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| {{Islam}} | |||
| '''Islam''' (]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}) is a ] ] originating with the teachings of ], a 7th century ] religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to ] (Arabic: ]).<ref>http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/notislam/misconceptions.html#HEADING1</ref> An adherent of Islam is known as a ], meaning "one who submits (to God)".<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Lanes Lexicon">{{cite web|url=http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000137.pdf|title=Lane's lexicon |accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref> There are approximately 1.61 billion Muslims,<ref>This claim is made by . Other sources give a range from 1 billion to 1.8 billion.</ref> making Islam the ], after ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Islam |title=Major Religions of the World—Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-03 |format=HTML |work= }}</ref> | |||
| Muslims believe that God ] the ] to Muhammad, God's ], and regard the Qur'an and the ] (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>See: | |||
| *Esposito (1996), p.41 | |||
| *Ghamidi (2001): </ref> They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of ], ], ], and other ]. Islamic tradition holds that ] and ] ] God gave to these prophets by either altering the text, using a false interpretation, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See: | |||
| *Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. | |||
| *Esposito (1998), pp.6,12 | |||
| *Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5 | |||
| *F. E. Peters (2003), p.9 | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the ], which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.17</ref> In addition to the Five Pillars, ] (''sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like ] and ] to ].<ref>See: | |||
| *Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118 | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the ] and ]. The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 percent are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the ], as well as in parts of ] and ]. Large communities are also found in ], the ] in ] and ]. There are also large Muslim immigrant communities in wealthier and more developed parts of the world such as ]. About 20 percent of Muslims live in ].<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), p.21 | |||
| * Esposito (2004), pp.2,43</ref> | |||
| ==Etymology and meaning== | |||
| The word ''Islām'' is derived from the ] ''Aslama'', which means to accept, surrender or submit. Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to Islam, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping Allah, following his commands, and avoiding ]. The word is given a number of meanings in the ]. In some verses ('']''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."<ref>{{cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref> Other verses connect ''islām'' and '']'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ==Articles of faith== | |||
| {{main|Aqidah|Iman}} | |||
| According to the Qur'an all Muslims have to believe in God, his revelations, his ], his ], and in the "]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Also, there are other beliefs that differ between ]. The ] concept of predestination is called ],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the ] version is called ]. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of '']'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the ]s.<ref>See: | |||
| * Farah (2003), p.109 | |||
| * Momen (1987), p.176</ref> | |||
| Muslims believe that God ] his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the ]. For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21</ref> In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine ]—either directly from God or through angels.<ref>See: | |||
| * Momem (1987), p.176 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since ] preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",<ref>{{cite quran|30|30|style=ref}}</ref> and the Qur'an states that the ] ''Muslim'' was given by ].<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|22|78|style=ref}} | |||
| * "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> | |||
| As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in ] in the early 7th century.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls ]s and ]s "]" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), had become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted"/> | |||
| ===God=== | |||
| {{main|God in Islam}} | |||
| {{seealso|Allah}} | |||
| Islam's fundamental theological concept is '']''—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words '']'' (the) and ''{{ArabDIN|]}}'' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (''{{ArabDIN|al-ilāh}}''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.<ref>See: | |||
| * "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking ]s and ]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''. | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the '']'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that ] was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the ], comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, ] was just a man and not the son of God;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tathlith, Trinity | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=David Thomas | accessdate=2007-05-11}}: Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.</ref> God is described in a chapter ('']'') of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}} | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76 | |||
| * Esposito (2004), p.22 | |||
| * Griffith (2006), p.248 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ====The holy books==== | |||
| {{main|Islamic holy books}} | |||
| ] in a Qur'anic manuscript by ]]] | |||
| Muslims believe that God communicated a series of divine messages that started with those revealed to ], who is regarded in Islam as the first ] and that some of their prophets received revelations in the form of ]s such as the ] (''Scrolls of ]''),<ref>{{Quran-usc|87|18|end=19|style=nosup}}</ref> the ] (]) to ] (]),<ref>{{Quran-usc|3|3|style=nosup}}</ref><ref>{{Quran-usc|5|44|style=nosup}}</ref> the ] (]) to ] (]),<ref>{{Quran-usc|4|163|style=nosup}}</ref><ref>{{Quran-usc|17|55|style=nosup}}</ref> and the ] (]) to ] (]).<ref name = QuranC5V46>{{Quran-usc|5|46|style=nosup}}</ref><ref>{{Quran-usc|5|110|style=nosup}}</ref><ref>{{Quran-usc|57|27|style=nosup}}</ref> The ] is regarded as the final message, being the culmination of this series of divine messages to mankind. | |||
| =====Qur'an===== | |||
| {{main|Islamic holy books|Qur'an}} | |||
| {{Seealso|Origin and development of the Qur'an}} | |||
| Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central ] of Islam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on ] ]. The Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions ('']'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of ], the first ], and was standardized in the time of ], the third caliph. The Qur'an in its actual form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants in Western academia has not yielded any differences of great significance and that historically controversy over the content of the Qur'an has never become a main point. <ref>See: | |||
| *William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32 | |||
| *Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, ''Introduction to the Qur'an'', p.51 | |||
| *F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref> | |||
| The Qur'an is divided into 114 ]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 '']'', or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}} | |||
| </ref> The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Esposito (2004), p.79</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2004), pp.79–81 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> | |||
| The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.<ref>See: | |||
| * Teece (2003), pp.12,13 | |||
| * C. Turner (2006), p.42 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are ] about this term and its formation.</ref> | |||
| ===Angels=== | |||
| {{main|Angels in Islam}} | |||
| Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malakh'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess ], and worship God in perfect obedience.<ref>{{cite quran|21|19|end=20|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref> Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He adds to Creation as He pleases…"<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}} | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Prophets=== | |||
| {{main|Prophets of Islam}} | |||
| A Muslim believes in all the Messengers and Prophets of God without any discrimination. All messengers were mortals, human beings, endowed with divine revelations and appointed by God to teach mankind. The Holy Quran mentions the names of 25 messengers and prophets and states that there were others numerous others sent to all nations and times and include Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad. Their message is the same and it is Islam and it came from One and the Same Source; God, and it is to submit to His will and to obey His law; i.e., to become a Muslim. | |||
| ====Muhammad==== | |||
| {{main|Muhammad}} | |||
| Muhammad (c. 570 – ] ]) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of ]—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (1998), p.12 | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5 | |||
| * F. E. Peters (2003), p.9 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his ].<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|18|110|style=ref}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ] ("Mosque of the Prophet") in ] is the site of Muhammad's tomb.]] | |||
| During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of ], imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the '']'' ("emigration") to the city of ] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts ('']'') and the Meccan migrants ('']''), Muhammad established his political and ]. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the ] in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the ] in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of ] was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See: | |||
| * F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the ].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| In Islam, the "]" example of Muhammad's life is called the '']'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as ] ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ] (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in ], and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>See: | |||
| * ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Resurrection and judgment=== | |||
| {{main|Qiyama}} | |||
| Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", '']'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and ]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the ], and also in the commentaries of ]s. The Qur'an emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.<ref>See: | |||
| * "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003) | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna". | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, ] and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise ('']'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (''ridwān'').<ref>{{cite quran|9|72|style=ref}}</ref> Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See: | |||
| * Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565 | |||
| * "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000) | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | accessdate=2007-05-08}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Predestination=== | |||
| {{main|Predestination in Islam|Adalah}} | |||
| In accordance with the Islamic belief in ], or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|9|51|style=ref}} | |||
| * D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' " | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".<ref>See: | |||
| * Farah (2003), pp.119–122 | |||
| * Patton (1900), p.130</ref> | |||
| The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the ], stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.<ref>Momen (1987), pp.177,178</ref> | |||
| ==Duties and practices== | |||
| ===Five Pillars=== | |||
| {{main|Five Pillars of Islam}} | |||
| ]'') written on a plaque in the ], ]]] | |||
| ] (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the ] in Mecca.]] | |||
| ] (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See: | |||
| * Momem (1987), p.178 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They are: | |||
| * The ''''']''''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{ArabDIN|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the ''shahadah'' to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>See: | |||
| * Farah (1994), p.135 | |||
| * Momen (1987), p.178 | |||
| * "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)</ref> | |||
| * ''''']''''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the ] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called ] (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the ], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19 | |||
| * Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55 | |||
| * Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34 | |||
| * Momen (1987), p.178</ref> | |||
| * ''''']''''', or ]. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving ('']''). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a '']'' tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|2|177|style=ref}} | |||
| * Esposito (2004), p.90 | |||
| * Momen (1987), p.179 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-11}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| * ''''']''''', or ]. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}} | |||
| * Esposito (2004), pp.90,91 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA | work=Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref> | |||
| * The ''''']''''', which is the pilgrimage during the ] of '']'' in the city of ]. Every ] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in ], which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the ], touching the ], running seven times between ] and ], and symbolically ] in ]. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.<ref>See: | |||
| * Farah (1994), pp.145–147 | |||
| * Goldschmidt (2005), p.48 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| In addition to the ''khums'' tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is ], which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is '']'', the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is '']'', the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.<ref>Momen (1987), p.180</ref> | |||
| ===Law=== | |||
| {{main|Sharia|Fiqh}} | |||
| The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and ], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines '']'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of ], ], and ], as well as rules for ], ], and ]. However, these ] and ] may be broad, so their application in practice varies. ] (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.<ref>See: | |||
| * Menski (2006), p.290 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. Carra de Vaux | coauthors=J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sharia | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=N. Calder | coauthors=M. B. Hooker | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| '']'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as '']'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists ('']''), and analogical reasoning ('']''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ] provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162</ref> | |||
| ====Religion and state==== | |||
| Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. ] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of ]. In contrast, the ] replaced a mostly secular regime with an ] led by the ].<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2004), p.84 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845 | |||
| * Lewis (2003), p.100</ref> | |||
| ===Etiquette and diet=== | |||
| {{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}} | |||
| Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "'']''" ("peace be unto you"), saying '']'' ("in ]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. ] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. ] include saying the '']'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, ], and ]. All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as ] food.<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite quran|5|5|style=ref}} | |||
| * Curtis (2005), p.164 | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), p.111 | |||
| * Ghamidi (2001): | |||
| * Ghamidi (2001): | |||
| * Ghamidi (2001): | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref> | |||
| ===Jihad=== | |||
| {{mainarticle|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}} | |||
| Jihad means "to strive or struggle," and is considered the "]" by a minority of Muslim authorities.<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18</ref> Jihad when used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect.<ref> Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18 </ref><ref> Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad </ref> | |||
| Within ], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the ] or ] of the ], the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the universal domination of Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against states which refuse to convert to Islam or submit to Islamic rule. It ceases when Jews, Christians, and ]s submit to the authority of Islam and agree to pay the '']'' (a ]) and '']'' (a land tax), and when ]s convert to Islam.<ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Djihād | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Treaties (''`ahd'') may be established, subject to payment of the ''kharaj'', although jurists differ over its permitted longevity.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Dar al-`Ahd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>For most ], ] can only be declared by a ] of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since ]'s occultation at 868 AD. cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice. <ref> Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118 </ref> | |||
| Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (''fard kifaya''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (]), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="jihad"/> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and ], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>See: | |||
| *Firestone (1999) p.17 | |||
| *"Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>See: | |||
| *Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100 | |||
| *Esposito (2003), p.93 | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-06-13}}</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|Muslim history|Spread of Islam}} | |||
| Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the ]. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the ], an Islamic empire stretched from the ] in the west to ] in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like ], the ], and ]. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the ], but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the ] and ] fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century ] and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817 | |||
| * Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56</ref> | |||
| ===Rise of empire (632–750)=== | |||
| {{see|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Muslim Empire}} | |||
| Muhammad began preaching Islam at ] before ] to ], from where he united the ] into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. ], a prominent ] of Muhammad, nominated ], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first ]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that ], his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by ] (or ]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the ], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See: | |||
| * Holt (1977a), p.57 | |||
| * Hourani (2003), p.22 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.32 | |||
| * Madelung (1996), p.43 | |||
| * Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50</ref> | |||
| ] in 750]] | |||
| His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by ] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into ] and ] territories.<ref>See | |||
| * Holt (1977a), p.74 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| When Umar was assassinated in 644, ] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the ] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by ] in 661. Following this, ], who was governor of ], seized power and began the ].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref> | |||
| These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as ]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the ].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the ] and ] (the ], former ] ]) and the ]} as well as expand Muslim territory into the ].<ref>Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref>. While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims<!--The Islamic term is Zahid and there may be a better translation for it.--> began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as ] would inspire a movement that would evolve into ].<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref> | |||
| For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;<ref>Hawting (2000), p.4</ref> the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (]) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims ('']'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle ] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general ], inaugurating the ] in 750.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See: | |||
| * Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105 | |||
| * Holt (1977b), pp.661–663 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.56 | |||
| * Lewis (1993), p.84 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Golden Age (750–1258)=== | |||
| {{main|Islamic Golden Age}} | |||
| ] | |||
| By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia ]s formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized ] where the Shia ]s contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the ] had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.103–143 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful ] even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan ], ], ] and the ].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/> | |||
| The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The ] were compiled and the four modern Sunni ]s were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist ]; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> Philosophers ] (Avicenna) and ] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian ] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.160 | |||
| * Waines (2003) p.126,127</ref> Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. ] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2004), pp.44–45 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among ] ] Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the ] and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.<ref>Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41</ref> In the ], a few Arab philosophers like the poet ] adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher ] contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.<ref>See: | |||
| * Novak (February 1999) | |||
| * Sahas (1997), pp.76–80</ref> | |||
| Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in Christian Europe and the West began to be reversed. The ] was launched against Muslim ] in ], and Muslim ] were lost to the ]. From the 11th century onwards a series of wars known as the ]s brought the Muslim world into conflict with ]. Successful at first in their recapturing of the ] (which the Muslims had taken from Western Christendom in the 7th century) and the establishment of the ], Crusader gains in the Holy Land were reversed by later Muslim generals such as ], who recaptured ] during the ].<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310</ref> The ] put an end to the Abbasid dynasty at the ], which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier ]s took control in an uprising in 1250.<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.292 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Ottomans and Islamic empires in India (1258–1918)=== | |||
| The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the ] (named after ]) was established with a string of conquests that included the ], parts of ], and western ]. In 1453 under ] the Ottomans laid siege to ], the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress ] shortly thereafter, having been battered by superior Ottoman ]ry.<ref>See: | |||
| * Holt (1977a), p.263 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.250 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Istanbul | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of ] to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.104,105</ref> Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the ], a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century ] poet ]. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic Art | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ] is a ] located in ], ], that was built under ]<ref>Esposito (2004), p.65</ref>]] | |||
| In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite ] assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as ] in 1529.<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, ] became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east. <ref name="Ikram">Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press</ref> Many ] ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the ] (1206–1526) and the ] (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in ]. but by the mid-18th century the ] had ended the Mughal dynasty.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref> In the 18th century the ] movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher ], Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.<ref>See: | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.572 | |||
| * Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.</ref> | |||
| By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the ] resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the ]. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of ].<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref> | |||
| In the 19th century, the ], ] and ] reform movements were initiated. | |||
| ===Modern times (1918–present)=== | |||
| After ] losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European ]s or ]. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of ] have assumed prominence.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835</ref> | |||
| The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the ] in Egypt and ] in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called ], they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the ]), revolutionary movements replaced ] regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like ]'s ] engage in ] to further their goals. In contrast, ] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and ]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179 | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830</ref> | |||
| In modern times Islam has come under ] from idealogues such as ]<ref>{{cite news | last=Bostom | first=Andrew | title=Islamic Apostates' Tales—A Review of ''Leaving Islam'' by Ibn Warraq |date=July 21, 2003 | publisher=FrontPageMagazine.com | work=FrontPage Magazine | url=http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=9000}}</ref> and ],<ref>Rippin (2001), p.288</ref> who criticize Islamic law and question the morality of the Qur'an; for example, they say that its contents justify mistreatment of women and encourage ] remarks by Muslim theologians;<ref>{{cite news | publisher=NYRB | work=] |date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}</ref> such claims are disputed by Muslim scholars.<ref>For example, see: | |||
| *], in Westerlund (2003); | |||
| *], in ''The Spirit of Islam'' (1849–1928). It is described by ] (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''Mohammed and the Rise of Islam''; | |||
| *], in {{cite news | publisher=Advance, ] |date=11-17-2003 | title=Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images | author=Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu | url=http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm}}</ref> ], Norman Daniel, and ] dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and medieval European polemics.<ref> | |||
| * Seibert (1994), pp.88–89 | |||
| * Watt (1974), p.231</ref> The rise of ], according to ], had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.<ref>Ernst (2004), p.11</ref> | |||
| ==Community== | |||
| {{main|Muslim world}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Demographics=== | |||
| {{see also|Islam by country|Demographics of Islam}} | |||
| Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1.1 billion to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are ] and 15% are ], with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. ] and ] contain the most populous Muslim countries, with ], ], ], and ] having more than 100 million adherents each.<ref name=Islam_by_country>{{cite web | |||
| |url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim | |||
| |title=Number of Muslim by country | |||
| |publisher=nationmaster.com | |||
| |accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in ].<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm | |||
| |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau) | |||
| |year=2006 | |||
| |publisher=U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor | |||
| |accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> In the ], the non-Arab countries of ] and ] are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in ], ] and ] have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name=Islam_by_country/> Islam is the second largest religion after ] in many ]an countries.<ref>See: | |||
| *Esposito (2004) pp.2,43 | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}<br />{{cite web | url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}} | |||
| *{{cite web | title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=] | accessdate=2006-09-28}} | |||
| * {{cite web | title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=] | accessdate=2006-08-27}}</ref> | |||
| ===Mosques=== | |||
| {{main|Mosque}} | |||
| ]s on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the ], ]. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.]] | |||
| A mosque is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the ] as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as ]s.<ref>See: | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author= J. Pedersen | coauthors=R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Family life=== | |||
| {{seealso|Women and Islam}} | |||
| The basic unit of Islamic society is the ], and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of ] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> ] is a civil ] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a ] ('']'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref> | |||
| * Waines (2003) pp. 93–96 | |||
| * The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339 | |||
| * Esposito (1998) p. 79</ref> | |||
| A man may marry up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may marry one man only. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as '']'', which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".<ref>*"Talak". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as ] and seclusion (]). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as ], with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain ] groups like the ] have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.<ref> | |||
| * Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage and Divorce | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=Harald Motzki | accessdate=2007-05-15}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage Practices | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures | author=Lori Peek | accessdate=2007-05-15}} | |||
| </ref> | |||
| ===Calendar=== | |||
| {{main|Islamic calendar}} | |||
| The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the ] in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by ]. It is a ], with that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.<ref>See: | |||
| * Adil (2002), p.288 | |||
| * F. E. Peters (2003), p.67 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tarikh̲ | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. van Dalen | coauthors=R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE. | |||
| Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month '']'', and '']'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of '']'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): </ref> | |||
| ==Other religions== | |||
| {{main|Islam and other religions}} | |||
| ] on the ] in ], a holy site in both Islam and ] that has been a source of controversy]] | |||
| ] congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.]] | |||
| According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by ].<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16</ref> At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19</ref> In this view, ], ], ], and ] were all ], but their message and the texts of the ] and the ] were ] by ]s and ]. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 18</ref> The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 35</ref> Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.<ref>See: | |||
| *Friedmann (2003), p. 35; | |||
| *Lewis (1984), p. 39</ref> | |||
| Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as '']''. Dhimmis must pay tribute ('']'') to the Islamic state, and as such are considered "protected peoples." Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions as well as humiliating regulations meant to highlight the inferiority of non-Muslim subjects.<ref>See: | |||
| *Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36; | |||
| *Friedmann (2003), p. 37;</ref> The status was extended to Zoroastrians and sometimes to polytheists (such as ]s), but not to ]s or ]s.<ref>Lewis (2001), p.273</ref> Those who live in non-Muslim lands ('']'') are known as '']s'', and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ''ahl al-ahd''. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ''ahl al-amān''. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (''ahl al-hudna'') are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 55</ref><ref>"Aman", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> ] is prohibited, and is punishable by death.<ref>A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.</ref><ref>"Murtadd", ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref> | |||
| ==Denominations== | |||
| {{main|Divisions of Islam}} | |||
| Islam consists of a number of ]s that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the ] and the ], with ]sm generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other ].<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2002b), p.2 | |||
| * {{cite web | url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm | title=Sunni and Shia Islam | work=Country Studies | publisher=U.S. Library of Congress | accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| ===Sunni=== | |||
| {{main|Sunni}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In ], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four ]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or ]s: ], ], ] and ]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations ('']''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent ] movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2003), pp.275,306 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Shi'a=== | |||
| {{main|Shi'a}} | |||
| {{see also|Succession to Muhammad}} | |||
| The ], who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious ] of ] ]s from the progeny of ]. They believe that he, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To them, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.<ref>See | |||
| * Lapidus (2002), p.46 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Imam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shi'ite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>]]</ref> Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called ].<ref>See: | |||
| *Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45 | |||
| *Nasr (1994), p.466</ref> Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the ] (''{{ArabDIN|iṯnāʿašariyya}}''), while the others are the ], the ]s, and the ].<ref>See: | |||
| * Kramer (1987), | |||
| * </ref> | |||
| ===Sufism=== | |||
| {{main|Sufism}} | |||
| Not strictly a denomination, ] is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref> Sufism and ] are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified ]. Most Sufi orders, or '']s'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.<ref>See: | |||
| * Esposito (2003), p.302 | |||
| * Malik (2006), p.3 | |||
| * B. S. Turner (1998), p.145 | |||
| * {{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html | work=Country Studies | publisher=U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) | title=Afghanistan: A Country Study | accessdate=2007-04-18 | pages=150}}</ref> | |||
| ===Others=== | |||
| The ] are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is ]. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The ]ate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in ].<ref>See: | |||
| * | |||
| * J. A. Williams (1994), p.173 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | title=al-Ibāḍiyya | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> | |||
| The ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. ], founded by ] in late fifteenth century ], incorporates aspects of both Islam and ].<ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs" </ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{portal}} | |||
| {{Further|]}} | |||
| {{Col-begin|width=}} | |||
| {{Col-1-of-2}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Col-2-of-2}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Col-end}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|3}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| ;Books and journals | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 |date=2003 | id=ISSN 0959-6410}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Adil | first=Hajjah Amina | coauthors=Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani | title=Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam | publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1930409118}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-1860642579}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1570034710}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195133986}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | id=ISBN 978-0813819464}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Eglash | first=Ron | year=1999 | title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design | publisher=Rutgers University Press | id=ISBN 0-8135-2614-0}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year=2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | id=ISBN 0-8078-5577-4}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=John Obert Voll | title=Islam and Democracy | year=1996 | | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-510816-7}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | id=ISBN 978-0195112344}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-513526-1}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=978-0195107999}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 978-0195168860}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=] | publisher=] | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-512558-4}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | id=ISBN 978-0195182668}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | id=ISBN 978-0812018530}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | id=ISBN 978-0764122266}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Firestone | first=Reuven | title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 019-5125800}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0521026994}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=] | publisher=] | year=2001 | id={{OCLC|52901690}}}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | id=ISBN 978-0813342757}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Griffith | first=Ruth Marie | coauthors=Barbara Dianne Savage | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0801883709}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240735}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-1553698425}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291364}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, ] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291372}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | id=ISBN 978-0674010178}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Humphreys | first=Stephen | title=Between Memory and Desire | year=2005 | publisher=University of California Press | id=ISBN 052-0246918}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0313324727}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors=Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0791408191}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0813304533}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | id=ISBN 0253347114}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0521779333}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-7102-0462-0}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-1928-5258-2}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-0684832807}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0812695182}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0060516055}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0812967852}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521646960}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Malik| first=Jamal| coauthors=John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0415274087}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0521858593}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Mohammad | first=Noor | title=The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction | journal=Journal of Law and Religion | volume=3 | issue=2 |date=1985}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0300035315}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| id=ISBN 0-06067-700-7}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Novak | first=David | title=The Mind of Maimonides | journal=] |date=February 1999}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-87196-129-6}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |date=April 1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=1991}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-691-11553-2}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Rudolph | authorlink=Rudolph Peters | title=Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1977 | id = ISBN 90-04-04854-5}} | |||
| *{{cite book | last=Rippin | first=Andrew | authorlink=Andrew Rippin | title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher=Routledge | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0415217811}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Ruthven | first=Malise | title=Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=2005 | id = ISBN 01-92-80606-8}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Sahas | first=Daniel J. | title=John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-9004034952}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=] | first=Abdulaziz | title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence | publisher=Oxford University Press US | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0195119150}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last=Seibert | first=Robert F. | title=Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)| journal=Review of Religious Research |date=1994 | volume=36 | issue=1}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Sells | first=Michael Anthony | authorlink=Michael Anthony Sells | coauthors=Emran Qureshi | title=The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0231126670}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-0195156492}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Spencer | first=Robert | title=The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1591022497}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Stillman | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | id=ISBN 1-82760-198-1}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam | |||
| | publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | id=ISBN 0-87395-272-3}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-922817-00-6}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0749647964}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Tolan | first=John V. | title=Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2002}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| id=ISBN 0195120582}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Tritton | first=Arthur S. | authorlink=Arthur Stanley Tritton| title=The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 |origyear = 1930 | id=ISBN 0-7146-1996-5}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | id=ISBN 041534106X}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0415174589}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521539064}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-1573927871}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-59102-068-9}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | id=ISBN 0-85-224254-X}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | id=ISBN 0-19-881078-4}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | id=ISBN 9004120661}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Williams | first=John Alden | title=The Word of Islam | year=1994 | publisher=University of Texas Press | id=ISBN 0-292-79076-7}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mary E. | title=The Middle East | year=2000 | publisher=Greenhaven Pr | id=ISBN 0737701331}} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ;Encyclopedias | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=] | year=1910}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Future | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=1995 | id=ISBN 978-0028972053}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0028656038}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2005 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0028657332}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Peter N. Stearns | edition=6th | year=2000 | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of World History Online | publisher=Bartleby}} | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | editor=] | encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | publisher=] | year=2005 | id=ISBN 041-5966906}} | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia | editor=] | encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions | publisher=] | year=1999 | id=ISBN 087-7790442}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | id=ISSN 978-0759101906}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Edward Craig | encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 978-0415073103}} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0684825076}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Hawting | first=Gerald R. | authorlink=Gerald R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240727}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan | coauthors=Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | id=ISBN 978-9960740799}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-9652240408}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | id=ISBN 9004038132}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | year=1993 | id=ISBN 978-0812692174}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | id=ISBN 978-0195090611}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0195102833}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1591440710}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-1591440345}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New Edition | id=ISBN 978-0253216274}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 0-226-70281-2}} | |||
| * {{cite book | last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | id=ISBN 978-0720610383}} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{sisterlinks}} | |||
| ;Academic resources | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * from the ] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource | |||
| * , article at ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online'' | |||
| ;Directories | |||
| * Islam in , , and | |||
| * {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}} | |||
| * at ] | |||
| ;Islam - text, audio and video | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ;Islam and the arts | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK) | |||
| * illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments. | |||
| {{Islam topics|state=collapsed}} | |||
| {{Religion-related topics}} | |||
| {{featured article}} | |||
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Revision as of 01:51, 14 February 2008
islamic people are actually jewish