, support for formal legal segregation had dissolved. Formal racial discrimination was illegal in school systems, businesses, American military and government. Separate bathrooms, water fountains and schools all disappeared and the civil rights movement had the public's support.
Since then, African-Americans have played a significant role as mayors, governors, and state officials in both Southern and Northern states and on the national level have been on the Supreme Court, in the House of Representatives and the Senate, in presidential cabinets, and as head of the joint chiefs of staff.
Not all racial segregation laws have been repealed in the United States, although Supreme Court rulings have rendered them unenforceable and illegal to carry out. For instance, the Alabama Constitution still mandates that Separate schools shall be provided for white and colored children, and no child of either race shall be permitted to attend a school of the other race. A proposal to repeal this provision was narrowly defeated in 2004.
Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs, access to health care, or even supermarkets to residents in certain, often racially determined, areas. The most devastating form of redlining, and the most common use of the term, refers to mortgage discrimination. Over the next twenty years, a succession of further court decisions and federal laws, including the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act and measure to end mortgage discrimination in 1975, would completely invalidate de jure racial segregation and discrimination in the U.S., although de facto segregation and discrimination have proven more resilient. According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, the actual de facto desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in the late 1980s; since that time, the schools have, in fact, become more segregated mainly due to the ethnic segregation of the nation with whites dominating the suburbs and minorities the urban centers. As of 2005, the present proportion of black students at majority white schools "are a level lower than in any year since 1968 segeratoin is bad."
Contemporary segregation
Dominican Republic
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None of Haitian illegal inmigrants live without recognition of Dominican Nationality, where they do not have access to education and economic services based on their lack of legality in the country. According to multiple New York Times, Human Rights Groups and Amnesty International reports, birth certificates are not issued to children born to both parents of Haitian nationality and without legal residence in the Dominican Republic. Human rights worker Solange Pierre won the 2006 Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award for fighting to end this problem. Tensions between both nationals in the Dominican Republic have been reported as well as periodic fights and acts of violence by Dominicans against the Haitians. The practice of what is described as Antihaitianismo has been another factor, due to the tension between the Dominican Republic and its neighboring nation. The documentary "The Price of Sugar" documents the current situation for Haitian workers living in the Dominican Republic. In Europe there have been calls for a travel and economic boycott of the Dominican Republic. Smaller Non-Governmental organizations have called for similar boycotts in the United States.
Yet the president of Haiti and his ambassadors to the Dominican Republic and France have denied the accusations leveled by the film makers as propaganda. Since they have exposed that poor Dominicans of no Haitian ancestry or race live under the same conditions or worse than the Haitians at the Bateyes in the Dominican Republic.
The film has been exposed as an orchestrated and manipulated tool to force the Dominican government to provide Citizenship to the over one million Haitians and their children that illegaly crossed the border looking for work and a better life to that they have in the impoverished Haiti. Since the Dominican government itself doesn't own any Sugar Mills anymore.
So far the Dominican government has provided the issuance of Birth Certificates that will allow the Haitian parents to properly register the birth of the children in the Haitian consulate at the country as well as allow the children to attend State funded public schools at the expense of the Dominican tax payer.
Fiji
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Two military coups in Fiji in 1987 removed from power a government that was led by an ethnic Fijian, but was supported principally by the Indo-Fijian (ethnic Indian) electorate. A new constitution was promulgated in 1990, establishing Fiji as a republic, with the offices of President, Prime Minister, two-thirds of the Senate, and a clear majority of the House of Representatives reserved for ethnic Fijians, Ethnic Fijian ownership of the land was also entrenched in the constitution.
Fiji's case is a situation of defacto ethnic segregation. Fiji's has a long complex history with more than 3500 years as a divided Tribal nation. Unification under the British rule as a Colony for 96 years bought other racial groups, particularly immigrants from the Indian sub-continent.
Independent Fiji's young democracy has been troubled by some tension between the Indigenous Fijians and the Indo-Fijians at a Political level along with provincial differences also and this combined has caused some challenges with the Nation moving forward clearly.
India
Some activists consider that the Hindu caste system is a form of racial discrimination. The participants of the United Nations Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa in March 2001, condemned discrimination due to the caste system, and tried to pass a resolution declaring that caste as a basis for the segregation and oppression of peoples in terms of their descent and occupation is a form of apartheid. However, no formal resolution was passed to that effect
India's treatment of Dalits has been described by some authors as as "India's hidden apartheid". Eric Margolis has claimed that India "frantically tr to prevent its caste system, which is often called "hidden apartheid" from being put on the agenda of the 2001 World Conference against Racism in Durban.
India does not treat anyone differently based on their caste, although now there is a policy of affirmative action where the government showers privileges on lower caste people to make up for historical wrongs.
Malaysia
Main article: BumiputraMalaysia has an article in its constitution which distinctly segregates the ethnic Malays and other indigeneous peoples of Malaysia---i.e bumiputra---from the non-Bumiputra under the social contract, of which by law would guarantee the former certain special rights and privileges. To question these rights and priveleges however is strictly prohibited under the Internal Security Act, legalised by the 10th Article(IV) of the Constitution of MalaysiaThe privileges mentioned herein covers---few of which---the economical and education aspects of Malaysians, e.g the NEP; an economic policy recently criticised by Thierry Rommel---who headed a European Commission's delegation to Malaysia---as an excuse for "significant protectionism" and a quota maintaining higher access of Malays into public universities. This system of segregation, seen as a form of apartheid by its opponent is justified with a racial-supremacist concept of Ketuanan Melayu.
Mauritania
Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007 It was already abolished in 1980 though it was still affecting the descendants of black Africans abducted into slavery before generations, who live now in Mauritania as "black Moors" or haratin and who partially still serve the "white Moors", or bidhan (the name means literally white-skinned people), as slaves. The number of slaves in the country was not known exactly, but is was estimated to be up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population.
For centuries, the so-called Haratin lower class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been considered natural slaves by white Moors of Arab/Berber ancestry. Many descendants of the Arab and Berber tribes today still adhere to the supremacist ideology of their ancestors. This ideology has led to oppression, discrimination and even enslavement of other groups in the region of Sudan and Western Sahara. In certain villages in Mauritania there are mosques for lighter-skinned nobles and mosques for black slaves, who are still buried in separate cemeteries.
Northern Ireland
Main article: Segregation in Northern IrelandSince the 16th century Plantation of Ulster, Loyalist Protestants and Irish Catholics have lived in a highly segregated state in northern Ireland, with large divisions existing today regarding education, housing, intermarriage and employment.
Yemen
In Yemen, the Arabic elite practices an unofficial form of discrimination: the population is divided into the higher-class Arabic stocks and the lower-class black Ethiopians, the Akhdam people.
United States
Black-White segregation is declining fairly consistently for most metropolitan areas in the US. Despite these pervasive patterns, many changes for individual areas are small. Racial segregation or separation can lead to social, economic and political tensions. Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remains a residentially segregated society in which Blacks, Whites and Hispanics inhabit different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.
Dan Immergluck writes that in 2002 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for businesses density, businesses size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses. Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry. Workers living in American inner-cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers.
The desire of many whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in white flight to the suburbs. Recent studies in San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners tended to self-segregate in order to be with people of the same education level and race. By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced by decentralized racism, where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas. Today, many whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent. By bidding up the price of housing, many white neighborhoods again effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into white neighborhoods. Through the 1990s, residential segregation remained at its extreme and has been called "hypersegregation" by some sociologists or "American Apartheid"
In February 2005 U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Johnson v. California (125 S. Ct. 1141) that the California Department of Corrections' unwritten practice of racially segregating prisoners in its prison reception centers — which California claimed was for inmate safety (gangs in California, as throughout the U.S., usually organize on racial lines)— is to be subject to strict scrutiny, the highest level of constitutional review.
Sociological research (Brown v. Board of Education)
In the Brown v. Board of Education decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing for a unanimous court, said that "in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal... To separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone."
The decision made clear that the justices were influenced in part by studies by Kenneth B. Clark showing that segregated education had a negative psychological effect upon black school children. Significant doubt was subsequently cast on these studies, especially Clark's "doll study." Black students in segregated schools were shown both black and white dolls and asked which one they liked better. A majority of black students preferred the white doll, which was believed by Clark to demonstrate lowered black self-esteem as a result of segregation. Clark, however, did not present to the court his own research which showed that black children in integrated schools were even more likely to choose the white doll than those in segregated schools. Though some blacks are even now socially aware that skin color does not matter in life decisions concerning enhancement (2006-2007).
In Toronto, Canada, racial segregation of “Black-focused” public schools was being promoted by Canada's largest and most influential school board, the Toronto District School Board. In 2005, controversy erupted when the Toronto District School Board's Equity Officer, Lloyd McKell, who is black himself, spoke in favour of “Black-focused schools”. The proposal brought about a media backlash; the School Board claimed to have no plans to act on this proposal, however this has been proven incorrect as this very same school board is now taking a lead role in implementing this proposal . Similar controversy had taken place in the North York Board of Education in the 1980’s when the board attempted to turn Georges Vanier Secondary School into a black-only school.[http://www.torontosun.com/News/Columnists/MacDonald_Moira/2005/09/19/1223082.html
See also
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Notes
- Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
- India's 'Hidden Apartheid'
- English and Welsh are races apart
- Evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England
- Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study Suggests
- 'Apartheid' slashed Celtic genes in early England
- Visigothic Spain to c. 500
- The Ecole Chronology Project
- Anti-Semitism in modern Europe
- The Jews of Morocco, by Ralph G. Bennett
- Lewis (1984), pp. 181–183
- http://www.zonalatina.com/Zldata55.htm
- http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(197112)76%3A5%3C1626%3ARACILA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6
- http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040503/fonerkennedy
- "Encarta Encyclopedia". Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- "Encarta Encyclopedia". Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/CA-245806.htm
- Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities
- See: Race and health
- In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition, Elizabeth Eisenhauer, GeoJournal Volume 53, Number 2 / February, 2001
- How East New York Became a Ghetto by Walter Thabit. ISBN 0814782671. Page 42.
- New York Times "No Papers, No Rights" 2005
- "DOMINICAN BORN HAITIAN RIGHTS ACTIVIST WINS 2006 RFK HUMAN RIGHTS AWARD" Press Release, RFK Memorial Center, accessed Sept. 28, 2007.
- Amnesty International Dominican Republic Report 2006
- http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/antihaitianismo.html
- http://www.worldpress.org/Americas/2276.cfm
- http://www.thepriceofsugar.com
- http://dominicantoday.com/app/article.aspx?id=24051
- Country profile: Fiji
- Fiji: History
- UN seminar highlights concern in Fiji over ethnic segregation
- An Untouchable Subject?
- Final Declaration of the Global Conference Against Racism and Caste-based Discrimination
- Gopal Guru, with Shiraz Sidhva. India’s "hidden apartheid"
- Rajeev Dhavan. India's apartheid
- Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law by BBC News
- Mauritania made slavery illegal last month
- The Abolition season on BBC World Service
- Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
- War and Genocide in Sudan
- Mauritania: The real beginning of the end of slavery?
- "YEMEN: Akhdam people suffer history of discrimination". IRIN. November 1, 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-09.
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(help) - Inequality and Segregation R Sethi, R Somanathan - Journal of Political Economy, 2004
- The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing and Neighborhoods By William Dennis Keating. Temple University Press. 1994. ISBN 1566391474
- Myth of the Melting Pot: America's Racial and Ethnic Divides
- SEGREGATION AND STRATIFICATION: A Biosocial Perspective Douglas S. Massey Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race (2004), 1: 7-25 Cambridge University Press
- Inequality and Segregation Rajiv Sethi and Rohini Somanathan Journal of Political Economy, volume 112 (2004), pages 1296–1321
- Redlining Redux Urban Affairs Review, Vol. 38, No. 1, 22–41 (2002)
- Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas Journal of Urban Affairs 25 (4), 391–410.
- Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities Yves Zenou and Nicolas Boccard 1999
- "VI De Facto Segregation". Retrieved 2008-01-09.
- Ap news article
- ..
- Kiel, K. A. and J. E. Zabel. "Housing Price Differentials in U.S. Cities: Household and Neighborhood Racial Effects." Journal of Housing Economics 5, 1996.
- Massey, D. S. and N. A. Denton. American Apartheid. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993.
References
- Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie L, White Power, White Pride: The White Separatist Movement in the United States, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, 384 pages, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9.
- Stokes, DaShanne. (In Press) "Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom"
- Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim Crow, by Mark Schultz. University of Illinois Press, 2005, ISBN 0-252-02960-7.
External links
- A site dedicated to the life of MLK
- A study of segregation
- Constitutional Law and Race-Conscious Policies in K-12 Education
- Religious Freedom with Raptors - details racism and segregation in Native American religious freedom.
- Website of Bahraini Islamists Al-Wefaq (in Arabic)
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