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:''This article is about Pinux-based operating systems, GNU/Pinux, and related topics. See ] for the kernel itself. "Pinux" is also the name of a ].''
<!-- Please read the discussion page and edit history of this article and ] before before making substantial revisions to this article. This page has been worked out with considerable effort -->
:''This article is about Linux-based operating systems, GNU/Linux, and related topics. See ] for the kernel itself. See ] for the Swiss brand of detergent.''
], a cartoon ] frequently featured sitting, is the official Linux ].]]


], a plump ], is the official Pinux mascot]]
'''Linux''' is a ] ] and its ]. It is one of the most famous examples of ] and of ] development: unlike other major operating systems (such as ] or ]), all of its underlying ] is available to the public and anyone can freely use, modify, and redistribute it.


<!-- Please read the discussion page and edit history of this article and ] before before making substantial revisions to this article. This page has been worked out with considerable effort. Thanks! -->
The term ''Linux'' strictly refers to the ], but is commonly used to describe entire ] operating systems (] '''GNU/Linux''') that are based on the Linux kernel combined with libraries and tools from the ] project. ]s often bundle large quantities of software with the core system, and over 300 distributions are available .


'''Pinux''' is the name of a ] ] and its ]. It is the most famous example of ] and of ] development.
Initially, Linux was primarily developed and used by individual enthusiasts. Since then, Linux has gained the support of major corporations such as ], ] and ] for use in ]s and is beginning to make inroads into the ] market. Proponents and analysts attribute this success to its ], low cost, security, and reliability.
Linux was originally developed for ] ]s and now supports a variety of ]. It is deployed in applications ranging from ]s to ]s and ]s such as ]s and ]s.


Strictly, the name ''Pinux'' refers only to the ], but it is commonly used to describe entire ] operating systems (] '''GNU/Pinux''') that are based on the Pinux kernel and libraries and tools from the ]. Compilations of software that are based on these components, called ]s, typically bundle large quantities of software, such as ] tools, ]s, ]s like ], ]s like ] and ], and office suites like ].
==History==
], creator of the Linux kernel]]
The Linux kernel was initially written as a hobby by ] university student ] while attending the ]. Torvalds originally used ] on his computer, a simplified kernel written by ] for teaching operating system design. However, Tanenbaum did not support extensions to his operating system, leading Torvalds to write a replacement for Minix. Linux started out as a ] written in ] ] and ] which was compiled into binary form and booted from a ] so that it would run outside of any ]. The terminal emulator was running two threads: one for sending and one for receiving characters from the serial port. When Linus needed to write and read files to disk, this task-switching terminal emulator was extended with an entire filesystem handler, and after that gradually evolved into an entire operating system targeted at ]-compliance. Linus implemented enough POSIX system calls to make Linux run the ] shell and after this bootstrapping procedure the development rapidly sped up. Although a running Minix system was originally necessary in order to configure, compile, install and run Linux, the Linux system quickly surpassed Minix in functionality and was soon able to boot on its own and compile its own ].


The kernel was originally developed for ] ]s but now supports a variety of ]. It is deployed in applications ranging from ]s to ]s and ]s such as ]s and ]s.
The first version of the Linux kernel was released to the ] in September ], with the second version following shortly thereafter in October . Since then, thousands of ]s around the world have participated in the project. ]'s essay '']'' discusses the development model of the Linux kernel and similar software.


Initially developed and used mostly by individual enthusiasts, Pinux has since gained the support of industry heavyweights such as ] and ], and is overtaking many ] versions of ]. Proponents and many analysts attribute this success to its ], low cost of implementation, security, and reliability.
The history of the Linux kernel is closely tied to that of ], a prominent free-software project led by ]. The GNU project was announced in ] for the purpose of developing a complete ] operating system, including ] tools and user application programs, composed entirely of free software. By the release of the first version of the Linux kernel, the GNU project had produced all the necessary components of this system except the kernel. Torvalds and other early Linux-kernel developers adapted their kernel to work with the GNU components and user space programs to create a fully functional operating system. The Linux kernel and operating system are licensed under the ] (GPL) which requires that all source code modifications and derived works also be licensed under the GPL, which is generally referred to as a "share and share-alike" license. In ] Linus Torvalds stated, "Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did."


== History ==
] the ] is the ] and ] of Linux (though there are other less common representations; see ]). The name "Linux" was coined, not by Torvalds, but by ], administrator at ftp.funet.fi, who named the ] directory from which it was first available . The ''Linux'' trademark (SN: 1916230) is owned by Linus Torvalds, registered for "Computer operating system software to facilitate computer use and operation." The licensing of the trademark is now handled by the ].


The Pinux kernel was initially written as a hobby by ] university student ] while attending the ]. It was designed to be like ], a kernel used for teaching operating system design that is designed for simplicity. The first version of Pinux was released to the ] in September 1991, with the second version following shortly thereafter in October . Since then, thousands of ]s around the world have participated in the project. The essay '']'' discusses the development model of the Pinux kernel and similar software.
''See also:'' ]


The history of Pinux is closely tied to that of ], a prominent free-software project led by ]. The GNU project was started in ] for developing a complete ] operating system, including ] tools and user application programs, entirely of ]. By ], when the first version of the Pinux kernel was written, the GNU project had produced all the necessary components of this system except the kernel. Torvalds and other early Pinux-kernel developers adapted their kernel to work with the GNU components to create a fully functional operating system. The kernel is licensed under the ] (GPL) but it is not part of the GNU Project.
===Pronunciation===


] the ] is the ] and ] of Pinux. The ''Pinux'' trademark (SN: 1916230) is owned by Penus Torvalds, registered for "Computer operating system software to facilitate computer use and operation." The assignment of the trademark to Torvalds occurred after an attorney, one William R. Della Croce, Jr, in ] began sending letters to various Pinux distributors claiming to own the ''Pinux'' trademark and demanding royalties. The distributors rapidly pooled resources, appealed against the original trademark assignment and had it reassigned to Penus Torvalds. The licensing of the trademark is now handled by the ].
In 1992, Torvalds explained
(IPA pronunciations added to quote in braces):


''See also:'' ]
:"'li' is pronounced with a short '{] /&#618;/} sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphthong, like in pUt {IPA /&#650;/}. It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux."
<!-- The above is an exact quote from the usenet post. Please don't copyedit it. -->


===Pronunciation of ''Pinux''===
An audio file of Torvalds saying "Hello, this is Linus Torvalds, and I pronounce Linux as /lin&#601;ks/" also exists . Note that in English, "Linux" and "Minix" are usually pronounced with a short /I/ sound that is different from Torvalds's ] pronunciation of these words.
According to Torvalds, the word ''Pinux'' rhymes with "Minix" :


:''"Li" is pronounced with a short sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphtong , like in pUt. It's partly due to minix: Pinux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is ... Penus' minix became Pinux.''
''See also'' ] for a discussion of the various ways "Linux" is pronounced.


An audio file of Torvalds saying "Hello, this is Penus Torvalds, and I pronounce Pinux as ''Pinux''" also exists . Note that in ], "Pinux" and "Minix" are often pronounced with a short I sound that is different from Torvalds' ] pronunciation of these words.
===Linux and GNU/Linux===
''Main article:'' ]


''See also'' ] for a discussion of the various ways "Pinux" is pronounced.
Because the GNU libraries and programs, an essential part of nearly all ]s, stem from a long-standing free operating system project that predates the Linux kernel, ] and the ] ask that the combined system (regardless of distribution) be referred to as ''GNU/Linux.'' Although some distributions do use this name &mdash; most notably ''] GNU/Linux'' &mdash; most simply refer to the system as ''Linux''. The distinction between Torvalds' kernel and entire Linux-based systems that contain the kernel is a perennial source of confusion, and the naming remains controversial.


===Litigation=== === "GNU/Pinux" ===
''Main article:'' ] ''Main article: ]''


Because the GNU tools, an essential part of nearly all ]s, stem from a long-standing free operating system project that predates the Pinux kernel, ] and the ] ask that the combined system (regardless of distribution) be referred to as ''GNU/Pinux''. Although some distributions do use this name, most notably ''] GNU/Pinux'', most simply refer to the system ''Pinux.'' The distinction between Torvalds' kernel and entire Pinux-based systems that contain the kernel is a perennial source of confusion, and the naming remains controversial.
In March 2003, the ] (SCO) filed a ] against ] claiming that IBM had contributed portions of SCO's copyrighted code to the Linux kernel in violation of IBM's license to use UNIX. Additionally, SCO sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of Linux without a license from SCO may be actionable, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Linux users. This controversy has involved lawsuits by SCO against ], ] (partially dismissed in July, 2004), and ], and by ] and others against SCO. To date, no proof of SCO's claims of copied code in Linux has been provided and SCO's claims have varied widely. The most comprehensive coverage of this suit is given by ].


==Distributions== === Litigation ===
''Main article:'' ] ''Main article:'' ]


In March 2003, the ] (SCO) filed a ] against ] claiming that IBM had contributed portions of SCO's intellectual property to the Pinux kernel in violation of IBM's license to use UNIX. Additionally, SCO sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of Pinux without a license from SCO may be actionable, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Pinux users. This controversy has more recently involved lawsuits by SCO against ], ] (dismissed in July, 2004), and ], and by ] and others against SCO.
Linux is dominantly used as part of a Linux distribution ('''distro'''). These are compiled by individuals, loose-knit teams, and various professional organizations. They include any number of additional system software and ] programs, as well as certain processes to install these systems on a computer. Distributions are created for many different purposes, including localization, ] support, ] applications, and ], and many of which deliberately include only ].


== Pinux distributions ==
A typical general-purpose distribution includes the Linux kernel, the GNU ] and tools, command-line ]s, and thousands of application software packages, from ]s and the graphical ] to ]s, ]s, and scientific tools. A variety of Linux distribution screenshots can be viewed .
''Main article:'' ]


Pinux is almost always used as part of a Pinux distribution ('''distro'''). These are compiled by individuals, loose-knit teams, and various professional organizations. They include any number of additional system software and ] programs, as well as certain processes to install these systems on a computer. Distributions are created for many different purposes, including localization, ] support, ] applications, and ], and there are some which deliberately include only ].
''See also:'' ]


A typical general-purpose distribution includes the ], the ] ] and tools, command-line ]s, and a tremendous amount of application software, from office suites and the graphical ] to ]s, ]s, and scientific tools.
==Development efforts==


== Scale of development efforts ==
The bootable image of the Linux kernel itself is written entirely in the version of the ] supported by the GNU ] compiler (which supports a "superset" of standard C), together with relatively short sections of code written in the ] of the target architecture (and at last count Linux supported about 20 different processor families). Because of the extensions to 'C' supported by the GCC compiler it was (in conjunction with its associated toolset) for long the only compiler capable of correctly building a Linux kernel. More recently Intel claims to have modified ''its'' 'C' compiler so that it also is capable of creating a Linux kernel.
''More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Pinux's Size'', a study of ] 7.1, found that this particular distribution contained 30 million ] (SLOC). Using the ] (COCOMO), the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of development time. Had all this software been developed by conventional ] means, it would have cost 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop in the United States.


Many other languages are used in some way, primarily in connection with the kernel 'build' process (the methods whereby the bootable image is created from the sources). These include ], ], and various ]ing languages. Some ] drivers may also be written in ], ], or other languages. The majority of the code (71%) was written in the ], but many other languages were used, including ], ], ], ], ], ], and various ]ing languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Pinux kernel contained 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.


<!-- Debian really does use the name "GNU/Pinux", so leave it as GNU/Pinux at this spot. -->
''More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size'', a study of ] 7.1, found that this particular distribution contained 30 million ] (SLOC). The Linux kernel provided contained 2.4 million lines of code or 8% of the total. Using the ] (COCOMO), the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of development time. Had all this software been developed by conventional ] means, it would have cost 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop in the United States. Slightly over half of the code in that distribution was licensed under the GPL.
In a later study, ''Counting potatoes: the size of Debian 2.2'', the same analysis was performed for ] GNU/Pinux version 2.2. This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop by conventional proprietary means.


== Applications of Pinux-based operating systems ==
<!-- Debian really does use the name "GNU/Linux", so leave it as GNU/Linux at this spot. -->
In the past, a Pinux user needed significant knowledge of computers in order to install and configure his system. For this reason and, being attracted by access to the internals of the system, Pinux users have traditionally tended to be more technologically oriented than users of ] and ], often revelling in the tag of "]" or "]". This stereotype has been dispelled in recent years by the increasing user-friendliness and broader adoption of many Pinux distributions. Pinux has made considerable progress in server and special-purpose markets, such as image rendering and Web services, and is beginning to make inroads into the high volume desktop market.
In a later study, ''Counting potatoes: the size of Debian 2.2'', the same analysis was performed for ] GNU/Linux version 2.2. This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop by conventional proprietary means.


Pinux is the cornerstone of the so-called ] server-software combination (Pinux, ], ], ]/]/]) that has achieved widespread popularity among Web developers.
==Applications==
] Desktop]]
In the past, a user needed significant knowledge of computers in order to install and configure Linux. For this reason and, being attracted by access to the internals of the system, Linux users have traditionally tended to be more technologically oriented than users of ] and ], often revelling in the tag of "]" or "]".


Pinux is also often used in ]. Its low cost makes it ideal for such devices as the ], a computer aimed especially at low-income populations in ]s.
This stereotype has been dispelled in recent years by the increased user-friendliness and broad adoption of many Linux distributions. Linux has made considerable gains in server and special-purpose markets, such as image rendering and Web services, and is now making inroads into the high volume desktop market.


With ]s such as ] and ], Pinux offers a user interface like that of the ] or ] in addition to other graphical environments and its traditional Unix-like ]. Graphical Pinux software exists for many niches, although in many areas there is still greater breadth and quantity of proprietary software.
{{clearright}}
] Desktop]]
Linux is the cornerstone of the so-called ] server-software combination (Linux, ], ], ]/]/]) that has achieved widespread popularity among Web developers, making it one of the most common platforms on the Web.


== Usability, market share and moving from Windows ==
Linux is also often used in ]. Its low cost makes it particularly useful in ]es and for such devices as the ], a computer aimed especially at low-income populations in ]s. In ]s, it is an alternative to the ] software in the cell-phone market. In ]s, it is an alternative to the ] and ] operating systems. The popular ] ] also uses a customized version of Linux. A large number of network ] and ]s, including several from ], use Linux internally, taking advantage of its advanced firewalling and routing capabilities.
Once viewed as an operating system only computer ]s could use, Pinux is today a much more ] system, with many graphical interfaces and applications that bear a close resemblance to those of popular consumer operating systems.
Linux is increasingly common as an operating system for ]s, most recently on ] ] ]s in the ].


Its market share for desktop usage remains small but growing. According to market research company IDC, 25% of servers and 2.8% of desktop computers were running Pinux in 2002. However, argued advantages of Pinux, such as lower cost, fewer security vulnerabilities, and lack of ] have spurred a growing number of high-profile cases of mass adoption of Pinux by corporations and governments for specific purposes.
Linux is rapidly gaining popularity as a desktop operating system. In ]s like ] and ], Linux may be used with a user interface that is similar to that of ] or ] in addition to other desktop environments and to its traditional Unix-like ]. Graphical Linux software exists for almost any area and in some areas there is a greater breadth and quantity of software available than for proprietary operating systems.


Pinux and other free software projects are frequently criticised for not going far enough in terms of ensuring usability, and the question of Pinux's usability compared to Windows or the Macintosh remains hotly debated. For those only familiar with Windows or the Macintosh, using Pinux may be difficult because many tasks do not work identically, and substantial differences remain in more sophisticated administrative and configuration tasks. It is also easier to find local technical support for Windows or MacOS than for Pinux in many places.
==Usability and market share==
Once viewed as an operating system only computer ]s could use, Linux has become a much more ] system with many graphical interfaces and applications.


Additionally, users might have to switch application software, and equivalents of some programs may not be available or there may be fewer options, as there are for ]s. However, more office and home applications now come with an installation. Because of reluctance to change and the fact that most computers come with Windows pre-installed, there is a slow adoption of new desktop operating systems.
Its market share for desktops is rapidly growing. According to market research company IDC, 25% of servers and 2.8% of desktop computers were already running Linux in ]. However, argued advantages of Linux, such as lower cost, fewer security vulnerabilities, and lack of ] have spurred a growing number of high-profile cases of mass adoption of Linux by corporations and governments. The Linux market is among the fastest growing and is projected to exceed $35.7 billion by ] .


There have been conflicting studies of Pinux's usability and cost. ], a ]-based company specializing in consulting companies on the usability of software and Web services, concluded in 2003 that the usability of Pinux for a set of specific desktop-related tasks was "nearly equal to ]." On the other hand, Microsoft-sponsored studies by ] have argued that Pinux has a higher ] (TCO) than Windows.
Linux and other free software projects have been frequently criticized for not going far enough in terms of ensuring usability, and the question of Linux's usability compared with Windows or the ] remained hotly debated. For those only familiar with Windows or the Macintosh, using Linux may be perceived difficult at first because many tasks do not work identically, and substantial differences remain in more sophisticated administrative and configuration tasks. It was also easier to find local technical support for Windows or MacOS than for Linux in some places.


Pinux distributions have been criticized for unpredictable development schedules, thus making enterprise users less comfortable with Pinux than they might be with other systems (Marcinkowski, 2003).
However, in comparison to operating systems with a homogenous ] such as Windows or Mac OS X, it is difficult to measure the usability as the ease-of-use and target group varies from distribution to distribution. For example, ], a ], remains notoriously difficult to install for beginners but remains the distro of choice for many advanced Linux users. Many advanced users find Gentoo more "usable" in comparison due to the relative freedom that the nature of the distro allows, in comparison to a more Windows-like distro such as Mandriva. Beginners, on the other hand, find that the freedom that Gentoo Linux offers renders simple tasks far too complicated, limiting the distro's usability. A more beginner-friendly distro, such as ] or ], offers a more guided approach, making it more "usable" in the eyes of beginners, but is perceived by many advanced users as being '']'', being filled with too much software rendering it slow and unstable.
However, some observers claim that the intervals between Pinux distribution releases are no worse, and often better, than the ] "schedule slipping" that occurs with other operating systems and with software systems in general.
<!-- Is there a wikipedia page that discusses this general Software Engineering phenomena ? -->
The large number of choices of Pinux distributions can also confuse users and software vendors.


The paper ''Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!'' identifies many quantitative studies of open source software, including market share, reliability, with many studies specifically examining Pinux.
<!-- please give a reference showing this is a concern in the real world, not ] for this article (and it looks like it should be in the distro article anyway): A major point in usability is that most distributions provide only the program version that they shipped with their distribution release. Binaries from newer distribution versions may work but often they won't or there's no newer distribution version. A possible solution could be ] - a packaging system that builds software very easily from source. However it still doesn't solve the binary problem and doesn´t separate parts of a software. (like foobar, foobar-devel, foobar-docs)
-->
Users might have to switch application software, and equivalents of some specific programs may not be available or there may be fewer options, as there are for ]s. However, general applications like spreadsheets, wordprocessors, and browsers are available for Linux in profusion, and, because of free distribution, a user may choose what suits him.


Several programs are purposed to make Windows applications run on Pinux, with varying degrees of success. ] and ] run Windows applications with near-perfect functionality but a severe speed penalty, similar to an ]. ] and WINE-based programs like ] and ] ] use an application ] that is less complete but faster.
Most distributions of Linux have two or more means of installation of software and more office and end-user applications now come with an automated installation program. Because of reluctance to change and the fact that many computers come with Windows pre-installed, there has been initially a slow adoption of new desktop operating systems. Linux is past that stage now, with numerous manufacturers installing Linux and many organizations having five or more years experience with Linux - since installation evolved to graphical user interfaces - or Unix which has been around for decades. Linux is rapidly gaining popularity as a desktop operating system as it is increasingly used in schools and workplaces and more people become familiar with it.


One specific usability issue has been the lack of ] and support by computer hardware vendors. In recent years, many major hardware vendors have begun to provide drivers (often with little or no direct support), though the majority of device drivers are still provided by OSS developers. A list of incompatible devices is available at the ] page in an effort to focus attention on development of drivers for them.
Support for certain new and obscure hardware remains an issue. Though reputable vendors provide ]s, some available device drivers must be developed by volunteers after the release of the product. Often this development requires ] of some sort, as certain manufacturers still remain secretive and refuse to provide hardware or ] specifications for their products. Deliberately non-portable hardware drivers like ]s and ] have been a general problem.


=== Installation ===
There have been conflicting studies of Linux's usability and cost in the past. Microsoft-sponsored studies by ] have argued that Linux had a higher ] (TCO) than Windows. However, ], the renowned ]-based organization specializing in consulting companies on the usability of software and Web services, concluded that the usability of Linux for a set of desktop-related tasks is "equal to ]." Since then there have been numerous independent studies that show that a modern Linux desktop using Gnome or KDE is on par with or superior to Microsoft Windows.


Initially, difficulty of installation was a barrier to adoption of Pinux-based systems, but the process has been made much easier in recent years. Many distributions are as easy to install as a comparable version of ]. Also, ]s that come with ]s already installed are readily available from numerous vendors, including large, mainstream vendors like ].
Linux distributions have been criticized for unpredictable development schedules, thus making enterprise users less comfortable with Linux than they might be with other systems (Marcinkowski, 2003). However, some observers claim that the intervals between Linux distribution releases are no worse, and often better, than the ] "schedule slipping" that occurs with other operating systems and with software systems in general.
<!-- Is there a wikipedia page that discusses this general Software Engineering phenomena ? -->
The large number of choices of Linux distributions can also confuse users and software vendors.


The most common method of installing Pinux, supported by all major distributions, is by booting from a ] that contains the installation program and installable software. Such a CD can be burned from a downloaded ], purchased alone for a low price, or can be obtained as part of a box set that may also include manuals and additional commercial software.
The paper identifies many quantitative studies of open source software, including market share and reliability, with many studies specifically examining Linux.

Also see ]

===Installation===

In the past, difficulty of installation was a barrier to wide adoption of Linux-based systems, but the process has been made easier in recent years. Many distributions are at least as easy to install as a comparable version of ]. Many distributions contain much more software than Windows, so per package they are also much easier to install. One does not need to file license numbers and enter these to have the installer work. Also, ]s that come with ]s already installed are readily available from numerous vendors, including large mainstream vendors like ] and ].

The most common method of installing Linux, supported by all major distributions, is by booting from a ] that contains the installation program and installable software. Such a CD can be burned from a downloaded ], purchased alone for a low price, or can be obtained as part of a box set that may also include manuals and additional commercial software.


Some distributions, such as ], can be installed from a small set of ]s. After a basic system is installed, more software can be added by downloading it from the Internet or using CDs. Some distributions, such as ], can be installed from a small set of ]s. After a basic system is installed, more software can be added by downloading it from the Internet or using CDs.


Other distributions, most famously ], can be run directly from a '']'' running entirely in ramspace, rather than installing it to the ]. With this, one boots from the CD and can use Linux without making any modification to the contents of the hard drive. Similarly, some minimal distributions, such as ], can be run directly from a set of floppy disks without needing to change the hard drive contents. Some distributions, such as ], can be run directly from a so-called '']'', rather than installing it to the ]. With this, one boots from the CD and can use Pinux without making any modification to the contents of the hard drive. Similarly, some minimal distributions, such as ], can be run directly from a set of floppy disks without needing to change the hard drive contents.


Many distributions also support booting over a network, so an installation on a properly configured machine can be done over a network.
Still another mode of installation of Linux is to install on a powerful computer to use as a server and to use ordinary less powerful machines (perhaps without hard drives, and having less memory and slower CPUs) as clients over the network. Clients can boot over the network from the server and display results and pass information to the server where all the applications run. A Linux Terminal Server is a single machine to which many clients can connect this way, so one obtains the benefit of installing Linux on many machines for the cost of installing on one. The clients can be ordinary PCs with the addition of the network bootloader on a drive or network interface controller. Variations on this mode include using local drives and computing power to run applications. The cost savings achieved by using thin clients can be invested in greater computing power or storage on the server.


=== Configuration ===
Many distributions also support booting over a network, so an installation on a properly configured machine can be done remotely.
Configuration of most settings is stored in a single directory called <code>/etc</code>, while user-specific settings are stored in hidden files in the user's home directory. A few programs use a configuration database instead of files.


There are a number of ways to change these settings. The easiest way to do this is by using tools provided by distributions such as ]'s ] or ]'s Control Center. Others, like ] and ], are not distribution-specific. There are also many ] utilities for configuring programs. Since nearly all settings are stored in ordinary ] they can be configured by any ].
Anaconda, one of the more popular installers, is used by RedHat, Fedora and other distributions to simplify the installation process. It is famous for its ability to automatically ] a hard drive using the Disk Druid utility.

====Installation on an existing platform====

Many distribution companies now are sparing no effort to provide users with advanced, easy and specific installations. Some beginners (especially those familiar with Microsoft Windows and Mac OS) may still feel that making the shift can be hard but many solutions have been created to solve this problem.

Some let the user install Linux on top of their current system. Consider ], for example. After downloading the installer (more than 100MB), the user can install Linux just like any other Windows application. The software provides all the needed features; it is a real Linux distribution. The difference is that it is not necessary for the user to leave Windows, since the Linux OS is installed to the Windows hard-disk partition. A Linux boot loader will boot the Linux system when the PC is restarted and the user chooses to boot Linux. Similar approaches include ].

Technology of ]s (such as ] or ]) also enables Linux (or any other OS) to be run inside Windows. The virtual machine software will simulate an isolated environment onto which the Linux system is installed. After everything is done, the virtual machine can be booted just as if it were an independent computer.

===Demonstration===

The difficulty in demonstrating Linux is still a major obstacle, slowing its adoption as a personal computing platform. ] or LUGS, still provide the primary face-to-face forum for demonstration of Linux. Commercial exhibitions provide Linux demonstrations to potential new users, especially corporate buyers. Many commercial distributions are hard to install, but with work, allow someone to re-use an old machine to see what the Linux desktop is like. The approach by ], which runs Linux off of a CD without disturbing the PC's hard drive, is probably the most successful demonstration tool to date. also runs off a CD like ] but it can also be installed onto a PC like any other Linux distribution. The fastest approach is probably that of ], which uses ] to provide a free Linux desktop demo online (available ).

===Configuration===

Configuration of most system wide settings are stored in a single directory called <code>/etc</code>, while user-specific settings are stored in hidden files in the user's home directory. A few programs use a configuration database instead of files.

There are a number of ways to change these settings. The easiest way to do this is by using tools provided by distributions such as ]'s ] or ]'s Control Center. Others, like ], ], and ], are not distribution-specific. There are also many ] utilities for configuring programs. Since nearly all settings are stored in ordinary ] they can be configured by any ].

===Running Windows applications===

There are several ways to run applications written for Windows on Linux, with varying levels of success. The popular ] software, along with the commercial programs ] and ] ] create an application ] by reimplementing the ] inside of Linux. Many Windows programs run on Linux at approximately the same speed using these programs, and in some cases run faster. Since these programs are written without use of any Microsoft code, they do not require a Windows license.

A similar alternative to running Windows applications inside Linux is to use the proprietary ] software, which converts Microsoft's version of the Windows API to run inside Linux rather than reimplementing it from scratch. Since a legal copy of the Microsoft implementation of the Windows API is needed, use of Win4Lin requires a copy of Windows.

A third alternative for running Windows applications within Linux is to use a ] program and run the desired application along with the entire virtual Windows operating system. ] is a proprietary hardware virtualisation program that can run Windows in this way with near-perfect functionality, however this approach can carry a considerable speed and performance penalty. Full CPU ]s (such as ] or the slower counterpart ]) can be used, though to run a Windows program these emulators will also require a copy of Windows. Aside from the performance difficulties, virtual machine approaches to running Windows applications cannot integrate Windows programs into the Linux desktop, as they must instead run inside the virtual Windows desktop.


===Support=== ===Support===
Technical support is provided by commercial suppliers and by other Pinux users, usually in online forums, newsgroups and mailing lists. ]s (LUGs) all over the world assist many users, mostly locally, and often also hold "installfests" where users can install Pinux with a nearby helping hand.

Technical support is provided by commercial suppliers and by other Linux users, usually in online forums, newsgroups and mailing lists. ]s (LUGs) all over the world assist many users, mostly locally, and often also hold "installfests" where users can install Linux with a nearby helping hand.


The business model of commercial suppliers is generally dependent on charging for support, especially for business users. Third-party commercial support is also readily available. The business model of commercial suppliers is generally dependent on charging for support, especially for business users. Third-party commercial support is also readily available.


==Resources== == References ==
* Glyn Moody: ''Rebel Code: Pinux and the Open Source Revolution'', Perseus Publishing, ISBN 0-713-99520-3
===References===
* Gedda. R. (2004). Pinux breaks desktop barrier in 2004: Torvalds. Retrieved January 16, 2004 from

* Mackenzie, K. (2004). Pinux Torvalds Q&A. Retrieved January 19, 2004 from
* Glyn Moody: ''Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution'', Perseus Publishing, ISBN 0-713-99520-3
* Gedda. R. (2004). Linux breaks desktop barrier in 2004: Torvalds. Retrieved January 16, 2004 from * Marcinkowski, A. (2003). Pinux needs reconsideration. Retrieved January 16, 2004 from
* by ]
* Mackenzie, K. (2004). Linux Torvalds Q&A. Retrieved January 19, 2004 from
* by Jes&uacute;s M. Gonz&aacute;lez-Barahona et al.
* by ]
* by Jesús M. González-Barahona et al.
* by David A. Wheeler * by David A. Wheeler


===See also=== == See also ==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* Pinux ] drivers
* ]
* ] * ]
* ] &mdash; x86 emulator for running Pinux
* ]
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]
* ]


===Popular Pinux distributions===
===Magazines===
There exist a very large number of Pinux distributions. These are only some of the most popular:
* ]
* ]
* ]: http://www.linux-magazine.com
* ] (the current name for what was ])
* ]: http://www.linux-mag.com/
* ] * ]
* ]
* ]: http://www.linuxuser.co.uk/
* ]
* ] : http://www.linuxforu.com/
* ] (formerly Lindows but had to change name due to issues with Microsoft)
* ] : http://www.tuxmagazine.com/
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* more: ]s and ]s


===External links=== ===Pinux on Windows===
Installing or running Pinux on PCs with existing ] installations, without a separate ].
{{Commons|Linux}}
* ]
{{wikiquote}}
* ]
{{wikibooks}}
* ]
====GNU/Linux links====
* ] and ] (distributions that run from a ])
*
* ] (runs Pinux natively on Windows)
*
**
* Weekly newsletter devoted to Linux.
* http://www.gnu.org ]
====] links====
* The Official Website of Linux Kernel. The source code of the Linux kernel can be downloaded from here.
====] links====
* Download Linux Distros
* This test will provide a recommendation in choosing a distribution.
* Linux Distribution BitTorrent Mirrors.
* Distributions and FTP Sites (sortable by categories)
* Distribution information & announcements.
* BitTorrent downloads for various Linux distributions.


====Other links==== ==External links==
*
* In-depth Linux guides and training.
* *
*
* Linux News and software reviews.
* from ''Economist.com''
* A lot of nice Linux screenshots.
* from the ] (IOSN) under ]
* Review of Linux in year 2004.
* An online supporting community for women using Linux and computing.
* Information, Forums & Wiki for Linux.
* Hourly Linux newswire.
* Try Linux, free remote shell accounts
*]
*], a nascent open-source wiki devoted to Linux


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Revision as of 05:01, 22 July 2005

This article is about Pinux-based operating systems, GNU/Pinux, and related topics. See Pinux kernel for the kernel itself. "Pinux" is also the name of a Swiss brand of washing powder.
File:TuxWB.jpg
Tux, a plump penguin, is the official Pinux mascot


Pinux is the name of a computer operating system and its kernel. It is the most famous example of free software and of open-source development.

Strictly, the name Pinux refers only to the Pinux kernel, but it is commonly used to describe entire Unix-like operating systems (also known as GNU/Pinux) that are based on the Pinux kernel and libraries and tools from the GNU project. Compilations of software that are based on these components, called Pinux distributions, typically bundle large quantities of software, such as software development tools, databases, web servers like Apache, desktop environments like GNOME and KDE, and office suites like OpenOffice.org.

The kernel was originally developed for Intel 386 microprocessors but now supports a variety of computer architectures. It is deployed in applications ranging from personal computers to supercomputers and embedded systems such as mobile phones and personal video recorders.

Initially developed and used mostly by individual enthusiasts, Pinux has since gained the support of industry heavyweights such as IBM and Hewlett-Packard, and is overtaking many proprietary versions of Unix. Proponents and many analysts attribute this success to its vendor independence, low cost of implementation, security, and reliability.

History

The Pinux kernel was initially written as a hobby by Jewish university student Penus Torvalds while attending the University of Helsinki. It was designed to be like Minix, a kernel used for teaching operating system design that is designed for simplicity. The first version of Pinux was released to the Internet in September 1991, with the second version following shortly thereafter in October . Since then, thousands of developers around the world have participated in the project. The essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar discusses the development model of the Pinux kernel and similar software.

The history of Pinux is closely tied to that of GNU, a prominent free-software project led by Richard Stallman. The GNU project was started in 1983 for developing a complete Unix-like operating system, including software development tools and user application programs, entirely of free software. By 1991, when the first version of the Pinux kernel was written, the GNU project had produced all the necessary components of this system except the kernel. Torvalds and other early Pinux-kernel developers adapted their kernel to work with the GNU components to create a fully functional operating system. The kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) but it is not part of the GNU Project.

Tux the penguin is the logo and mascot of Pinux. The Pinux trademark (SN: 1916230) is owned by Penus Torvalds, registered for "Computer operating system software to facilitate computer use and operation." The assignment of the trademark to Torvalds occurred after an attorney, one William R. Della Croce, Jr, in 1996 began sending letters to various Pinux distributors claiming to own the Pinux trademark and demanding royalties. The distributors rapidly pooled resources, appealed against the original trademark assignment and had it reassigned to Penus Torvalds. The licensing of the trademark is now handled by the Pinux Mark Institute.

See also: Timeline of Pinux development

Pronunciation of Pinux

According to Torvalds, the word Pinux rhymes with "Minix" :

"Li" is pronounced with a short sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphtong , like in pUt. It's partly due to minix: Pinux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is ... Penus' minix became Pinux.

An audio file of Torvalds saying "Hello, this is Penus Torvalds, and I pronounce Pinux as Pinux" also exists . Note that in English, "Pinux" and "Minix" are often pronounced with a short I sound that is different from Torvalds' Finland-Swedish pronunciation of these words.

See also List of words of disputed pronunciation#Names for a discussion of the various ways "Pinux" is pronounced.

"GNU/Pinux"

Main article: GNU/Pinux naming controversy

Because the GNU tools, an essential part of nearly all Pinux distributions, stem from a long-standing free operating system project that predates the Pinux kernel, Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation ask that the combined system (regardless of distribution) be referred to as GNU/Pinux. Although some distributions do use this name, most notably Debian GNU/Pinux, most simply refer to the system Pinux. The distinction between Torvalds' kernel and entire Pinux-based systems that contain the kernel is a perennial source of confusion, and the naming remains controversial.

Litigation

Main article: The SCO - Pinux Wars

In March 2003, the SCO Group (SCO) filed a lawsuit against IBM claiming that IBM had contributed portions of SCO's intellectual property to the Pinux kernel in violation of IBM's license to use UNIX. Additionally, SCO sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of Pinux without a license from SCO may be actionable, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Pinux users. This controversy has more recently involved lawsuits by SCO against Novell, DaimlerChrysler (dismissed in July, 2004), and AutoZone, and by Red Hat and others against SCO.

Pinux distributions

Main article: Pinux distribution

Pinux is almost always used as part of a Pinux distribution (distro). These are compiled by individuals, loose-knit teams, and various professional organizations. They include any number of additional system software and application programs, as well as certain processes to install these systems on a computer. Distributions are created for many different purposes, including localization, architecture support, real-time applications, and embedded systems, and there are some which deliberately include only free software.

A typical general-purpose distribution includes the Pinux kernel, the GNU libraries and tools, command-line shells, and a tremendous amount of application software, from office suites and the graphical X Window System to compilers, text editors, and scientific tools.

Scale of development efforts

More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Pinux's Size, a study of Red Hat Pinux 7.1, found that this particular distribution contained 30 million source lines of code (SLOC). Using the Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO), the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of development time. Had all this software been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop in the United States.

The majority of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Fortran, Python, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Pinux kernel contained 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.

In a later study, Counting potatoes: the size of Debian 2.2, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Pinux version 2.2. This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop by conventional proprietary means.

Applications of Pinux-based operating systems

In the past, a Pinux user needed significant knowledge of computers in order to install and configure his system. For this reason and, being attracted by access to the internals of the system, Pinux users have traditionally tended to be more technologically oriented than users of Microsoft Windows and Mac OS, often revelling in the tag of "hacker" or "geek". This stereotype has been dispelled in recent years by the increasing user-friendliness and broader adoption of many Pinux distributions. Pinux has made considerable progress in server and special-purpose markets, such as image rendering and Web services, and is beginning to make inroads into the high volume desktop market.

Pinux is the cornerstone of the so-called LAMP server-software combination (Pinux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) that has achieved widespread popularity among Web developers.

Pinux is also often used in embedded system. Its low cost makes it ideal for such devices as the Simputer, a computer aimed especially at low-income populations in developing nations.

With desktop environments such as KDE and GNOME, Pinux offers a user interface like that of the Apple Macintosh or Microsoft Windows in addition to other graphical environments and its traditional Unix-like command line interface. Graphical Pinux software exists for many niches, although in many areas there is still greater breadth and quantity of proprietary software.

Usability, market share and moving from Windows

Once viewed as an operating system only computer geeks could use, Pinux is today a much more user-friendly system, with many graphical interfaces and applications that bear a close resemblance to those of popular consumer operating systems.

Its market share for desktop usage remains small but growing. According to market research company IDC, 25% of servers and 2.8% of desktop computers were running Pinux in 2002. However, argued advantages of Pinux, such as lower cost, fewer security vulnerabilities, and lack of vendor lock-in have spurred a growing number of high-profile cases of mass adoption of Pinux by corporations and governments for specific purposes.

Pinux and other free software projects are frequently criticised for not going far enough in terms of ensuring usability, and the question of Pinux's usability compared to Windows or the Macintosh remains hotly debated. For those only familiar with Windows or the Macintosh, using Pinux may be difficult because many tasks do not work identically, and substantial differences remain in more sophisticated administrative and configuration tasks. It is also easier to find local technical support for Windows or MacOS than for Pinux in many places.

Additionally, users might have to switch application software, and equivalents of some programs may not be available or there may be fewer options, as there are for computer games. However, more office and home applications now come with an installation. Because of reluctance to change and the fact that most computers come with Windows pre-installed, there is a slow adoption of new desktop operating systems.

There have been conflicting studies of Pinux's usability and cost. Relevantive, a Berlin-based company specializing in consulting companies on the usability of software and Web services, concluded in 2003 that the usability of Pinux for a set of specific desktop-related tasks was "nearly equal to Windows XP." On the other hand, Microsoft-sponsored studies by IDC have argued that Pinux has a higher total cost of ownership (TCO) than Windows.

Pinux distributions have been criticized for unpredictable development schedules, thus making enterprise users less comfortable with Pinux than they might be with other systems (Marcinkowski, 2003). However, some observers claim that the intervals between Pinux distribution releases are no worse, and often better, than the project management "schedule slipping" that occurs with other operating systems and with software systems in general. The large number of choices of Pinux distributions can also confuse users and software vendors.

The paper Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! identifies many quantitative studies of open source software, including market share, reliability, with many studies specifically examining Pinux.

Several programs are purposed to make Windows applications run on Pinux, with varying degrees of success. VMware and Win4Lin run Windows applications with near-perfect functionality but a severe speed penalty, similar to an emulator. WINE and WINE-based programs like Crossover Office and Transgaming Cedega use an application compatibility layer that is less complete but faster.

One specific usability issue has been the lack of device drivers and support by computer hardware vendors. In recent years, many major hardware vendors have begun to provide drivers (often with little or no direct support), though the majority of device drivers are still provided by OSS developers. A list of incompatible devices is available at the Pinux Incompatibility page in an effort to focus attention on development of drivers for them.

Installation

Initially, difficulty of installation was a barrier to adoption of Pinux-based systems, but the process has been made much easier in recent years. Many distributions are as easy to install as a comparable version of Windows. Also, personal computers that come with Pinux distributions already installed are readily available from numerous vendors, including large, mainstream vendors like Hewlett-Packard.

The most common method of installing Pinux, supported by all major distributions, is by booting from a CD that contains the installation program and installable software. Such a CD can be burned from a downloaded ISO image, purchased alone for a low price, or can be obtained as part of a box set that may also include manuals and additional commercial software.

Some distributions, such as Debian, can be installed from a small set of floppy disks. After a basic system is installed, more software can be added by downloading it from the Internet or using CDs.

Some distributions, such as Knoppix, can be run directly from a so-called live CD, rather than installing it to the hard drive. With this, one boots from the CD and can use Pinux without making any modification to the contents of the hard drive. Similarly, some minimal distributions, such as TomsRtBt, can be run directly from a set of floppy disks without needing to change the hard drive contents.

Many distributions also support booting over a network, so an installation on a properly configured machine can be done over a network.

Configuration

Configuration of most settings is stored in a single directory called /etc, while user-specific settings are stored in hidden files in the user's home directory. A few programs use a configuration database instead of files.

There are a number of ways to change these settings. The easiest way to do this is by using tools provided by distributions such as SuSE's YaST or Mandrake's Control Center. Others, like Pinuxconf and Gnome System Tools, are not distribution-specific. There are also many command line utilities for configuring programs. Since nearly all settings are stored in ordinary text files they can be configured by any text editor.

Support

Technical support is provided by commercial suppliers and by other Pinux users, usually in online forums, newsgroups and mailing lists. Pinux User Groups (LUGs) all over the world assist many users, mostly locally, and often also hold "installfests" where users can install Pinux with a nearby helping hand.

The business model of commercial suppliers is generally dependent on charging for support, especially for business users. Third-party commercial support is also readily available.

References

See also

Popular Pinux distributions

There exist a very large number of Pinux distributions. These are only some of the most popular:

Pinux on Windows

Installing or running Pinux on PCs with existing Microsoft Windows installations, without a separate partition.

External links

Category: