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Anti-Americanism or anti-American sentiment is opposition or hostility to the people, culture or policies of the United States. Contemporary examples typically focus on opposition to United States policy, though historically the term has been applied to a variety of concepts.

Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarised. Paul Hollander has called it "a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values." However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms towards Americans or the United States.

Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies, such as the Vietnam and Iraq wars. For this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational.

Use of the term

The term is sometimes used as a pejorative by those who object to a particular stance toward the United States or its policies. Advocates of the significance of the term argue, for instance, that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to anti-Semitism. Anti-Americanism has also been described as an attempt to frame the consequences of U.S. policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what some may claim to be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower status.

The use of the term anti-Americanism has been cataloged from 1948, entering wide political language in the 1950s. The related term "Americanization" (which is thought often to elicit anti-Americanism) has been dated to a French source as early as 1867. labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" is thus partly a retroactive exercise, though there are numerous examples of hostility directed at the country from at least the late 18th century onwards.

As a propaganda term

Its status as an "-ism" is a greatly contended aspect and it is often called a propaganda term by critics who feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U.S. policy, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by totalitarian states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to "anti-Sovietism", a label used by the Kremlin to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance.

Other scholars have also suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization.

History

The French Revolution created a new type of anti-American political thought, hostile to the political institutions of the United States and their impact upon Europe. Furthermore, the Romantic strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and national character, disdained the American project. The German poet Nikolaus Lenau encapsulated the Romantic view, "With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (absence of ground), I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme."

National Identity

In Iran, the cry of "Death to America" has been used in the parliament and at political rallies. Certain forms of social identity theory argue that the existence of "an other" is crucial to the development of group identity. In the case of a European strand of anti-Americanism, some authors, like A.S. Markowitz in Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America, argue it would be linked to the creation of a coalescing European identity.

Others, such as Minxin Pei of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, suggest that the unique character of American nationalism is the cause of some anti-Americanism. According to Noam Chomsky, the concept is totalitarian.

Regional attitudes

Anti-Americanism in some form has existed across different American presidential administrations, though its severity may wax and wane considerably depending upon particular economic or geopolitical issues. George W. Bush's presidency, for instance, is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism, with the 2003 invasion of Iraq affecting global opinions of the U.S.

Europe

During the George W. Bush administration, public opinion of America has declined in most European countries. A Pew Global Attitudes Project poll shows "favorable opinions" of America between 2000 and 2006 dropping from 83% to 56% in the United Kingdom, from 62% to 39% in France, from 78% to 37% in Germany and from 50% to 23% in Spain.

In Britain, a traditional U.S. ally, public affection for the USA has measurably declined in recent years. A June 2006 poll by Populus for The Times showed that the number of Britons agreeing that "it is important for Britain’s long-term security that we have a close and special relationship with the U.S." had fallen to 58% (from 71% in April), and that 65% believed that "Britain’s future lies more with Europe than America". Only 44% agreed that "America is a force for good in the world." A later poll reported in The Guardian during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict said that 63% of Britons felt that Britain is tied too closely to the U.S.

French anti-Americanism predates the founding of the United States with the belief that it was a barbaric land and all who went there also degenerated.

Middle East

The Middle East region has been a focal point of much anti-American sentiment in the latter decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, often blamed on specific U.S. policies in the region, particularly its close relationship with Israel and its stance on such matters as Sudan's civil war and Darfur.

In 2002 and 2004, Zogby International polled the favourable/unfavourable ratings of the U.S. in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. In Zogby's 2002 survey, 76% of Egyptians had a negative attitude toward the United States, compared with 98% in 2004. In Morocco, 61% viewed the country unfavorably in 2002, but in two years, that number has jumped to 88 percent. In Saudi Arabia, such responses rose from 87% in 2002 to 94% in June. Attitudes were virtually unchanged in Lebanon but improved slightly in the UAE, from 87 % who said in 2002 that they disliked the United States to 73% in 2004. However most of these countries showed a marked distinction between negative perceptions of the United States, and much less negative of Americans.

The Pew Research Center probed more deeply the stereotypes of westerners in the Middle East. While more than 70% of Middle Easterners identified more than three negative characteristics of the Westerner stereotype, the three strongest were selfish, violent and greedy. Few had positive opinions of Westerners, but the strongest positive stereotypes were devout and respectful of women. The report also demonstrates strong unfavorable views of Jews and weakly favorable views of Christians predominate in the Middle East. In Jordan, 61%, Pakistan 27%, and Turkey 16% have favorable views of Christians while in Jordan 1%, Pakistan 6%, and Turkey 15% have favourable views of Jews.

Cultural anti-Americanism in the Middle East may have its origins with Sayyid Qutb, an influential Egyptian author, who Paul Berman titled "the Philosopher of Islamic Terror". Qutb, the leading intellectual of the Muslim Brotherhood, studied in Greely, Colorado, from 1948-50, and wrote a book, The America I Have Seen based on his impressions. In it he decried everything in American from individual freedom and taste in music to Church socials and haircuts.

Latin America

In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots dating back to the 1830s and the Texas Revolution. Other significant 19th century events which led to a rise in anti-American sentiment were the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War. In South America, the 1855 American intervention in Nicaragua, the U.S. propiciation of the Spanish-American War of 1898, and the support for the 1954 coup in Guatemala against Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, the United States embargo against Cuba, the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état, Operation Condor, the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, the Salvadoran Civil War, the support of the Contras and the refusal to extradite a terrorist, have fueled anti-Americanism in that region. Similarly, U.S. support for dictators such as Augusto Pinochet, Anastasio Somoza, Alfredo Stroessner as part of the Dirty War has influenced regional attitudes.

The perceived failures of the neo-liberal reforms of the 1980s and the 1990s intensified opposition to the Washington consensus, leading to a resurgence in support for Pan-Americanism, support for popular movements in the region, the nationalization of key industries and centralization of government. The movement saw the rise of leaders critical of United States policies throughout the region. Most vocal has been Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, who is known for his strong opposition towards the American government, particularly George W. Bush, driving him to address him in many ways; referring to him as "the devil" before the United Nations, an example of demonization. He has clearly stated his intent to use Venezuela's oil resources as a card "against the toughest country in the world, the United States."

See also

• List of assassinations and acts of terrorism against Americans
• "The Ugly American"
• Un-American
• Great Satan

References

Notes

1. Paul Hollander defined the prejudice thus: "Anti—Americanism is a predisposition to hostility toward the United States and American society, a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values; it entails an aversion to American culture in particular and its influence abroad, often also contempt for the American national character (or what is presumed to be such a character) and dislike of American people, manners, behavior, dress, and so on; rejection of American foreign policy and a firm belief in the malignity of American influence and presence anywhere in the world."
    Andrei S. Markovits, European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, retrieved 2008-03-17 (citing Paul Hollander, Anti-Americanism: Critiques at Home and Abroad, 1965 - 1990. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992, p. 339)
2. O'Conner, Brendan. "A Brief History of Anti-Americanism from Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92
3. Rodman, Peter W. The world’s resentment, The National Interest, Washington D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001
4. Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
5. O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "... Cold War (1945-1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as ‘anti-Americanism’ became more prominent."
6. Kagan, Robert. Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (2003)
7. Roger, Phillipe. The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism, introductory excerpt, University of Chicago Press, 2005.
8. Rubin, Barry. "Understanding Anti-Americanism", Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2004
9. Interviewing Chomsky Preparatory to Porto: Alegre Zmagazine
10. On Violence and Youth—Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pepi Leistyna and Stephen Sherblom, chomsky.info, quoting Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, Summer 1995 , retrieved 2008-01-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
11. Noam Chomsky on the State of the Nation, Iraq and the Election, DEMOCRACY NOW!, October 21, 2004, retrieved 2008-01-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
12. Katzenstein, Peter and Robert Keohane. "Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America", in Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Katzenstein and Keohane, eds., Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006 (forthcoming).
13. A genealogy of anti-Americanism
14. James W. Ceaser. "A genealogy of anti-Americanism" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-06.
15. Scott Peterson, In Iran, 'Death to America' is back, The Christian Science Monitor, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
16. "Death To America", Iran Parliament OKs Nuke Enrichment Bill, 1 November, 2004, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
17. Jean-Francois Revel (2006), "Europe's Anti-American Obsession", The American Enterprise, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) (from internet archive)
18. Steve Schifferes (6 June, 2003), The roots of anti-Americanism, BBC News, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
19. Jacklyn Martin (December 9, 2002), Is Chomsky 'anti-American'?] Noam Chomsky, chomsky.info, requoting The Herald, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
20. CNN: Anti-Americanism in Europe deepens, February 14, 2003
21. Rammstein - Amerika, songmeanings.com, retrieved 2008-03-17
22. America's Image Slips, But Allies Share U.S. Concerns Over Iran, Hamas, June 13, 2006, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
23. The Time's Populus poll
24. Stand up to US, voters tell Blair, July 25, 2006, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
25. "Anti-American Examined". BBC. 2007-04-12. Retrieved 2007-11-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
26. ^ Linzer, Dafna (2004). "Poll Shows Growing Arab Rancor at U.S." The Washington Post: A26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
27. ^ "The Great Divide: How Westerners and Muslims View Each Other: Europe's Muslims More Moderate". Pew Global Attitudes Project. 2006. Retrieved 2006-09-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
28. Berman, Paul The Philosopher of Islamic Terror, New York Times Magazine, 23 March 2003, accessed 29 April 2007.
29. David Von Drehle, A Lesson In Hate Smithsonian Magazine
30. CIA acknowledges involvement in Allende's overthrow, Pinochet's rise, BBC News, September 19, 2000, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
31. BBC News. How the US 'lost' Latin America. Online accessed 10 January 2007
32. Foreign Affairs. Latin America's Left Turn. Online accessed 10 January 2007
33. James, Ian At U.N., Chavez Calls Bush 'The Devil', AP, 20 September 2006,
34. Blum, Justin (Washington Post, 22 November 2005)."Chavez Pushes Petro-Diplomacy". Retrieved 29 November 2005.

Resources

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External links

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• Chiozza, Giacomo (2004). "Love and Hate: Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World" (PDF). Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Furia, Peter A. (2006). "Determinants of Arab Public Opinion on Foreign Relations". International Studies Quarterly. 50 (3): 585. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Johnston, Gregory (2006). "Anti-Americanism: An Exploration of a Contested Concept in Western Europe" (PDF). Dissertation. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
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  • Choudhury, Nusrat. "The Economic Impact of Anti-Americanism" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help) PDF draft chapter later found in the book Anti-americanisms in World Politics
  • Katzenstein, Peter J. (2005). "Types and Sources of Anti-Americanism: A Framework for Analysis". University of Southern California Center for International Studies. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Word document draft chapter later found in the book Anti-americanisms in World Politics
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• Shlapentokh, Vladimir (2004). "The Threat of International Terrorism and the Image of the United States Abroad" (PDF). The Brown Journal of World Affairs. X (2): 167. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Vedrine, Hubert (2004). "On Anti-Americanism" (PDF). The Brown Journal of World Affairs. X (2): 117. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Kohut, Andrew (2003). "Anti-Americanism: Causes and Characteristics". The Pew Research Center. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) HTML file

Government Documents

• Schneider, W. (2004). "Final report of the Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on Strategic Communication, United States Office of the Secretary of the Defense" (PDF). US Pentagon. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Regan, Tom (2004). "They hate our policies, not our freedom Pentagon report contains major criticisms of administration". Christian Science Monitor. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Explanation of the report

Magazine & Newspaper Articles

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• Ceaser, James W. (2003). "A Genealogy of Anti-Americanism". The Public Interest. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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• Fulford, Robert (2001). "U.S. Bashing No Longer a Game". National Post. {{cite journal}}: Check |first= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Jacobson, Nora (2004). "Before You Flee to Canada, Can We Talk?". The Washington Post. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Kagan, Robert (2002). "Power and Weakness". Policy Review. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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• Netanyahu, Benjamin (2001). "Statement for the Government Reform Committee". http://www.Bnetanyahu.com. {{cite journal}}: Check |first= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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• Wellemeyer, Jonathan (2006). "Hollywood and the Spread of Anti-Americanism". National Public Radio. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• BBC question and answers article
• How the World Sees America - Washington Post Feature

Template:US topics Template:Discriminationfooter

• Anti-Americanism
• Anti-national sentiment
• American studies
• Politics of the United States
• International relations
• Persecution