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{{Infobox Former Country
Clearly, Lange (concerned chiefly with issues of ethnicity and political developments) and Hunwick (keeping linguistic groupings and economics in view) differ on virtually every major point, from the location of the several proposed Gaos, to the identity of the ruling dynasties, to the fundamental chronology of Songhay history itself. However, the resulting controversy about the origins of Songhay should not lead us to despair of ever reconstructing the early history of this state satisfactorily. Rather, it is a vivid example of an exciting stage in the evolution of medieval African historiography, and a challenge to consider even more carefully and imaginatively the evidence at hand.Songhay, the major empire of the Western Sudan by the mid-fifteenth century A.D., presents a fascinating story of complex relationships between trade, Islam, and political ideologies. Originally a satellite state of Mali, this region of fisher folk on the eastern Niger would take advantage of Malian decline to establish an independent state under the leadership of powerful askiyas. Songhai government reached a high point in the sixteenth century, and possessed an elaborate and effective administrative system. The end of Songhai, however, came quickly, as a result of outside forces and development in world history far beyond the control of any single state.The particulars of these developments are not only difficult to trace, but have also become the focal point for a lively scholarly debate. Two sides of the argument have been advanced most recently by John Hunwick and Dierk Lange. A review of their often conflicting models of early Songhay history vividly illustrates the many uncertainties which still hinder a fuller understanding of medieval Africa a thousand years ago.
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name = Songhai Empire
|common_name = Songhai Empire
|continent = Africa
|region = North-West Africa
|country = Mali
|status = Empire
|government_type = Monarchy
|
|year_start = 1375
|year_end = 1591
|
|event_start = Songhai permanently free of Mali Empire
|date_start = <!--- Optional: Date of establishment, eg. ],]--->
|event_end = Songhai empire destroyed by Morocco
|date_end = <!--- Optional: Date of disestablishment --->
|
|event1 = Songhai begins military expansion
|date_event1 = 1460
|event2 = Sonni dynasty overthrown
|date_event2 = 1493
|event3 =
|date_event3 =
|
|event_pre = Songhai state emerges at Gao
|date_pre = c.1000
|
|event_post = Songhai establish ]
|date_post = 1592
|
|<!--- Flag navigation: Preceding and succeeding entities p1 to p5 and s1 to s5 --->
|p1 = Mali Empire
|flag_p1 = <!--- Default: "Flag of {{{p1}}}.svg" (size 30) --->
|image_p1 = <!--- Use if image size needs to be reduced --->
|s1 = Dendi Kingdom
|s2 = Morocco
|flag_s2 = Flag of Morocco.svg
|flag_s1 = <!--- Default: "Flag of {{{s1}}}.svg" (size 30) --->
|image_s1 = <!--- Use if image size needs to be reduced --->
|
|image_flag = <!--- Default: Flag of {{{common_name}}}.svg --->
|flag = <!--- Link target under flag image. Default: Flag of {{{common_name}}} --->
|flag_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under flag. Default "Flag" --->
|
|image_coat = <!--- Default: Coat of arms of {{{common_name}}}.svg --->
|symbol = <!--- Link target under symbol image. Default: Coat of arms of {{{common_name}}} --->
|symbol_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under symbol. Default "Coat of arms" --->
|
|image_map = SONGHAI empire map.PNG
|image_map_caption = The Songhai Empire, (ca. 1500)
|
|capital = ]
|
|national_motto =
|national_anthem =
|common_languages = ]
|religion = Islam
|currency = ]<br><small>(gold, salt and copper were also common in the empire)</small>
|
|<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies --->
|leader1 = Unknown <small>(first)</small>
|leader2 = ] <small>(last)</small>
|year_leader1 = c. 1375
|year_leader2 = 1588-1591
|title_leader = ]; later ]
|
|<!--- Area and population of a given year --->
|stat_year1 = 1500
|stat_area1 = 1400000
|stat_pop1 =
|stat_year2 =
|stat_area2 =
|stat_pop2 =
|stat_year3 =
|stat_area3 =
|stat_pop3 =
|stat_year4 =
|stat_area4 =
|stat_pop4 =
|stat_year5 =
|stat_area5 =
|stat_pop5 =
}}


The '''Songhai Empire''', also known as the '''Songhay Empire''' was a '''pre-colonial''' African state centered in eastern ]. From the early 15th to the late ], Songhai was one of the largest ] in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the ]. Its capital was the city of ], where a small Songhai state had existed since the ]. Its base of power was on the bend of the ] in present-day ] and ].
Dierk Lange, relying not only on the Tarikhs (the Tarikh as-Sudan and the Tarikh al-Fattash), kinglists, and Arabic source narratives, but also on oral traditions and etymologies of western Sudanic terms and titles, argues that the Niger bend was ethnically and culturally under the sway of the powerful state of Mali until the fifteenth century A.D., when Sorko or Songhay warriors arrived to conquer Gao.1 In this scenario, the original Dia or Za (also known as Kanta or Qanda) line of rulers in Gao were ethnically Mande, hence Malian in origin, but for a time politically independent of the expanding state of Mali to the west. A thousand years ago, the Za ruled in Old Gao, the administrative and ceremonial center of their court on the left or north bank of the Niger River. Then, around 1080, Almoravid Berber traders seized power in Old Gao from their trading base in nearby Gao-Sané. Known as the Zaghe, this Berber dynasty (whose members Lange identifies as ancestors of the Sunni who would later rise to power in Songhay) took over with little violence, and intermarried extensively with the Mande Zas who had previously ruled Old Gao. This process of ethnic assimilation was so complete that by the mid-thirteenth century the Zaghe adopted the title of Za; some tensions would remain between the two royal lines, however. Mali's outright conquest of the region by 1300 further reinforced the continuity of Mande influence by strengthening the position of the old (Mande) Za line. This Malian domination of the eastern Niger bend would be challenged seriously for the first time only with the coming of large numbers of Sorko (Songhay) warriors in the early 1400s. The invaders came from Kebbi to the southeast, which was the original home of the Songhay. According to Lange, they may even have been called in by the Zaghe (Sunni) clan to assist in the Zaghe's struggle against the Za. In any case, this Songhay invasion caused to "a major ethnic disruption" which led to Mali's loss of Gao and to the subsequent Sunni rise to power, culminating in the reign of the Songhay ruler Sunni Ali.

John Hunwick rejects both Lange's etymological methodology and premises of ethnicity. Reading the Tarikhs and other Arabic written sources closely, and assuming that language groupings are inherently more sound than categorizations based on ethnicity, Hunwick proposes a model of early Songhay development along the following lines.2 Gao began well over a thousand years ago (possibly in the 700s A.D.) on the right or southern bank of the Niger as a trading camp used by Sorko fishermen and hippopotamus hunters. The Sorko, who can be identified by language as Songhay, had strong ties to the core Songhay region of Dendi to the south, as well as to the important early Songhay town of Kukiya on the Niger, downstream from Gao. Although the Sorko camp, on the opposite side of the river from routes leading into and out of the Sahara, was thus protected from raids by desert nomads, its presence tempted these same nomads to establish more peaceful trading contacts. Berber merchants brought salt from the Sahara to this early Gao, in return from grain, textiles, slaves, and other items. Such economic activity also benefited Kukiya, whose increasingly powerful Songhay-speaking Za rulers began to subject surrounding regions to the control of their Kukiya court. And the Berber merchants (now Islamized) for their part set up a permanent base on the left or northern bank of the Niger at what would become Gao-Sané, in order to trade even more efficiently with right-bank Gao. Probably by the ninth century, the Songhay rulers of Kukiya themselves moved to right-bank Gao, in order to benefit even more directly--and to oversee more closely--commerce in Gao, which by this time was becoming both the center of a rising Za-Songhay state and an important link in the wider trans-Saharan trading network. With the coming of Islam to the Gao court sometime around the turn of the millennium, still closer ties were forged between the newly converted Za rulers and the Muslim Berbers on the other (left or northern) side of the river; Arabic sources indicate that the two groups even shared a common place of prayer. Late in the eleventh century, Almoravid Berber newcomers seized power in Gao-Sané, but soon disappeared, either absorbed into the existing Berber community or departing for Saharan regions to the east. By the 1100s, the right-bank Za moved permanently to the left bank, filling the power vacuum created by the Almoravid departure and establishing a royal court at what would later be known as Old Gao (though Gao-Sané continued to exist as a trading post nearby). The Za fell from power by 1300, when Mali gained control of Gao; what was left of the Za dynasty retreated to old Songhay base of Kukiya further down the Niger. With Mali's decline in the fifteenth century, the Sunni rulers in Kukiya, possibly descended from the Za, reclaimed Gao as the center of a reborn Songhay state.
Prior to the Songhai Empire, the region had been dominated by the ]. Mali grew famous due to its immense riches obtained through trade with the Arab world, and the legendary ] of ]. By the early ], the Mali Empire began to decline. Disputes over succession weakened the crown and many subjects broke away. The Songhai were one of them, making the prominent city of ] their new capital.

The ] are thought to have settled at Gao as early as 800 A.D., but did not establish it as the capital until the 11th century, during the reign of ''Dia'' Kossoi. However, the Dia dynasty soon gave way to the Sunni, preceding the ascension of Sulaiman-Mar, who gained independence and hegemony over the city and was a forbearer of ]. Mar is often credited with wresting power away from the Mali Empire and gaining independence for the then small Songhai kingdom.

Sonni Ali quickly established himself as the empire's most formidable military strategist and conqueror. He took advantage of the decline of the Mali empire, leading his armies on a series of conquests. His empire expanded to eventually eclipse Mali, covering a kingdom that encompassed more landmass than all of western Europe and, to date, was the largest empire that Africa has ever seen.

==Sonni Dynasty==
The first great king of Songhai was ]. Ali was a ] like the Mali kings before him. He was also an efficient warrior who, in the 1460s, conquered many of the Songhai's neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. With his control of critical trade routes and cities such as Timbuktu, Sonni Ali brought great wealth to the Songhai Empire, which at its height would surpass the wealth of Mali.

During his campaigns for expansion, Sonni Ali conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the ] to the south and overcoming the ] people to the north, before ultimately annexing Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested his assistance in overthrowing marauding ]s who had overtaken the city subsequent to the decline of Mali.<ref>Sonni ʿAlī.(2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite.Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Sonni however, immediately met stark resistance after setting his eyes on the wealthy and renowned trading town of ]. Only after much persistence and a seven-month siege was he able to forcefully incorporate it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved them into surrender, allowing no entrance into or exit out of the city.

While a ] in faith, Ali did not impose Islamic policy on non-Islamic peoples and instead, allowed and acknowledged the observance of traditional African religion and practices as well. Mainly due to his violent sack of Timbuktu, in many Islamic accounts, he was described as an intolerant ]. Islamic historian, Al-Sa'df expresses this sentiment in describing his incursion on Timbuktu:


{{Cquote|Sonni Ali entered Timbuktu, committed gross iniquity, burned and destroyed the town, and brutally tortured many people there. When Akilu heard of the coming of Sonni Ali, he brought a thousand camels to carry the fugahd' of ] and went with them to ]..... The Godless tyrant was engaged in slaughtering those who remained in Timbuktu and humiliated them.}}<ref>The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol 5: University Press, 1977, pp421</ref>


In Oral tradition, he is often known as a powerful magician. Whatever the case may have been, Sonni's legend consists of him being a fearless conqueror who united a great empire, sparking a legacy that is still intact today. Under his reign, Djenne and Timbuktu were on their way to becoming the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world.

==Askia Dynasty==
]
When Sonni Ali passed away, his son, Sonni Baru, took the throne. People worried because Sonni Baru had made it very clear that he was not Muslim, or Islamic. This worried the people because they feared that he would cut off all of the trade with Muslim Islands.
Askia Muhammad Toure, the leader of a rebellion against Sonni Baru, over threw Sonni Ali's son. When he took the crown, he changed his name to Askia the Great.
Under Askia the Great's rule, education in the Songhai Empire, especially Timbuktu, flourished. He built a university in Timbuktu for students. Djenn‘e also became a center of learning.

==Songhai Economic Structure==
Safe economic trade existed throughout the Empire, due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to the regional economy were the gold fields of the ]. The Songhai Empire would trade with these nearby but independent gold fields; salt was so precious in the region that the people of West Africa would sometimes be prepared to trade gold for equal quantities of salt. 80 percent of the people lived on small, family-owned farms no more than 10 acres large. The trans-Saharan trade consisted primarily of gold, salt, and slaves. The ''Julla'' (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants, and the port cities on the Niger. It was a very strong trading kingdom, known for its production of practical crafts as well as religious artifacts.

The Songhai economy was based on a traditional caste system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided their occupation. The most common castes were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working slaves, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were nobleman and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans.<ref>Olson, James Stuart. The Ethnic Dimension in American History. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1979</ref>

==Criminal Justice==
Criminal justice in Songhai was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Muhammad Ture. Ture appointed various ministerial positions, notably the minister of foreign relations, who was responsible for the well being of the ''Korei-Farma'', or "white minorities". In addition to this was the local Cadis ], or judges whose responsibility was to maintain order by enforcing Sharia law under Islamic doctrine, according to the ]. An additional Cadi was noted as a necessity in order to settle minor disputes between immigrant merchants. Kings usually did not judge a defendant; however, under special circumstances, such as acts of treason, they felt an obligation to do so and thus exert their authority. Results of a trial were announced by the "town crier" and punishment for most trivial crimes usually consisted of confiscation of merchandise or even imprisonment, since various prisons existed throughout the empire.<ref>Lady Lugard:1906199-200</ref>

Cadis worked at the local level and were positioned in important trading towns, such as ] and ]. The ''Assara-munidios'', or "enforcers" worked along the lines of a police commissioner whose sole duty was to execute sentencing. Jurists were mainly composed of those representing the academic community; professors were often noted as taking administrative positions within the empire and many aspired to be Cadis.<ref></ref>

==Government==
Upper classes in society converted to ] while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. ] was the educational capital. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia Muhammad, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states, situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy.<ref>Iliffe, John, op cit., p.72</ref>

Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile, usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today's central bureaucrats.

Under Askia Muhammad, the empire saw increased centralization. He encouraged learning in ] by rewarding its professors with larger pensions as an incentive. He also established an order of precedence and protocol and was noted as a noble man who gave back generously to the poor. Under his Islamic policies, Muhammad brought much stability to Songhai and great attestations of this noted organization is still preserved in the works of ]in writers such as ], among others.

==Zenith==
At its greatest extent, the Songhai lands reached far down the Niger river into modern day Nigeria itself, all the way to the Northeast of modern day Mali, and even to a small part of the Atlantic ocean in the West. There were large cities such as Gao and Timbuktu, though 80% of the population remained in small family-owned farm houses. Songhai would continue to prosper until late into the 16th century, reaching its height under the long and peaceful rule of Askia Dauoud.

==Decline==
Following Dauoud's death, a civil war of succession weakened the Empire, leading ] ] ] to dispatch an invasion force under the eunuch ]. ] was a ] by birth, but had been captured as an infant and educated at the Moroccan court. After a cross-]n march, Judar's forces razed the salt mines at ] and moved on ]; when ] (r. 1588-1591) met Judar at the 1591 ], Songhai forces were routed by a cattle stampede triggered by the Moroccans' ] weapons despite vastly superior numbers. Judar proceeded to sack Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power. Governing so vast an empire proved too much for the Moroccans, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms.

==Rulers of the Songhai Empire==
The Songhai state has existed in one form or another for over a thousand years if one traces its rulers from the first settlement in Gao to its semi-vassal status under the Mali Empire through its continuation in Niger as the Dendi Kingdom. Below are list of the kings according to the period they occupied..

===Za Dynasty in Kukiya===
There were 14 Za dynasty rulers in the early period of Songhai history.

*]: 690s
*]: 700s
*] a.k.a. ] :710s
*] a.k.a. ]:720s
*]:730s
*]: 740s
*]:750s
*]: 760's
*]: 770's
*]: 770's
*]: 780's
*]: 780-785
*]: 786-789
*]: 791

===Za Dynasty in Gao===
Za Kusoy is the first Songhai ruler to convert to Islam. He also turns the small kingdom of Gao into a Muslim state. Gao begins to attract North African merchants under his reign.
*]: 1000s
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: 1150s
*UNKNOWN NUMBERS AND NAMES OF KINGS: 1150s-1275

===Sunni Dynasty in Gao===
According to Stride and Ifeka's Peoples and Empires of West Africa, Gao fell under the indirect control of the Mali Empire during the reign of ]. In around 1275, an official of Mali fled to Gao established his own dynasty. The kings of the dynasty were called Sunni or Sonni meaning "replacement" or "liberator" kings. Gao had to be continuously attacked to keep the new Sunni dynasty paying tribute, first by Mansa Sakura and later by General Sagmandir under Mansa Musa. Around 1375, Songhai became fully independent of Mali. And by 1420, Songhai was strong enough to exact tribute from Masina. In all, the Sunni dynasty would cound 18 kings.

*]: circa 1275
*]:
*]: ????-????
*]: circa 1320
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: circa 1275
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: 1410s-1440s
*]: 1440s-1464
*]: 1464-1492
*]: 1492-1493

===Askiya Dynasty in Gao===
In 1493, ] the Great deposes the brother of Sunni Ali. The sister of the deposed monarch cries out at Toure the word "Askiya" meaning usurper. Toure adopts the moniker as the title of his new dynasty.
*]: 1493-1528
*]: 1528-1531
*]: 1531-1537
*]: 1537-1539
*]: 1539-1549
*] a.k.a. ]: 1549-1582
*]: 1582-1586
*]: 1586-1588
*]: 1588-1591
*Moroccan Conquest: 1591

===Askiya Dynasty in Lulami===
After the ], Moroccan forces destroy the Songhai Empire in Mali. The askiya dynasty survives however and flees to their native Dendi region of Niger. They set up a new capital at Lulami and continue all the traditions of the Songhai Empire.

*]: 1591-1598
*]: 1598-????
*]: ????- ????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: ????-????
*]: 1700s-1761
*]: 1761-1779
*]: 1779-1793
*]: 1793
*]: 1793-1798
*]: 1798-1805 (2nd time)
*]: 1805-1823
*]: 1823-1842
*] a.k.a. ]: 1842-1845
*]: 1845-1864
*]: 1864-1865
*]: 1865-1868
*]: 1868-1882
*]: 1882-1887
*]: 1887-1901
*French conquest: 1901

==See also==
*]
*]
*]
*]

==References==
<references/>

==Bibliography==
*Cissoko, S. M., ''Timbouctou et l'empire songhay'', Paris 1975.
*Hunwick, J., ''Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire'', Leiden 2003.
*Lange, D., ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa'', Dettelbach 2004 (the book has a chapter titled "The Mande factor in Gao history", pp. 409-544).

==External links==
* &mdash; BBC World Service

]
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Revision as of 18:33, 25 February 2008

Songhai Empire
1375–1591
The Songhai Empire, (ca. 1500)The Songhai Empire, (ca. 1500)
CapitalGao
Common languagesSonghai
Religion Islam
GovernmentMonarchy
Sonni; later Askiya 
• c. 1375 Unknown (first)
• 1588-1591 Askia Ishaq II (last)
History 
• Songhai state emerges at Gao c.1000
• Songhai permanently free of Mali Empire 1375
• Songhai begins military expansion 1460
• Sonni dynasty overthrown 1493
• Songhai empire destroyed by Morocco 1591
• Songhai establish Dendi Kingdom 1592
Area
15001,400,000 km (540,000 sq mi)
CurrencyCowries
(gold, salt and copper were also common in the empire)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Mali Empire
Dendi Kingdom
Morocco

The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire was a pre-colonial African state centered in eastern Mali. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest African empires in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhai. Its capital was the city of Gao, where a small Songhai state had existed since the 11th century. Its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present-day Niger and Burkina Faso.

Prior to the Songhai Empire, the region had been dominated by the Mali Empire. Mali grew famous due to its immense riches obtained through trade with the Arab world, and the legendary hajj of Mansa Musa. By the early 15th century, the Mali Empire began to decline. Disputes over succession weakened the crown and many subjects broke away. The Songhai were one of them, making the prominent city of Gao their new capital.

The Songhai are thought to have settled at Gao as early as 800 A.D., but did not establish it as the capital until the 11th century, during the reign of Dia Kossoi. However, the Dia dynasty soon gave way to the Sunni, preceding the ascension of Sulaiman-Mar, who gained independence and hegemony over the city and was a forbearer of Sunni Ali Ber. Mar is often credited with wresting power away from the Mali Empire and gaining independence for the then small Songhai kingdom.

Sonni Ali quickly established himself as the empire's most formidable military strategist and conqueror. He took advantage of the decline of the Mali empire, leading his armies on a series of conquests. His empire expanded to eventually eclipse Mali, covering a kingdom that encompassed more landmass than all of western Europe and, to date, was the largest empire that Africa has ever seen.

Sonni Dynasty

The first great king of Songhai was Sonni Ali. Ali was a Muslim like the Mali kings before him. He was also an efficient warrior who, in the 1460s, conquered many of the Songhai's neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. With his control of critical trade routes and cities such as Timbuktu, Sonni Ali brought great wealth to the Songhai Empire, which at its height would surpass the wealth of Mali.

During his campaigns for expansion, Sonni Ali conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and overcoming the Dogon people to the north, before ultimately annexing Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested his assistance in overthrowing marauding Tuaregs who had overtaken the city subsequent to the decline of Mali. Sonni however, immediately met stark resistance after setting his eyes on the wealthy and renowned trading town of Djenne. Only after much persistence and a seven-month siege was he able to forcefully incorporate it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved them into surrender, allowing no entrance into or exit out of the city.

While a Muslim in faith, Ali did not impose Islamic policy on non-Islamic peoples and instead, allowed and acknowledged the observance of traditional African religion and practices as well. Mainly due to his violent sack of Timbuktu, in many Islamic accounts, he was described as an intolerant tyrant. Islamic historian, Al-Sa'df expresses this sentiment in describing his incursion on Timbuktu:


Sonni Ali entered Timbuktu, committed gross iniquity, burned and destroyed the town, and brutally tortured many people there. When Akilu heard of the coming of Sonni Ali, he brought a thousand camels to carry the fugahd' of Sankore and went with them to Walata..... The Godless tyrant was engaged in slaughtering those who remained in Timbuktu and humiliated them.


In Oral tradition, he is often known as a powerful magician. Whatever the case may have been, Sonni's legend consists of him being a fearless conqueror who united a great empire, sparking a legacy that is still intact today. Under his reign, Djenne and Timbuktu were on their way to becoming the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world.

Askia Dynasty

Tomb of Askia

When Sonni Ali passed away, his son, Sonni Baru, took the throne. People worried because Sonni Baru had made it very clear that he was not Muslim, or Islamic. This worried the people because they feared that he would cut off all of the trade with Muslim Islands. Askia Muhammad Toure, the leader of a rebellion against Sonni Baru, over threw Sonni Ali's son. When he took the crown, he changed his name to Askia the Great. Under Askia the Great's rule, education in the Songhai Empire, especially Timbuktu, flourished. He built a university in Timbuktu for students. Djenn‘e also became a center of learning.

Songhai Economic Structure

Safe economic trade existed throughout the Empire, due to the standing army stationed in the provinces. Central to the regional economy were the gold fields of the Niger River. The Songhai Empire would trade with these nearby but independent gold fields; salt was so precious in the region that the people of West Africa would sometimes be prepared to trade gold for equal quantities of salt. 80 percent of the people lived on small, family-owned farms no more than 10 acres large. The trans-Saharan trade consisted primarily of gold, salt, and slaves. The Julla (merchants) would form partnerships, and the state would protect these merchants, and the port cities on the Niger. It was a very strong trading kingdom, known for its production of practical crafts as well as religious artifacts.

The Songhai economy was based on a traditional caste system. The clan a person belonged to ultimately decided their occupation. The most common castes were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working slaves, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were nobleman and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and slaves obligated to labor, especially in farming. James Olson describes the labor system as resembling modern day unions, with the empire possessing craft guilds that consisted of various mechanics and artisans.

Criminal Justice

Criminal justice in Songhai was based mainly, if not entirely, on Islamic principles, especially during the rule of Muhammad Ture. Ture appointed various ministerial positions, notably the minister of foreign relations, who was responsible for the well being of the Korei-Farma, or "white minorities". In addition to this was the local Cadis qadis, or judges whose responsibility was to maintain order by enforcing Sharia law under Islamic doctrine, according to the Qu'ran. An additional Cadi was noted as a necessity in order to settle minor disputes between immigrant merchants. Kings usually did not judge a defendant; however, under special circumstances, such as acts of treason, they felt an obligation to do so and thus exert their authority. Results of a trial were announced by the "town crier" and punishment for most trivial crimes usually consisted of confiscation of merchandise or even imprisonment, since various prisons existed throughout the empire.

Cadis worked at the local level and were positioned in important trading towns, such as Timbuktu and Djenne. The Assara-munidios, or "enforcers" worked along the lines of a police commissioner whose sole duty was to execute sentencing. Jurists were mainly composed of those representing the academic community; professors were often noted as taking administrative positions within the empire and many aspired to be Cadis.

Government

Upper classes in society converted to Islam while lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sermons emphasized obedience to the king. Timbuktu was the educational capital. Sonni Ali established a system of government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia Muhammad, which appointed governors and mayors to preside over local tributary states, situated around the Niger valley. Local chiefs were still granted authority over their respective domains as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy.

Tax was imposed onto peripheral chiefdoms and provinces to ensure the dominance of Songhai, and in return these provinces were given almost complete autonomy. Songhai rulers only intervened in the affairs of these neighboring states when a situation became volatile, usually an isolated incident. Each town was represented by government officials, holding positions and responsibilities similar to today's central bureaucrats.

Under Askia Muhammad, the empire saw increased centralization. He encouraged learning in Timbuktu by rewarding its professors with larger pensions as an incentive. He also established an order of precedence and protocol and was noted as a noble man who gave back generously to the poor. Under his Islamic policies, Muhammad brought much stability to Songhai and great attestations of this noted organization is still preserved in the works of Maghrebin writers such as Leo Africanus, among others.

Zenith

At its greatest extent, the Songhai lands reached far down the Niger river into modern day Nigeria itself, all the way to the Northeast of modern day Mali, and even to a small part of the Atlantic ocean in the West. There were large cities such as Gao and Timbuktu, though 80% of the population remained in small family-owned farm houses. Songhai would continue to prosper until late into the 16th century, reaching its height under the long and peaceful rule of Askia Dauoud.

Decline

Following Dauoud's death, a civil war of succession weakened the Empire, leading Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to dispatch an invasion force under the eunuch Judar Pasha. Judar Pasha was a Spaniard by birth, but had been captured as an infant and educated at the Moroccan court. After a cross-Saharan march, Judar's forces razed the salt mines at Taghaza and moved on Gao; when Askia Ishaq II (r. 1588-1591) met Judar at the 1591 Battle of Tondibi, Songhai forces were routed by a cattle stampede triggered by the Moroccans' gunpowder weapons despite vastly superior numbers. Judar proceeded to sack Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné, destroying the Songhai as a regional power. Governing so vast an empire proved too much for the Moroccans, and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms.

Rulers of the Songhai Empire

The Songhai state has existed in one form or another for over a thousand years if one traces its rulers from the first settlement in Gao to its semi-vassal status under the Mali Empire through its continuation in Niger as the Dendi Kingdom. Below are list of the kings according to the period they occupied..

Za Dynasty in Kukiya

There were 14 Za dynasty rulers in the early period of Songhai history.

Za Dynasty in Gao

Za Kusoy is the first Songhai ruler to convert to Islam. He also turns the small kingdom of Gao into a Muslim state. Gao begins to attract North African merchants under his reign.

Sunni Dynasty in Gao

According to Stride and Ifeka's Peoples and Empires of West Africa, Gao fell under the indirect control of the Mali Empire during the reign of Sundiata. In around 1275, an official of Mali fled to Gao established his own dynasty. The kings of the dynasty were called Sunni or Sonni meaning "replacement" or "liberator" kings. Gao had to be continuously attacked to keep the new Sunni dynasty paying tribute, first by Mansa Sakura and later by General Sagmandir under Mansa Musa. Around 1375, Songhai became fully independent of Mali. And by 1420, Songhai was strong enough to exact tribute from Masina. In all, the Sunni dynasty would cound 18 kings.

Askiya Dynasty in Gao

In 1493, Muhammad Toure the Great deposes the brother of Sunni Ali. The sister of the deposed monarch cries out at Toure the word "Askiya" meaning usurper. Toure adopts the moniker as the title of his new dynasty.

Askiya Dynasty in Lulami

After the Battle of Tondibi, Moroccan forces destroy the Songhai Empire in Mali. The askiya dynasty survives however and flees to their native Dendi region of Niger. They set up a new capital at Lulami and continue all the traditions of the Songhai Empire.

See also

References

  1. Sonni ʿAlī.(2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite.Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
  2. The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol 5: University Press, 1977, pp421
  3. Olson, James Stuart. The Ethnic Dimension in American History. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1979
  4. Lady Lugard:1906199-200
  5. Pre-Colonial Criminal Justice In West Africa
  6. Iliffe, John, op cit., p.72

Bibliography

  • Cissoko, S. M., Timbouctou et l'empire songhay, Paris 1975.
  • Hunwick, J., Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Leiden 2003.
  • Lange, D., Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa, Dettelbach 2004 (the book has a chapter titled "The Mande factor in Gao history", pp. 409-544).

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