Misplaced Pages

Orthomolecular medicine: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 09:13, 31 March 2008 editTheNautilus (talk | contribs)1,377 edits AMA earlier named its targets (DC, naturopaths) on nutrition; does *not* mention orthomed by name anywhere (OR) and "myths" uses seriously loaded stmts - bad ref← Previous edit Revision as of 15:39, 31 March 2008 edit undoTheNautilus (talk | contribs)1,377 edits →History and development: correct ref's formatNext edit →
Line 13: Line 13:


Orthomolecular treatments typically have been experimentally or empirically introduced by physicians or researchers when conventional medical treatments offered neither solution<ref></ref><ref></ref> nor hope.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Orthomolecular treatments typically have been experimentally or empirically introduced by physicians or researchers when conventional medical treatments offered neither solution<ref></ref><ref></ref> nor hope.<ref></ref><ref></ref>
] began to be developed in the early 1950s by a group of biochemists and psychiatrists who identified a number of biochemical abnormalities that they thought were associated with mental illness and treated a number of mental disorders using high dosages of certain vitamins. Concepts frequently utilized in orthomolecular medicine, such as individual biochemical variation.<ref>] (1998) ''Biochemical Individuality: The Basis for the Genetotrophic Concept.'' 2nd ed. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0-87983-893-0 </ref> ],<ref>Stephen F. Mason. ''Chemical Society Reviews'', 26, no. 1 (February 1997). Section 5, Molecular Medicine: “...Garrod in his book, Inborn Error of Metabolism (1909, 1923)” </ref><ref>Menolascino FJ, et al. "Orthomolecular Therapy: Its History and Applicability to Psychiatric Disorders",Child Psychiatry and Human Development'', Vol.18(3), Spring 1988, pp 140-1 </ref><ref> Lois N. Magner '''', Informa Healthcare; 2nd edition (June 23, 2005) ISBN 0824740742 </ref> and exogeneous supply of essential substances in therapy<ref>Beard J. The action of 'trypsin' upon living cells of the Jensen sarcoma. Brit Med J 1906;1:140-141 (Jan. 20, 1906). </ref> debuted in scientific and medical papers early in the 20 th century. Orthomolecular ], such as with tocopherols<ref></ref> and ascorbates,<ref></ref> date back to the 1930s. ] began to be developed in the early 1950s by a group of biochemists and psychiatrists who identified a number of biochemical abnormalities that they thought were associated with mental illness and treated a number of mental disorders using high dosages of certain vitamins. Concepts frequently utilized in orthomolecular medicine, such as individual biochemical variation,<ref>] (1998) ''Biochemical Individuality: The Basis for the Genetotrophic Concept.'' 2nd ed. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0-87983-893-0 </ref> ],<ref>Stephen F. Mason. ''Chemical Society Reviews'', 26, no. 1 (February 1997). Section 5, Molecular Medicine: “...Garrod in his book, Inborn Error of Metabolism (1909, 1923)” </ref><ref>Menolascino FJ, et al. "Orthomolecular Therapy: Its History and Applicability to Psychiatric Disorders", ''Child Psychiatry and Human Development'', Vol.18(3), Spring 1988, pp 140-1 </ref><ref> Lois N. Magner '''', Informa Healthcare; 2nd edition (June 23, 2005) ISBN 0824740742 </ref> and exogeneous supply of essential substances in therapy<ref>Beard J. The action of 'trypsin' upon living cells of the Jensen sarcoma. Brit Med J 1906;1:140-141 (Jan. 20, 1906). </ref> debuted in scientific and medical papers early in the 20 th century. Orthomolecular ], such as with tocopherols<ref></ref> and ascorbates,<ref></ref> date back to the 1930s.


Frederick Klenner (1907 – 1984) was an American medical researcher and doctor in general practice in Reidsville, North Carolina. From the 1940s on he experimented with the use of vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a wide range of illnesses, most notably polio. He authored 28 research papers during his career. He is considered one of the originators of orthomolecular medicine, but his work remains largely unacknowledged by established medicine.<ref> Andrew W. Saul, online reprint from ''J Orthomolecular Med'', 2007. Vol 22, No 1, p 31-38, Accessed October 2007</ref><ref> Lendon H. Smith, M.D., Clinical Guide to the Use of Vitamin C - The Clinical Experiences of Frederick R. Klenner, M.D. . Accessed October 2007.</ref> Frederick Klenner (1907 – 1984) was an American medical researcher and doctor in general practice in Reidsville, North Carolina. From the 1940s on he experimented with the use of vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a wide range of illnesses, most notably polio. He authored 28 research papers during his career. He is considered one of the originators of orthomolecular medicine, but his work remains largely unacknowledged by established medicine.<ref> Andrew W. Saul, online reprint from ''J Orthomolecular Med'', 2007. Vol 22, No 1, p 31-38, Accessed October 2007</ref><ref> Lendon H. Smith, M.D., Clinical Guide to the Use of Vitamin C - The Clinical Experiences of Frederick R. Klenner, M.D. . Accessed October 2007.</ref>

Revision as of 15:39, 31 March 2008

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)

No issues specified. Please specify issues, or remove this template.

(Learn how and when to remove this message)

Template:Biologically based therapy Orthomolecular medicine is a form of complementary and alternative medicine that aims to treat disease by restoring the optimum environment of the body by correcting what proponents argue to be the metabolic imbalances or deficiencies causing disease. It is based on individual biochemistry, using naturally-occurring or bioequivalent (bio)molecules, such as vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, lipotropes, prohormones, dietary fiber and fatty acids. It holds that such imbalances or deficiencies can be prevented and treated by achieving optimum bodily levels of these substances.

The term "orthomolecular medicine" was first described by Linus Pauling in 1967, but concepts frequently utilized in orthomolecular medicine, including individual biochemical variation, inborn error of metabolism, and exogeneous supply of essential substances in therapy date back to the early 20th century. Some conventional therapies use nutrients, such as using niacin to treat dyslipidemia, and some research investigating therapeutic uses of nutrients has been published in mainstream sources. However, the scientific and medical consensus is that the broad claims of efficacy advanced by advocates of orthomolecular medicine are unsupported. Orthomolecular medicine has even been described as a form of food faddism and quackery.

Basics

Orthomolecular medicine is practiced by few conventional medical practitioners. Orthomolecular treatments are instead more common in complementary and alternative medicine fields, increasingly being integrated into over the counter retail products, naturopathic medical textbooks and mainstream pharmaceuticals. The controversial field of orthomolecular psychiatry deals with the use of orthomolecular medicine to treat psychiatric problems.

The orthomolecular field is based on research in biochemistry, nutrition, medicine, and pharmaceuticals, which is interpreted in the light of the clinical experience of its practitioners. Orthomolecular medicine and optimum nutrition are based on the idea of individual variation in humans, with individual nutrient requirements varying widely with health, genetic and environmental influences. Aspects of orthomolecular therapy remain controversial among mainstream medical organizations and physicians, who consider many aspects to be lacking sufficient RCT-based evidence. In contrast, orthomolecular proponents argue that many mainstream nutritional studies, both recent and historical, provide investigational and clinical support for their treatments and recommendations. They also argue that orthomolecular therapies are intrinsically less likely to cause dangerous side-effects or harm, since they utilize only chemicals that are normally present in the body.

History and development

Orthomolecular treatments typically have been experimentally or empirically introduced by physicians or researchers when conventional medical treatments offered neither solution nor hope. Orthomolecular psychiatry began to be developed in the early 1950s by a group of biochemists and psychiatrists who identified a number of biochemical abnormalities that they thought were associated with mental illness and treated a number of mental disorders using high dosages of certain vitamins. Concepts frequently utilized in orthomolecular medicine, such as individual biochemical variation, inborn error of metabolism, and exogeneous supply of essential substances in therapy debuted in scientific and medical papers early in the 20 th century. Orthomolecular megavitamin therapies, such as with tocopherols and ascorbates, date back to the 1930s.

Frederick Klenner (1907 – 1984) was an American medical researcher and doctor in general practice in Reidsville, North Carolina. From the 1940s on he experimented with the use of vitamin C megadosage as a therapy for a wide range of illnesses, most notably polio. He authored 28 research papers during his career. He is considered one of the originators of orthomolecular medicine, but his work remains largely unacknowledged by established medicine.

In the late 1950’s, Irwin Stone stated his belief that scurvy was not a dietary disturbance, but a potentially fatal problem that had been misunderstood by nutritionists. Ascorbate was not a trace vitamin but was required in humans in large daily amounts. He produced four papers, between 1965 and 1967, describing the human requirement for ascorbate as genetic defect which he named hypoascorbemia.

In 1967, Linus Pauling …introduced the expression orthomolecular medicine to describe one aspect of molecular medicine, and the term "orthomolecular therapy", as published in Science in 1968, to express the idea of the right molecules in the right amounts. Pauling subsequently defined "orthomolecular medicine" as "the treatment of disease by the provision of the optimum molecular environment, especially the optimum concentrations of substances normally present in the human body" or as "the preservation of good health and the treatment of disease by varying the concentrations in the human body of substances that are normally present in the body and are required for health."

Since 1968 the orthomolecular field has diversified, but the term is still often closely associated with Pauling's advocacy of multi-gram doses of vitamin C for optimal health. Partly for this reason, detractors of orthomolecular ideas have described them entirely in terms of megadose nutrient therapy. Cassileth, a widely quoted critic of Pauling's ideas, asserts: "In 1968, the Nobel-prize-winning scientist Linus Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to describe the treatment of disease with large quantities of nutrients." In this way, criticism of orthomolecular medicine has, to a large extent, been confused with much older medical traditions of high-dose vitamin therapies, such as earlier "megadose" usages of retinol and ergocalciferol or synthetic pharmaceutical analogues, such as menadione. However, such definitions of orthomolecular therapy are not synonymous with Pauling's definition. Scientists are reconsidering their dismissal of Pauling's claims.

Based on investigational scientific studies, single blinded and double blinded randomized controlled trials, clinical experience, and case histories, claims have been made that therapeutic nutrition can prevent, treat, or sometimes cure, acne, bee sting, burns, cancer, common cold, drug addiction, drug overdose, heart diseases, acute hepatitis, herpes, influenza, mononucleosis, mushroom poisoning, neuropathy & polyneuritis (including Multiple sclerosis), osteoporosis, polio, "alcoholism, allergies, arthritis, autism, epilepsy, hypertension, hypoglycemia, migraine, clinical depression, learning disabilities, retardation, mental and metabolic disorders, skin problems, and hyperactivity," Raynaud's disease, heavy metal toxicity, radiation sickness, * Pyroluria, schizophrenia, shock, snakebite, spider bite, tetanus toxin and viral pneumonia.

Method

Orthomolecular medicine argues that it is preferable to recognize and correct any possible anomalies in metabolism at an early stage, before they cause disease. Orthomolecular medicine posits that many typical diets are insufficient for long term health; thus, orthomolecular medical diagnoses and treatment often focus on the use of nutrients such as vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, ω-3 fatty acids, ω-6 fatty acids, dietary fiber, and short and long chain fatty acids, although a wide range of other substances are used, such as lipotropes and prohormones.

Orthomolecular nutriton and therapy attempts to provide what are seen as optimal amounts of these substances. Most often, "optimal" has been a matter of the clinical judgment of the orthomolecular practitioner, who gives these compounds in accord with the clinical symptoms of the patient and the practioner's judgment of what is appropriate, rather than the published dietary reference intakes of these nutrients. Modern orthomolecular practitioners also use a wide range of laboratory analyses, including those for amino acids, organic acids, vitamins and minerals, functional vitamin status, hormones, immunology, microbiology, and gastrointestinal function. However, many of these tests are not employed by mainstream medicine for common diagnostic use.

In the early days of orthomolecular medicine, supplementation usually meant high-dose, single-agent nutrient therapy. Most often today, orthomolecular practitioners use many substances: amino acids, enzymes, hormones, vitamins, minerals, or derivate substances in an effort to supply what they see as optimum dosages of these substances.

Frequently supplementation with relatively large doses of vitamins is given, and the name megavitamin therapy is popularly associated with the area. Megavitamin therapy is the administration of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA). The nominal ratio of dose to RDA to qualify for the term "megavitamin therapy" has been a matter of minor semantic debate.

Administration of short-chain fatty acids in orthomolecular practice is usually done by increasing the level of dietary fiber. The fatty acids are produced by fermentation of the fiber in the colon, then absorbed into the body. Attempts are also made to aid this process by a combination of prebiotics and mucopolysaccharides. Long chain fatty acids, such as the omega-3 fatty acids alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), may also be given directly, in food or in capsules.

Popularity

A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine focused on who used complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), what was used, and why it was used in the United States by adults age 18 years and over during 2002. The survey reported uses in the previous 12 months that include orthomolecular related uses: Nonvitamin, nonmineral, natural products 18.9%, Diet-based therapies 3.5%, Megavitamin therapy 2.8%. The survey did not include other popular related categories such as juicing, supplemental antioxidants, essential fatty acids, amino acids, enzymes and others.

Another recent CAM survey reported 12% of liver disease patients using the antioxidant silymarin, more than 6% used megavitamins among others, and "In all, 74% of patients reported using CAM in addition to the medications prescribed by their physician, but 26% did not inform their physician of their CAM use."

Criticism

Methodology

Orthomolecular medicine advocates claim that the methods of orthomolecular medicine overlap with those of both natural medicine and mainstream medicine. The International Society for Orthomolecular Medicine has conventionally-trained doctors among its members and authors. However, the leading orthomolecular medicine website, Orthomolecular Medicine Online, run by the Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, discusses differences between orthomolecular medicine and mainstream medicine, which the website refers to as allopathic medicine.

Amongst the differences, mainstream medicine attaches great importance to evidence-based medicine, particularly to rigorous double-blind randomized controlled trials that test if a treatment is genuinely effective and exclude the placebo effect. Orthomolecular medicine proponents, on the other hand, believe that such studies overemphasize uniformity, under-emphasize variability between patients, and reduce choice and health freedom. They also argue that studies that examine the effect of a single substance in a representative sample of the population are unsuited to their methods, which use multiple agents administered in complex combinations that they say are tailored to each patient.

Mainstream medicine also avoids the use of new treatments whose effects are unknown, instead favoring extensively tested, clinically proven drugs. Even with this level of caution, up to 20% of drugs may subsequently have unrecognized, serious adverse reactions, requiring the later addition of the "black box warning", or withdrawal from market. Orthomolecular medicine advocates hold that their approach may be useful in treating new or incurable diseases, before conventional medical treatments are available.

The skepticism about orthomolecular medicine comes in part because some of its proponents make claims more broad than those supported by scientific research, particularly claims that may contradict the results of clinical trials, and rely instead on less reliable observational studies, clinical and anecdotal experience, single blinded controlled tests, and case histories. Proponents of orthomolecular medicine argue that, despite the extensive testing of pharmaceuticals, some medications are withdrawn after approval, due to serious adverse events, and the FDA regulatory methodology and relationship with the pharmaceutical industry has been criticized.

Views on Safety and Efficacy

The conventional view amongst mainstream medical physicians is that most orthomolecular therapies are insufficiently proven for clinical use, that the scientific foundations are weak, and that the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to disputed interpretation. The term "food faddism" has therefore been applied to this form of alternative medicine, with critics arguing that it is based upon an "exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease".

Many mainstream medical practitioners dismiss orthomolecular medicine entirely. The American Medical Association describes as "myths" the ideas that vitamin and mineral deficiencies are widespread, that the causes of most diseases are poor diets, or that most diseases can be prevented by nutritional supplements. Similarly, the American Cancer Society comments that the current scientific evidence does not "support use of orthomolecular therapy for most of the conditions for which it is promoted". In another example, an adviser on alternative medicine to the National Institutes of Health, stated that "Scientific research has found no benefit from orthomolecular therapy for any disease" and a recent medical textbook also states that there is "no evidence that megavitamin or orthomolecular therapy is effective in treating any disease." Proponents of orthomolecular medicine counter that vitamins and nutrients are now used in conventional medicine as treatments for disease, such niacin and fish oil for dyslipidemias.

Nutritional supplements, such as those used in orthomolecular medicine, are less regulated than pharmaceuticals in the United States. Furthermore, a recent meta-analysis in JAMA has suggested that supplementation with combinations of beta carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E may increase mortality, and this risk may be particularly high in smokers. An essential regulatory difference is that pharmaceuticals must be proven safe and effective to the satisfaction of the FDA before they can be marketed, whereas supplements must be proven unsafe before regulatory action can be taken. A number of orthomolecular US supplements are available in pharmaceutical versions that are sometimes quite similar in strength and general content, or in other countries are pharmaceuticals. The US regulations also have provisions to recognize a general level of safety for established nutrients that can forgo new drug safety tests. Proponents of nutritional supplement use have argued that the lower level of regulation results in cost savings for American consumers, pointing to higher supplement prices in Europe, where some supplements are more tightly regulated or even unavailable.

Relation to mainstream medicine

Supporters claim that some aspects of orthomolecular medicine, and in particular the optimal nutrition subset, have support in mainstream scientific research in a variety of areas:

  • Greater than the RDA of selenium may reduce the overall incidence of cancers; this effect is strongest in people who had low selenium levels before treatment.
  • Greater than the RDA of vitamin D may reduce the risk of cancer in post-menopausal women. It may also increase the immune response to a wide range of viruses, fungi and bacteria.
  • Greater than the RDA of "A, B6, C and E plus zinc", folic acid and selenium reduce the incidence of specific cancers
  • Studies finding that supplementation of long-chain omega-3 essential fatty acids reduced the incidence of cardiac mortality in secondary prevention trials
  • Early studies finding that vitamin E alone and vitamin C & E together reduce coronary disease mortality
  • Bruce Ames's studies on the effects of vitamins on genetic diseases and biochemical aging processes
  • The advocacy of daily multivitamins in cancer prevention by Professor Bruce Ames, by a JAMA review article for "chronic disease prevention in adults" and by an NEJM Editorial.

Some of these findings have been reported as not consistent with other studies. For example, (see Vitamin E controversy below), a subsequent meta-analysis failed to find benefit to single isomeric alpha tocopheryl ester forms of vitamin E supplementation. Indeed, alpha tocopheryl ester supplementation might increase the risk for congestive heart failure. The Shutes decades earlier did specifically caution about tocopherol dosage and slow buildup rates for CHF patients and those with pre-existing rheumatic heart problems; modern orthomolecular medicine has different specific nutrient recommendations for CHF patients. Reconciling and confirming the conclusions of individual nutritional studies is a subject of ongoing research.

These studies all come from mainstream medical sources that do not claim to support orthomolecular doctrine, and in at least some cases, explicitly reject claims of orthomolecular proponents that nutritional supplements are desirable. Ames supports daily USRDA multivitamin supplements as a public-policy solution to the lack of vegetables in United States diets, but has not endorsed global use of megavitamin therapy propounded by orthomolecular medicine.

Orthomolecular proponents, such as Robert Cathcart, who predicts that 120+ grams per day intravenous vitamin C should cure SARS and has used up to 250 grams IV vitamin C per day, have been criticised for not having any conventional medical trials of such intravenous vitamin C treatments.

The orthomolecular field remains controversial among mainstream medical organizations, including the American Cancer Society, the American Psychiatric Association, the National Institute of Mental Health, the American Academy of Pediatrics, CHAMPUS, and the Canadian Paediatric Society. A number of individuals and organizations contest the claims, benefits, degree of evidence and toxicity. Based on testing with dosages well below orthomolecular recommendations, Linus Pauling has been criticized for making overbroad claims for the efficacy of vitamin C but Paulings' claims have received some support from tests closer to the orthomolecular recommendations during the last few years.

The relationship of mainstream medicine to orthomolecular proponents has often been adversarial; orthomolecular proponents argue that mainstream medical claimants confuse orthomolecular medicine with other, less science based modalities. The American Academy of Pediatrics labelled orthomolecular medicine a "cult" in 1976, in response to claims that orthomolecular medicine could cure childhood psychoses and learning disorders. Conventional health professionals see orthomolecular medicine as encouraging individuals to dose themselves with large amounts of vitamins and other nutrients without conventional supervision, which they worry might be damaging to health. Rare risks of non-orthomolecular "mega" dosages of vitamin relatives, which frequently involved pharmaceutical analogues such as synthetic menadione, unsupervised misuse, deliberate abuse and earlier medical treatments, may include increased risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, thrombophlebitis, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, neurological effects, liver toxicity, congenital abnormalities, spontaneous abortion, gouty arthritis, jaundice, kidney stones, and diarrhea. Megavitamin proponents point to an almost zero level of deaths caused by vitamins, even with large overdoses, compared to the significant numbers from pharmaceuticals, including a number of over-the-counter items.

Vitamin E controversy

The accumulated evidence of randomized clinical trials with conventional, chemically-modified alpha tocopheryl esters, containing only one kind of natural vitamin E (of eight vitamers) in the stabilized (chemically inactivated) ester form (usually acetate) have been controverted. Initial hopes for alpha tocopheryl esters (usually acetate) were based on suppositional grounds and epidemiological data that often involved the natural, full spectrum dietary forms of vitamin E (mixed R, R,R tocopherols - alpha- beta- gamma-, delta- isomers). Meta analysis of several randomized clinical trials of manufactured antioxidants, including alpha tocopheryl esters (acetate, succinate) not in an antioxidant form, have not shown any benefit to alpha tocopheryl ester supplementation for preventing coronary heart disease. Orthomolecular recommendations for the full vitamin E complex typically include an additional 25% to 200% w/w of beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherols. Recent scientific and medical research shows gamma-tocopherol, the most common vitamer of natural vitamin E, has unique beneficial functions and "gamma tocopherol is considered an integral component of the nutrient-based recommendations in many EU member countries."

A controversial meta-analysis published in 2005 claimed that "high dose" alpha tocopheryl esters (>=400 units/day) were associated with an all-cause mortality risk difference of 39 per 10,000 persons. Furthermore, a significant relationship was claimed between dose and all-cause mortality, with increased risk with doses exceeding 150 I.U. per day. This meta-analysis, however, was criticized on a number of grounds. One of several criticisms which the authors did not rebut was that the mortality effect was a confounder resulting entirely from excess mortality in a few studies of combined alpha-tocopheryl ester and synthetic beta carotene in heavy smokers. Known for decades, that "he antagonisms that exist between...carotene and vitamin E are complicated", this supplement and smoking exposure combination once had some academic support but synthetic "beta carotene...has previously been shown to be harmful" in smokers, a subpopulation with high oxidative stress. Long commercialized, multiple antioxidant megavitamin combinations, such as "ACES", that also include antioxidants vitamin C and selenium to recycle the first two antioxidants and aid liver peroxide detoxification, were not tested or measured.

The orthomolecularly-preferred "vitamin E", mixed (natural) R, R,R tocopherols, available for two-thirds of a century, remain to be authoritatively evaluated in tests controlled for bile, pancreatic function, certain specific heart problems and risk factors, blood levels and cofactors (vitamins C, D3, K1, K2, selenium, co-enzyme Q10, etc.) in the common orthomolecular range, 600 - 3200 IU alpha tocopherol plus 25%-200% by weight of other R, R,R tocopherols. With the exception of controlling for standard comorbidities such as heart disease, controlling for pancreatic function, various vitamin cofactors, etc. has not been felt by conventional medicine to be clinically relevant nor routinely done in clinical trials. However, naturopathic medicine texts and naturopathic physicians routinely recommend such laboratory tests of biliary and pancreatic functions in their orthomolecular-related modalities.

Time and therapeutic priority

Conventional physicians express concern that megavitamin and orthomolecular therapies used solely as alternative treatments by other practitioners, if not successful, may create dangerous delays in obtaining conventional treatments, such as radiation and chemotherapy for cancer. For example, in a highly publicized Canadian case, the chemotherapy and orthomolecular treatments of a 13-year-old cancer patient, Tyrell Dueck, were delayed, possibly fatally, due to his parents' religious beliefs, interest in alternative treatments, and lengthy legal battles. Orthomolecular medical practitioners and orthomolecular oriented naturopaths have long expressed similar concerns about conventional medicine, particularly with gut related and chronic diseases as well as viral diseases.: It is usually possible, however, to combine orthomolecular and conventional treatments.

Use in AIDS

Several orthomolecular related AIDS approaches such as multivitamins, selenium and amino acids are used with reported improvements in patients. High dose vitamin C treatments have long been used clinically by some orthomolecular practitioners to treat AIDS patients. However, a meta-analysis of fifteen clinical trials of vitamin therapy by the Cochrane Collaboration in 2005 found no conclusive evidence that such approaches either reduce symptoms or mortality in HIV-infected adults who are not malnourished, but found some evidence that giving vitamin A to infants with HIV is beneficial. In these situations, mainstream medical criticism arises when orthomolecular approaches are advocated as substitutes for, rather than complements to, current medical treatments such as antiretroviral drugs.

Economic interests and politics

Some orthomolecular proponents claim partisan politics, pharmaceutical industry influence, and competitive considerations to be significant factors. Some prominent orthomolecular proponents sell lines of orthomolecular products and accept some tests questioned about their benefit that vary by medical affiliation. The Linus Pauling Institute's funding comes mostly from National Institutes of Health. Several orthomolecular therapies have been officially sanctioned within Europe and Japan.

Orthomolecular doctors

Orthomolecular scientists

Orthomolecular Journals

The Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, founded in 1967 as the Journal of Schizophrenia, is the main publication of those involved in Orthomolecular Medicine. Abram Hoffer has written that "We had to create our own journals because it was impossible to obtain entry into the official journals of psychiatry and medicine. Before 1967 I had not found it difficult to publish reports in these journals, and by then I had about 150 articles and several books in the establishment press."

Bibliography

Advocates

  • Abram Hoffer (1998) Putting It All Together: The New Orthomolecular Nutrition, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-87983-633-4
  • Abram Hoffer, M.D. with Linus Pauling (2004) Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments, CCNM Press, ISBN 1-897025-11-4
  • David Moss (2000) Ph.D, Antioxidants Against Cancer, Equinox Press , ISBN 1881025284
  • Pauling, Linus (1986) How to Live Longer and Feel Better, W. H. Freeman and Company, ISBN 0-380-70289-4
  • Roger J. Williams, Dwight K. Kalita (1979) Physician's Handbook on Orthomolecular Medicine, Keats Publishing, ISBN 0-87983-199-5
  • J. Alexander (2001) LABORATORY EVALUATIONS IN MOLECULAR MEDICINE: Nutrients, Toxicants and Cell Regulators. Inst. for Advances in Mol. Med., ISBN 0967394910
  • Melvyn R. Werbach, Jeffrey Moss (1999) Textbook of Nutritional Medicine, Third Line Press, ISBN 0-9618550-9-6
  • Joseph E. Pizzorno, Jr., Michael T. Murray (November 2005) Textbook of Natural Medicine, 3rd edition, Churchill Livingstone, ISBN 0-443-07300-7 · 2368pp
  • Richard P. Huemer (ed.) (1986) The Roots of Molecular Medicine: A Tribute to Linus Pauling, W. H. Freeman and Company, ISBN 0-7167-1761-1 · 290pp

Critics

  • Barrie R. Cassileth (1998) Alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies. New York: W.W.Norton & Co., ISBN 0-393-04566-8

See also

Footnotes and references

  1. Orthomolecular medicine Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine by Patricia Skinner
  2. Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM): Types of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Section on Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) in the The Merck Manual Online, 18th Edition, Accessed 20 March 08
  3. ^ Definition of Orthomolecular medicine at www.orthomed.org Accessed June 2006
  4. Guyton JR (2007). "Niacin in cardiovascular prevention: mechanisms, efficacy, and safety". Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 18 (4): 415–20. doi:10.1097/MOL.0b013e3282364add. PMID 17620858.
  5. Eat it up and be a good boy. The Economist, February 2, 2008
  6. Gesch CB et al, Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners. Randomised, placebo-controlled trial., Br J Psych, 2002, Vol. 181, pp. 22-28 2002
  7. ^ Research backs theory that vitamin C shrinks tumours. The Independent, 28 March 2006 Cite error: The named reference "The Independent" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. Stuart Aaronson et. al. "Cancer Medicine", 2003, BC Decker Inc ISBN 1–55009–213–8, Section 20, p76
  9. ^ Jarvis WT (1983). "Food faddism, cultism, and quackery". Annu. Rev. Nutr. 3: 35–52. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.03.070183.000343. PMID 6315036.
  10. ^ Cassileth BR. Alternative medicine handbook: the complete reference guide to alternative and complementary therapies. New York: W.W.Norton & Co., 1998:67. Cite error: The named reference "cassileth" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ Orthomolecular Medicine Revisited, Wunderlich RC, Orthomolecular Medicine Online, accessed 6 Nov 2006 Cite error: The named reference "wund" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  12. OMACOR(omega-3-acid ethyl esters), Reliant Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
  13. Mason M. "An Old Cholesterol Remedy . NY Times, January 23, 2007
  14. Roger J. Williams (1998) Biochemical Individuality: The Basis for the Genetotrophic Concept. 2nd ed. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0-87983-893-0
  15. Orthomolecular Medicine News Service (OMNS) Listing or research and news items favourable to the Orthomolecular point of view
  16. What is Orthomolecular Medicine?, Linus Pauling Institute. Accessed online, 1 Nov 2007
  17. How safe are vitamins? Orthomolecular Medicine News Service, November 9, 2005 - Accessed August 2006
  18. Observations On the Dose and Administration of Ascorbic Acid When Employed Beyond the Range of a Vitamin in Human Pathology
  19. Alpha-Lipoic Acid (Thioctic Acid): My Experience
  20. Reduction of Cholesterol and Lp(A) in Regression of Coronary Artery Disease: A Case Study
  21. Coenzyme Q10: A Novel Cardiac Antioxidant (1997)
  22. Roger J. Williams (1998) Biochemical Individuality: The Basis for the Genetotrophic Concept. 2nd ed. Keats Publishing. ISBN 0-87983-893-0
  23. Stephen F. Mason. THE SCIENCE AND HUMANISM OF LINUS PAULING (1901-1994). Chemical Society Reviews, 26, no. 1 (February 1997). Section 5, Molecular Medicine: “...Garrod in his book, Inborn Error of Metabolism (1909, 1923)”
  24. Menolascino FJ, et al. "Orthomolecular Therapy: Its History and Applicability to Psychiatric Disorders", Child Psychiatry and Human Development, Vol.18(3), Spring 1988, pp 140-1
  25. Lois N. Magner A History of Medicine, Informa Healthcare; 2nd edition (June 23, 2005) ISBN 0824740742
  26. Beard J. The action of 'trypsin' upon living cells of the Jensen sarcoma. Brit Med J 1906;1:140-141 (Jan. 20, 1906).
  27. New/Old Findings on Unique Vitamin E
  28. AscorbateWeb: Timeline from 1935 to 1939
  29. Hidden in Plain Sight: The Pioneering Work of Frederick Robert Klenner, M.D. Andrew W. Saul, online reprint from J Orthomolecular Med, 2007. Vol 22, No 1, p 31-38, Accessed October 2007
  30. A posthumous summary of Frederick Klenner's 28 papers. Lendon H. Smith, M.D., Clinical Guide to the Use of Vitamin C - The Clinical Experiences of Frederick R. Klenner, M.D. . Accessed October 2007.
  31. STONE. I.: Studies of a Mammalian Enzyme System for Producing Evolutionary Evidence on Man. Amer. J. Phys. Anthrop. 15, 83-85, 1965.
  32. STONE. I.: On the Genetic Etiology of Scurvy. Acts Genet. Med. Gemellol. 15, 345-350,1966.
  33. STONE, I.: Hypoascorbemia, the Genetic Disease Causing the Human Requirement for Exogenous Ascorbic Acid, Perspectives Bio. Med. 10, 133-134, 1966.
  34. STONE, I.: The Genetic Disease, Hyposacorbemia: A Fresh Approach to an Ancient Disease and Some of its Medical Implications, Acta Genet Med. Gemellol. 16, 52-62. 1967.
  35. Pauling L. “Orthomolecular Somatic and Psychiatric Medicine “, Communication: Luxembourg and Trier on 18-24 September 1967; Pauling L. 1968b: Orthomolecular Somatic and Psychiatric Medicine J Vital Substances and Diseases of Civilization’’, 14; 1-3.
  36. Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease,Science 1968 Apr 19;160(825):265-71. (PMID 5641253)
  37. Definition of Orthomolecular medicine at www.orthomed.org Accessed June 2006 and What is Orthomolecular Medicine?, Linus Pauling Inst.
  38. Meyer TC, Angus J. "The effect of large doses of 'Synkavit' in the newborn". Arch Dis Child 1956; vol 31, p. 212-5.
  39. Laurance B. "Danger of vitamin K analogues to newborn." Lancet 1955; vol 1, p 819.
  40. Sutor AH. New Aspects of Vitamin K Prophylaxis. Semin Thromb Hemost 2003; vol 29, p 373-376 "The problem was solved when synkavit was replaced by low-dose (1 mg) [vitamin K1 phytomenadion"
  41. Clinical Data Shows Vitamin C May Reduce Risks of Cancer, Heart Disease and Variety of Other Health Disorders Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News , September 24 2007 reporting on Seminars in Preventive and Alternative Medicine (vol. 3, iss. 1, pp. 25-35) Mark A. Moyad, MD, MPH of University of Michigan. accessed October 2007
  42. Leung LH, A Stone that Kills two Birds: How Pantothenic Acid Unveils the Mysteries of Acne Vulgaris and Obesity, J. Orthomolecular Med., Vol. 12, 2nd Qtr 1997, Accessed 9 July 2007
  43. Plaza SW, Lamson DW. Vitamin K2 in Bone Metabolism and Osteoporosis. Alt Medicine Review, Vol 10, No 1.
  44. Hoffer A, et al. Treatment Protocol for Alcoholism. Orthomolecular Medicine News Service, 1 Jul 2005
  45. Princeton Brain Bio Center. Brochure, distributed to patients. Skillman, N.J., 1983, The Center.
  46. Skinner P, "Orthomolecular Medicine", Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine: Holistic medicine, Thomson Gale, 2004.
  47. Klenner, F.R. (1971). "Observations on the dose and administration of ascorbic acid when employed beyond the range of a vitamin in human pathology" (pdf). J Appl Nutr. 23: 61–88. Retrieved 2008-03-21.
  48. Huemer RP. A theory of diagnosis for orthomolecular medicine. J Theor Biol 1977 67:625-635. Reprinted in Advances 1984 1(3):53-59.
  49. Richard P. Huemer MD, Orthomolecular Medicine, Encyclopedia of Complementary Health Practice, Springer Publishing Company, September 18, 1997. available online
  50. ^ http://orthomed.org/kunin.html Principles That Identify Orthormolecular Medicine: A Unique Medical Specialty by Richard A. Kunin Cite error: The named reference "kunin" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  51. Monica & Gene Spiller (2005) What's with Fiber?, Ch 3, pp 22-29. Basic Health Publications. ISBN 159120111X
  52. Gene A. Spiller (2001) CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition, Third Edition. CRC Press. ISBN 0849323878
  53. Escudero Alvarez E, González Sánchez P (2006). "Dietary fibre". Nutr Hosp. 21 Suppl 2: 60–71, 61–72. PMID 16771074.
  54. Lester M Morrison, OA Schjeide (1974) Coronary heart disease and the mucopolysaccharides (glycosaminoglycans), Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL,, ISBN 0398029032
  55. NCCAM.NIH table 1 on page 8
  56. Strader DB, Bacon BR, Lindsay KL, La Brecque DR, Morgan T, Wright EC, Allen J, Khokar MF, Hoofnagle JH, Seeff LB. Use of complementary and alternative medicine in patients with liver disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002 Sep;97(9):2391-7.
  57. http://orthomed.org Orthomolecular Medicine Online
  58. Akobeng AK (2005). "Principles of evidence based medicine". Arch. Dis. Child. 90 (8): 837–40. PMID 16040884.
  59. Weihrauch TR, Gauler TC (1999). "Placebo--efficacy and adverse effects in controlled clinical trials". Arzneimittelforschung. 49 (5): 385–93. PMID 10367099.
  60. DJ Hess, Complementary or Alternative? Stronger vs Weaker Integration Policies Am J Public Health. 2002 October; 92(10): 1579–1581.
  61. Lasser KE, Allen PD, Woolhandler SJ, Himmelstein DU, Wolfe SM, Bor DH. Timing of New Black Box Warnings and Withdrawals for Prescription Medications. JAMA. 2002;287:2215-2220.
  62. http://www.canstats.org/readdetail.asp?id=542
  63. Marcia Angell, (August 24, 2004) The Truth About the Drug Companies: How They Deceive Us and What to Do About It, Random House, 1st ed, ISBN 0-375-50846-5
  64. Cite error: The named reference AMA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  65. Complementary and Alternative Therapies: Orthomolecular Medicine American Cancer Society, 19 June 2007, Accessed 20 March 08
  66. Stuart Aaronson et. al. , 2003, BC Decker Inc ISBN 1–55009–213–8, Section 20, p76
  67. Berra K.Clinical update on the use of niacin for the treatment of dyslipidemia. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2004 Dec;16(12):526-34.]
  68. Don't overlook niacin for treating cholesterol problems. If you can conquer or cope with the "niacin flush," this B vitamin can do wonders for cholesterol. Harvard Heart Letter. 2004 Apr;14(8):4-5.]
  69. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. The Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group, Copenhagen Trial Unit, Center for Clinical Intervention Research, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark. goranb@junis.ni.ac.yu. JAMA. 2007 Feb 28;297(8):842-57.
  70. Text of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994, legislating that vitamin supplements are regulated as foods rather than as medications. Accessed 21 Sept 2006.
  71. Falloon W. What Do “Regulated” Supplements Cost. LE Magazine (online archives), July 2005, p 1
  72. ^ Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin. A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group. Clark LC, Combs GF Jr, Turnbull BW, Slate EH, Chalker DK, Chow J, Davis LS, Glover RA, Graham GF, Gross EG, Krongrad A, Lesher JL Jr, Park HK, Sanders BB Jr, Smith CL, Taylor JR. JAMA 1996 ;276:1957-63 PMID 8971064 200ug/d of selenium for 4.5 years resulted in a 17% reduction of totality mortality by over 11 years (in total), due to a 50% reduction of (all) cancer mortality, 37% reduction in (all) cancer occurrence
  73. ^ Reduction of cancer mortality and incidence by selenium supplementation. Combs GF Jr, Clark LC, Turnbull BW in Med Klin 1997 ;92 Suppl 3:42-5. PMID 9342915
  74. ^ Reduction of cancer risk with an oral supplement of selenium. Combs GF Jr, Clark LC, Turnbull BW in Biomed Environ Sci 1997;10:227-34 PMID 9315315
  75. Combs GF, Clark LC, Turnbull BW (2001). "An analysis of cancer prevention by selenium". Biofactors. 14 (1–4): 153–9. PMID 11568452.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  76. Rayman MP (2005). "Selenium in cancer prevention: a review of the evidence and mechanism of action". Proc Nutr Soc. 64 (4): 527–42. PMID 16313696.
  77. Lappe JM; et al. (2007). "Vitamin D and calcium supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of a randomized trial". Am J Clin Nutr. 85 (6): 1586–91. PMID 17556697. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  78. J. J. Cannell; et al. (2006). "Epidemic influenza and vitamin D". Epidemiology and Infection (Sep 7): 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0950268806007175. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  79. Cannell, J. J. (15 Sep 2006). "Epidemic Influenza And Vitamin D". medical News Today. Retrieved 2007-12-16. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  80. J Urol. 1994 Jan;151(1):21-6. Megadose vitamins in bladder cancer: a double-blind clinical trial.Lamm DL, Riggs DR, Shriver JS, vanGilder PF, Rach JF, DeHaven JI. PMID 8254816 "The 5-year estimates of tumor recurrence are 91% in the RDA arm and 41% in the megadose arm"
  81. Multivitamin use, folate, and colon cancer in women in the Nurses' Health Study. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Fuchs C, Rosner BA, Speizer FE, Willett WC; Ann Intern Med" 1998 Oct 1;129(7):517-24 PMID 9758570 Long-term use (>15 years) of folate-containing multivitamin supplements produced an almost 5-fold reduction in the incidence of colon cancer.
  82. Ridker PM; Ballantyne CM. MD)Effects of n-3 Fatty Acid Therapy on Lipids and sCAMs, slide, Lipids Online, Baylor College of Medicine, 3 Oct 2001, accessed 10 Nov 2006
  83. Harris, William S, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce risk of coronary heart disease death: extending the evidence to the elderly, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 77, No. 2, 279-280, February 2003. available online
  84. GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E in 11,324 patients with myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet 1999;354:447–55. PMID 10465168
  85. Orthomolecular Research
  86. ^ Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of all-cause and coronary heart disease mortality in older persons: the Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly. Losonczy KG, Harris TB, Havlik RJ in Am J Clin Nutr 1996 Aug;64(2):190-6 PMID: 8694019 over 9 years of vitamin E found a 34% reduction in total mortality along with a 47% reduction coronary disease mortality; over 9 years from vitamin C & E use found a 42% reduction in total mortality with a 53% reduction in coronary disease mortality
  87. Fifteen year mortality in Coronary Drug Project patients: long-term benefit with niacin. Canner PL, Berge KG, Wenger NK, Stamler J, Friedman L, Prineas RJ, Friedewald W in J Am Coll Cardiol 1986 Dec;8(6):1245-55 PMID: 3782631 "With a mean follow-up of 15 years, nearly 9 years after termination of the trial, mortality from all causes in each of the drug groups, except for niacin, was similar to that in the placebo group. Mortality in the niacin group was 11% lower than in the placebo group (52.0 versus 58.2%; p = 0.0004)." Dose used = 2g 3g/day for 6 years. The drop in mortality was only evident after 6-8 years.
  88. Associations of Mortality With Ocular Disorders and an Intervention of High-Dose Antioxidants and Zinc in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS Report No. 13. AREDS Research Group (Authors: Traci E. Clemons, PhD; Natalie Kurinij, PhD; Robert D. Sperduto, MD.) in Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 May;122(5):716-26. PMID: 15136320 "Participants randomly assigned to receive zinc had lower mortality than those not taking zinc (RR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.61-0.89)."
  89. Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population. Enstrom JE, Kanim LE, Klein MA in Epidemiology 1992 May;3(3):194-202 (PMID 1591317) 35% reduction in mortality over 10 years from vitamin C use
  90. Bruce N Ames, Ilan Elson-Schwab and Eli A Silver (2002). "High-dose vitamin therapy stimulates variant enzymes with decreased coenzyme binding affinity (increased Km): relevance to genetic disease and polymorphisms". American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 75: 616–658. Retrieved 2006-08-12.
  91. Age-associated mitochondrial oxidative decay: improvement of carnitine acetyltransferase substrate-binding affinity and activity in brain by feeding old rats acetyl-L- carnitine and/or R-alpha -lipoic acid. Liu J, Killilea DW, Ames BN in Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002 Feb 19;99(4):1876-81 (PMID 11854488)
  92. Memory loss in old rats is associated with brain mitochondrial decay and RNA/DNA oxidation: partial reversal by feeding acetyl-L-carnitine and/or R-alpha -lipoic acid. Liu J, Head E, Gharib AM, Yuan W, Ingersoll RT, Hagen TM, Cotman CW, Ames BN in Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Feb 19;99(4):2356-61. (PMID 11854529)
  93. Feeding acetyl-L-carnitine and lipoic acid to old rats significantly improves metabolic function while decreasing oxidative stress. Hagen TM, Liu J, Lykkesfeldt J, Wehr CM, Ingersoll RT, Vinarsky V, Bartholomew JC, Ames BN in Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Feb 19;99(4):1870-5. (PMID 11854487)
  94. ^ http://www.juvenon.com/pdfs/june05_ames-prescrip.pdf
  95. ^ Reason Magazine - Of Mice and Men
  96. Vitamins for chronic disease prevention in adults: clinical applications. Fletcher RH, Fairfield KM in JAMA 2002 Jun 19;287(23):3127-9 (PMID 12069676) “Most people do not consume an optimal amount of all vitamins by diet alone. Pending strong evidence of effectiveness from randomized trials, it appears prudent for all adults to take vitamin supplements. We recommend that all adults take one multivitamin daily. It is reasonable to consider a dose of 2 ordinary multivitamins daily in the elderly”
  97. Vitamins for chronic disease prevention in adults: scientific review. Fairfield KM, Fletcher RH in JAMA 2002 Jun 19;287(23):3116-26 (PMID: 12069675) “Although the clinical syndromes of vitamin deficiencies are unusual in Western societies, suboptimal vitamin status is not ”
  98. Eat Right and Take a Multivitamin NEJM, Volume 338:1060-1061, April 9, 1998, Number 15. Published 9 April 1998. Accessed 27 Dec 2007.
  99. Vivekananthan D, Penn M, Sapp S, Hsu A, Topol E (2003). "Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials". Lancet. 361 (9374): 2017–23. PMID 12814711.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  100. Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, Sheridan P, Pogue J, Arnold J, Ross C, Arnold A, Sleight P, Probstfield J, Dagenais G (2005). "Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial". JAMA. 293 (11): 1338–47. PMID 15769967.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  101. DoctorYourself.com - Congestive Heart Failure
  102. Spencer JW, Jacobs JJ. Complementary/alternative medicine: an evidence based approach. Toronto: Mosley, 1999:134,137; The selenium shocker. University of California at Berkeley Wellness Letter 1997;13:8-9; http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan97/selenium.ssl.html
  103. The Ascorbate Effect in Infectious and Autoimmune Diseases Fourth World Conference on Nutritional Medicine, San Francisco, June 2004.
  104. Hasslberger S. Vitamin C could be effective against SARS. New Media Explorer. 6 June 2003 includes republication of article: Mawhinney J. "Vitamin C touted to fight virus." Toronto Star, 30 May 2003.
  105. American Cancer Society 2006 "Orthomolecular Medicine has not been definitively or authoritatively proven to help many of the conditions for which it recommends treatments. However, vitamins, minerals, and other supplements have been and continue to be studied to see if they can help or prevent many types of illness."
  106. Nutrition Committee, Canadian Paediatric Society. Megavitamin and megamineral therapy in childhood. Canadian Medical Association Journal 143:1009-13, 1990, reaffirmed April 2000.
  107. Stephen Barrett MD, The Dark Side of Linus Pauling's Legacy, Quackwatch.available online
  108. Padayatty SL et al., Vitamin C Pharmacokinetics: Implications for Oral and Intravenous Use Ann Intern Med 2004;140:533-7.
  109. Committee on Nutrition, American Academy of Pediatrics. Megavitamin therapy for childhood psychoses and learning disabilities. Pediatrics 58:910­912, 1976. PMID 995522
  110. emedicine - Toxicity statistics, 2003
  111. Rapola JM, et al. Randomized trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on incidence of major coronary events in men with previous myocardial infarction. Lancet 1997;349;1715-20.
  112. PMID 3153129
  113. PMID 3737019
  114. Roberts HJ. Vitamin E . Lancet 1995 Mar 18;345:737
  115. Kaegi E, on behalf of the Task Force on Alternative Therapies of the Canadian Breast Cancer Research Initiative. Unconventional therapies to cancer: 5. Vitamins A, C, and E. Canadian Medical Association 1998; 158:1483-88.
  116. http://www.doctoryourself.com/testimony.htm TESTIMONY by Andrew W. Saul before the Government of Canada, House of Commons Standing Committee on Health, regarding natural health product safety (Ottawa, May 12, 2005).
  117. http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic638.htm
  118. Horwitt MK, et al, Serum concentrations of a-tocopherol after ingestion of various vitamin E preparations, Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40: 240-245. The rat-fetal-resorption test currently is used to assess the biological activity of vitamin E compounds. Previous studies in humans, however, suggest that rat assays underestimate the potency of free tocopherol relative to the acetate ester form and of RRR-a-tocopheryl acetate relative to all-rac-a-tocopheryl acetate. Therefore, we studied...20 adult human subjects. Measurements...of 800 IU of the various preparations...at 24 h...mean increase in concentration of a-tocopherols (mg/g lipid) in 24 h was 71.2% after RRR-a-tocopherol, 63.3% after RRR-a-tocopher acetate plus apple pectin, 60.9% after RRR-a-tocopher acetate, 31.6% after all-rac-a-tocopher acetate, and 41.2% after RRR-a-tocopher succinate. Animal assay data do not correlate with data from studies of absorption and retention in serum of a-tocopherols ingested by humans.
  119. Jiang Q et al.Gamma tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 74: 714-22.
  120. JM Gaziano, Vitamin E and Cardiovascular Disease: Observational Studies, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1031: 280–291 (2004) "
  121. Vivekananthan D, Penn M, Sapp S, Hsu A, Topol E (2003). "Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials". Lancet. 361: 2017–23. PMID 12814711. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  122. M Walker, New/Old Findings on Unique Vitamin E, Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, No. 111, 1992, p. 826
  123. L MacWilliam,What Makes Gamma Tocopherol Superior to Alpha Tocopherol, LE Magazine, Report, April 2006
  124. ^ M. Houston, “Meta-Analysis, Metaphysics and Mythology” JANA Vol. 8 No. 1, 2005 original
  125. Miller E, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, Riemersma R, Appel L, Guallar E (2005). "Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality". Ann Intern Med. 142: 37–46. PMID 15537682. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  126. Carter, T. Responses and Comments: High-Dosage Vitamin E Supplementation and All-Cause Mortality, Ann Intern Med. 2005 Jul 19;143(2):155; responses 150-160
  127. Dam HCP. Influence of antioxidants and redox substances on signs of vitamn E defciency. Pharmacol Rev 1957 9: 1-16.
  128. Hoskins FH. (1980) Antinutrients, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 213-214
  129. PMID 16027469
  130. Jialal I, Devaraj S. Antioxidants and atherosclerosis: don't throw out the baby with the bath water. Circulation. 2003 Feb 25;107(7):926-8. (Comment on: Circulation. 2003 Feb 25;107(7):947-53.) PMID 12600900
  131. Schectman G, Byrd JC, Gruchow HW. The influence of smoking on vitamin C status in adults. Am J Public Health. 1989 February; 79(2): 158–162.
  132. Stone I. Smoker’s Scurvy: Orthomolecular Preventive Medicine in Cigarette Smoking. Orthomolecular Psychiatry, 1976, Vol 5, No 1, pp. 35-42
  133. Hercberg S, Galan P, et al, The SU.VI.MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Arch Intern Med. 2005 Feb 14;165(3):286.
  134. JM Geleijnse, C Vermeer, DE Grobbee, LJ Schurgers, MHJ Knapen, IM van der Meer, A Hofman, JCM Witteman, Dietary Intake of Menaquinone Is Associated with a Reduced Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: The Rotterdam Study J. Nutr. 134:3100-3105, November 2004
  135. Pizzorno JE, Murray MT (November 2005) Textbook of Natural Medicine, 3rd edition, Churchill Livingstone, ISBN 0-443-07300-7, Chapters 12, 14, 24, 59, 181
  136. Educational Documents, CDSA 2.0 Universal Kit Guide, Digestive Analysis Solution Center, Genova Diagnostics, accessed 2 Nov 2006
  137. Tyrell Dueck tragic death and cancer quackery
  138. http://www.islandnet.com/~hoffer/ Hoffer's Home Page - Orthomolecular Treatment of Cancer. Accessed 3-22-08
  139. Klenner, FR. Observations On the Dose and Administration of Ascorbic Acid When Employed Beyond the Range Of A Vitamin. Human Pathology Journal of Applied Nutrition Vol. 23, No's 3 & 4, Winter 1971.
  140. Klenner FR. Virus Pneumonia and Its Treatment With Vitamin C. Southern Med Surg, v110, no 2, p36, 1948.
  141. Klenner FR. The Treatment of Poliomyelitis and Other Virus Diseases with Vitamin C, Southern Med Surg, v111, no 7, p209, 1949.
  142. Klenner FR. The Use of Vitamin C as an Antibiotic. J Appl Nutr, vol 6, p274, 1953
  143. Multivitamin found to slow pace of HIV, Study examined Tanzanian women, The Boston Globe, July 1, 2004
  144. HD Foster Treating AIDS with Nutrition.
  145. RF Cathcart, Vitamin C in the Treatment of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Medical Hypotheses 14:423-433, 1984
  146. Priestly JC. Highly Beneficial Results in the Treatment of AIDS, J Orthomolecular Med, 1991, Vol. 6, No.3 & 4, p174
  147. Irlam JH, Visser ME, Rollins N, Siegfried N (2005). "Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003650. PMID 16235333.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  148. Frei, Balz, LPI Research Newsletter - Spring 2006, Linus Pauling Institute, June ,2006. available online
  149. OMACOR deal signed with new Euro partners, HYDRO, 11 Dec 2001
  150. fibrinolytic activity of nattokinase, Miyazaki Medical College, Japan
  151. Coenzyme Q10, prescribed for CHF in Japan since 1974, AAFP
  152. Kaitin, KI, Brown, J. 1995. A Drug Lag Update. Drug Information Journal 29:361–73
  153. Hoffer, Abram, History, Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine. available online

External links

Journals

Support

Criticism

 Categories: