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| ] in 1922. The mask appears in the background of the National Geographic forensic image (below left).]] | |||
| '''Tutankhamun''' (alternate ] '''Tutankhamen'''), named '''Tutankhaten''' early in his life, was ] of the ] (ruled ]/] – ], lived ca. ] – ]), during the period known as the ]. His original name, Tutankhaten, meant "Living Image of ]", while Tutankhamun meant "Living Image of ]". He is possibly also the ''Nibhurrereya'' of the ]. | |||
| Tutankhamun (or "'''King Tut'''") is perhaps best known to modern Westerners as the only pharaoh to have had a (nearly) intact ] (]) discovered. (The wealth of objects discovered in this young king's tomb naturally leads to speculation on what might have been contained in the plundered tombs of far more significant Pharaohs.) However, he is historically important as well. | |||
| == Life == | |||
| Tutankamun's parentage is uncertain. An inscription calls him a king's son, but it is debated which king was meant. Most scholars consider that he was probably a son either of ] (though probably not by his Great Royal Wife ]), or of Amenhotep III's son Amenhotep IV (better known as ]), perhaps with his enigmatic second queen, ]. It should be noted that when Tutankhaten succeeded Akhenaten to the throne, Amenhotep III had been dead for some time; the duration is thought by some ]s to have been seventeen years, although on this, as on so many questions about the ] period, there is no scholarly consensus. Tutankhamun ruled Egypt for eight to ten years; examinations of his ] show that he was a young adult when he died.Recent CT scans place Tut at age 19. This conclusion was reached after images of Tut's teeth were examined, and were found to be consistent with the teeth of a 19 year old. (see national geographic magazine website.)That would place his birth around ]-], and would make it less likely that Amenhotep III was his father. | |||
| During Tutankhamun's reign, Akhenaten's ] revolution (]) began to be reversed. Akhenaten had attempted to supplant the existing priesthood and gods with a god who was until then considered minor, ]. In year 3 of Tutankhamun's reign (]), when he was still a boy of about 11 and probably under the influence of two older advisors (notably Akhenaten's vizier ]), the ban on the old ] of ]s and their ]s was lifted, the traditional privileges restored to their priesthoods, and the capital moved back to ]. The young pharaoh also adopted the name Tutankhamun, changing it from his birth name Tutankhaten. Because of his age at the time these decisions were made, it is generally thought that most if not all the responsibility for them falls on his vizier ] and perhaps other advisors. | |||
| Tutankhamun was married to ], a daughter of Akhenaten. Ankhesenpaaten also changed her name from the -'''aten''' endings to the -'''amun''' ending, becoming Ankhesenamun. They had two known children, both stillborn – their mummies were discovered in his tomb. | |||
| === Name === | |||
| {{Hiero/2cartouche|align=right|era=nk|name=Tutankhamun|praenomen=<hiero>ra:nb-xpr-Z2</hiero>|nomen=<hiero>i-mn:n-t:w:t-anx-HqA-O28-Sma</hiero>}} | |||
| Under ], Tutankhamun was named Tutankhaten, which in ] is: | |||
| <hiero><-i-t:n:ra-t:w:t-anx-></hiero> | |||
| Technically, this name is ] as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉtn. | |||
| At the reintroduction of the old pantheon, his name was changed. It is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉmn ḥq3-ỉwnw-šmˁ, and often realised as '''Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema''', meaning "Living image of ], ruler of Southern ]". On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a ''praenomen''. This is transliterated as nb-ḫprw-rˁ, and realised as '''Nebkheperure''', meaning "Lord of the forms of ]". | |||
| == Death == | |||
| The cause of Tutankhamun's death was unknown at first. An ] of his ] has revealed a dense spot at the lower back of the ]. This had been interpreted as a chronic ], which would have been caused by a blow. Such an injury could have been the result of an accident, but it had also been suggested that the young pharaoh was ]ed. If this is the case, there are a number of theories as to who was responsible: one popular candidate is his immediate successor ]. Interestingly, there are seemingly signs of ] within the supposed injury, which if true means that Tutankhamun lived for a fairly extensive period of time (on the order of several months) after the injury was inflicted. | |||
| Much confusion has been caused by a small loose sliver of bone within the upper cranial cavity, which was discovered from the same X-ray analysis. Some people have mistaken this visible bone fragment for the supposed head injury. In fact, since Tutankhamun's brain was removed ''post mortem'' in the mummification process, and considerable quantities of now-hardened ] introduced into the skull on at least two separate occasions after that, had the fragment resulted from a pre-mortem injury, it almost certainly would not still be loose in the cranial cavity. It therefore almost certainly represents post-mummification damage. | |||
| On ], ], Egyptian archaeologist ] revealed the results of a ] performed on the pharaoh's mummy. The scan uncovered no evidence for a blow to the back of the head as well as no evidence suggesting ]. There was a hole in the head, but it appeared to have been drilled, presumably by ]s. A fracture to Tutankhamun's left thighbone was interpreted as evidence that suggests the pharaoh badly broke his leg before he died, and his leg became infected; however, members of the Egyptian-led research team recognized as a less likely possibility that the fracture was caused by the embalmers. 1,700 images were produced of Tutankhamun's mummy during the 15-minute CT scan. | |||
| Also in ], a team of Egyptian scientists confirmed that Tutankhamun died of a swift attack of ] after breaking his leg. After consultations with ] and ] experts, the Egyptian scientists found that a fracture in Tutankhamun's left leg a day before his death was infected with gangrene and led to his death. The fracture was not sustained during the mummification process or as a result of some damage to the mummy as claimed by ]. The Egyptian scientists have also found no evidence that he had been struck in the head and no other indication he was killed, as had been previously speculated. | |||
| == Events after his death == | |||
| A now-famous letter to the ] king ] from a widowed queen of Egypt, explaining her problems and asking for one of his sons as a husband, has been attributed to ] (among others). Suspicious of this good fortune, Suppiluliumas I first sent a messenger to make inquiries on the truth of the young queen's story. After reporting her plight back to Suppilulumas I, he sent his son, ], accepting her offer. However, he got no further than the border before he died, perhaps murdered. If Ankhesenamun were the queen in question, and his death a murder, it was probably at the orders of ] or ], who both had the opportunity and the motive. | |||
| In any event, after Tutankhamun's death, Ankhesenamun married Ay, possibly under coercion, and shortly afterwards disappeared from recorded history. | |||
| Tutankhamun was briefly succeeded by the elder of his two advisors, Ay, and then by the other, ], who obliterated most of the evidence of the reigns of ], Tutankhamun, and Ay. | |||
| == Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb == | |||
| ] | |||
| :''See also ]'' | |||
| Tutankhamun's existence is believed to have been mostly forgotten at some point not too long after his death, until the ]. It has been suggested that his tomb was never opened, by either ]s or priests, exactly because he and it had been forgotten. | |||
| The ] ] (employed by ]) discovered Tutankhamun's tomb (since designated ]) in ] on ], ] near the entrance to the tomb of ], thereby setting off a renewed interest in all things Egyptian in the modern world. Carter contacted his patron, and on ] that year both men became the first people to enter Tutankhamun's tomb in over 3000 years. After many weeks of careful excavation, on ], ] Carter opened the inner chamber and first saw the ] of Tutankhamun. | |||
| For many years, rumors of a "]" (probably fueled by newspapers at the time of the discovery) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicates no ] difference between the age of death of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived past 70. | |||
| ] ] games were found in the tomb . | |||
| == Forensic reconstruction of his face == | == Forensic reconstruction of his face == | ||
| ]] sealing his internal organs; |
]] sealing his internal organs; a cue to his complexion?]]] | ||
| In ], three teams of scientists, in partnership with ], were able to develop history's most accurate likenesses of the ancient Egyptian king. The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 ] ]s of the pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams were given plastic molds created from these. | In ], three teams of scientists, in partnership with ], were able to develop history's most accurate likenesses of the ancient Egyptian king. The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 ] ]s of the pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams were given plastic molds created from these. | ||
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| Both the French and Egyptian teams knew the identity of the subject whose face they were vividly reconstructing -- the Americans did not. All three teams created a ] ] bearing what exhaustive ] and ] research reveal to be the most accurate and life-like depictions of Tutankhamun since 1,500 ]. The mold was produced by placing a silicone "skin" on a ] replica of Tutankhamun's skull whose shape was informed by the new CT scans. The details of the placement of his nose and ears were obtained by expertly superimposing forensic ]s over the plastic skull replica, layering them delicately after the natural patterns of intramuscular and subcutaneous facial tissue. | Both the French and Egyptian teams knew the identity of the subject whose face they were vividly reconstructing -- the Americans did not. All three teams created a ] ] bearing what exhaustive ] and ] research reveal to be the most accurate and life-like depictions of Tutankhamun since 1,500 ]. The mold was produced by placing a silicone "skin" on a ] replica of Tutankhamun's skull whose shape was informed by the new CT scans. The details of the placement of his nose and ears were obtained by expertly superimposing forensic ]s over the plastic skull replica, layering them delicately after the natural patterns of intramuscular and subcutaneous facial tissue. | ||
| Recently one ] roots-empowerment group, largely inspired by ] comments in ], protested the ]'s resultant depiction of the boy king, alleging that his complexion would have been much darker. However, conclusive determination of such a characteristic is presently beyond the scope of science, though the frequent use of bright ]s and ]s in his busts do seem to give us some hint. Regardless, all assertions in this regard can be nothing but wholesale ] |
Recently one ] roots-empowerment group, largely inspired by ] comments in ], protested the ]'s resultant depiction of the boy king, alleging that his complexion would have been much darker. However, conclusive determination of such a characteristic is presently beyond the scope of science, though the frequent use of bright ]s and ]s in his busts do seem to give us some hint. Regardless, all assertions in this regard can be nothing but wholesale ], akin to similar speculation on the color and texture of ] skin. Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs and a presenter at the new traveling exhibit, commented on ]: | ||
| "The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We'll never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the color of his eyes with 100 percent certainty. | "The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We'll never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the color of his eyes with 100 percent certainty. | ||
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| One thing the new CT-based reconstruction gives us without doubt is the first accurate glimpse of King Tut's facial ''topography'' since he walked the sands of ]. | One thing the new CT-based reconstruction gives us without doubt is the first accurate glimpse of King Tut's facial ''topography'' since he walked the sands of ]. | ||
| ==Tutankhamun in popular culture== | |||
| *Tutankhamun has been commemorated in the whimsical song "King Tut" by ] ]. | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * Howard Carter, Arthur C. Mace, ''''. Courier Dover Publications, June 1, 1977, ISBN 0486235009 | |||
| ** the semi-popular account of the discover and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible | |||
| * C. Nicholas Reeves, ''The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure''. London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990, ISBN 0500050589 (hardcover)/ISBN 0500278105 (paperback) | |||
| ** fully covers the complete contents of his tomb | |||
| * T. G. H. James, ''Tutankhamun''. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, September 1, 2000, ISBN 1586630326 (hardcover) | |||
| ** a large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the ], filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects | |||
| * | |||
| Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Sarwat Okasha (Preface), ''Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh''. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0821201514 (1976 reprint, hardcover)/ISBN 0140116656 (1990 reprint, paperback) | |||
| ** a useful early work covering the environment as well as his tomb | |||
| * Thomas Hoving, ''The search for Tutankhamun: The untold story of adventure and intrigue surrounding the greatest modern archeological find''. New York: Simon & Schuster, October 15, 1978, ISBN 0671243055 (hardcover)/ISBN 0815411863 (paperback) | |||
| ** this book details a number of interesting anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb | |||
| * Bob Brier, ''The Murder of Tutankhamen: A True Story''. Putnam Adult, April 13, 1998, ISBN 0425166899 (paperback)/ISBN 0399143831 (hardcover)/ISBN 0613289676 (School & Library Binding) | |||
| ** this book contains useful information about Tutankhamun's medical condition | |||
| * Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, ''Treasures of Tutankhamun''. New York: ], 1976, ISBN 0345273494 (paperback)/ISBN 0670727237 (hardcover) | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * Wired Magazine | |||
| * by Dennis Forbes (KMT 8:3 . FALL . 1997 � KMT Communications) | |||
| * (Mark R Nelson, ''British Medical Journal'' 2002;325:1482-1484) | |||
| * | |||
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| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * E-Learning application covering ancient Egypt's history and the Pharaoh in detail. | |||
| {{Pharaoh | Prev=] | Dynasty=] | Next=]}} | |||
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Revision as of 22:21, 27 July 2005
Forensic reconstruction of his face
In 2005, three teams of scientists, in partnership with National Geographic, were able to develop history's most accurate likenesses of the ancient Egyptian king. The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 three-dimensional CT scans of the pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams were given plastic molds created from these.
Both the French and Egyptian teams knew the identity of the subject whose face they were vividly reconstructing -- the Americans did not. All three teams created a silicon mold bearing what exhaustive archaeological and forensic research reveal to be the most accurate and life-like depictions of Tutankhamun since 1,500 B.C.E. The mold was produced by placing a silicone "skin" on a plastic replica of Tutankhamun's skull whose shape was informed by the new CT scans. The details of the placement of his nose and ears were obtained by expertly superimposing forensic clays over the plastic skull replica, layering them delicately after the natural patterns of intramuscular and subcutaneous facial tissue.
Recently one African American roots-empowerment group, largely inspired by Afrocentric comments in The Autobiography of Malcolm X as Told to Alex Haley, protested the National Geographic Society's resultant depiction of the boy king, alleging that his complexion would have been much darker. However, conclusive determination of such a characteristic is presently beyond the scope of science, though the frequent use of bright golds and alabasters in his busts do seem to give us some hint. Regardless, all assertions in this regard can be nothing but wholesale speculation, akin to similar speculation on the color and texture of dinosaur skin. Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs and a presenter at the new traveling exhibit, commented on June 15, 2005:
"The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We'll never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the color of his eyes with 100 percent certainty.
"Maybe in the future, people will come to a different conclusion."
One thing the new CT-based reconstruction gives us without doubt is the first accurate glimpse of King Tut's facial topography since he walked the sands of ancient Egypt.