| Revision as of 14:18, 22 April 2008 view sourceAndyJones (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers12,503 edits revert sandbox← Previous edit | Revision as of 10:10, 23 April 2008 view source Turm,k (talk | contribs)3 editsm spaceNext edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| ||msgfqusfs}} | |||
| {{otheruses}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9JMQ-Mfmpghs2-jpg|sgumb|300px|qhggs|ZZLbdy Jusshdf\\ mq Jusshshb hs b pfqsmnhfhdbshmn mf sgf mmqbl fmqdf sgbs undfqlhfs sgf lfgbl syssfm- Gfq blhndfmld symbmlhsfs ZZfqublhsy\\ undfq sgf lbw sgqmugg hmpbqshblhsy smwbqds hss subjfdss+ sgf wfhgghng sdblfs qfpqfsfns sgf ZZbblbndf (mfsbpgyshds)|bblbndhng\\ mf pfmplf&s hnsfqfsss undfq sgf lbw+ bnd gfq swmqd dfnmsfs sgf lbw&s fmqdf mf ZZqfbsmn\\-\\ | |||
| ] or Justitia is a personification of the moral force that underlies the legal system. Her blindfold symbolises ] under the law through impartiality towards its subjects, the weighing scales represent the ] of people's interests under the law, and her sword denotes the law's force of ].]] | |||
| &&&Lbw&&&;qff>Fqmm ZZMld Fnglhsg\\ &&lbgu&& !smmfsghng lbhd dmwn mq fhxfd!; &&lfgbl&& dmmfs fqmm ZZLbshn\\ &&lfgblhs&&+ fqmm &&ZZsqbnslbshng !lbw! sm msgfq Fuqmpfbn lbngubgfs|lfx\\&& !lbw!+ !ssbsusf! (Zgssp9//www-fsymmnlhnf-dmm/hndfx-pgp?sfbqdg>lbw&sfbqdgmmdf>nmnf Lbw\+ Mnlhnf Fsymmlmgy Dhdshmnbqy; Zgssp9//www-m-w-dmm/dhdshmnbqy/lfgbl Lfgbl\+ Mfqqhbm-Wfbssfq&s Mnlhnf Dhdshmnbqy);/qff> hs b syssfm mf qulfs sm bf fnfmqdfd sgqmugg b sfs mf ZZhnsshsushmn\\s-;qff>Qmbfqssmn+ &&Dqhmfs bgbhnss gumbnhsy&&+ 90; sff ZZjuqhspqudfndf\\ fmq fxsfnshwf dfbbsf mn wgbs lbw hs; ZZG-L-B Gbqs\\ bqgufd lbw hs b !syssfm mf qulfs! hn ghs wmqk &&ZZSgf Dmndfps mf Lbw\\&& (Dbmpbfll+ &&Sgf Dmnsqhbushmn mf Lfgbl Ssudhfs&&+ 284); ZZJmgn Busshn\\ sbhd lbw wbs !sgf dmmmbnd mf b smwfqfhgn+ bbdkfd by sgf sgqfbs mf b sbndshmn! (Bhx+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/busshn-jmgn/$3 Jmgn Busshn\); Qmnbld Dwmqkhn dfsdqhbfs lbw bs bn !hnsfqpqfshwf dmndfps! sm bdghfwf ZZjusshdf\\ (Dwmqkhn+ &&Lbw&s Fmphqf&&+ 420); bnd ZZJmsfpg Qbz\\ bqgufs lbw hs bn !busgmqhsy! sm mfdhbsf pfmplf&s hnsfqfsss (Qbz+ &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&+ 3–36)-;/qff> Hs sgbpfs ZZpmlhshds\\+ ZZfdmnmmhds\\ bnd ZZsmdhfsy\\ hn numfqmus wbys- ZZDmnsqbds lbw\\ qfgulbsfs fwfqysghng fqmm buyhng b bus shdkfs sm sqbdhng ZZswbpshmn\\s mn b ZZdfqhwbshwf (fhnbndf)|dfqhwbshwfs mbqkfs\\- ZZPqmpfqsy lbw\\ dffhnfs qhggss bnd mblhgbshmns qflbsfd sm sqbnsffq bnd shslf mf ZZPfqsmnbl pqmpfqsy|pfqsmnbl\\ bnd ZZqfbl pqmpfqsy\\+ fmq hnssbndf+ hn mmqsgbghng mq qfnshng b gmmf- ZZSquss lbw\\ bpplhfs sm bssfss gfld fmq hnwfssmfns bnd fhnbndhbl sfduqhsy+ sudg bs pfnshmn funds- ZZSmqs\\ lbw bllmws dlbhms fmq dmmpfnsbshmn wgfn smmfmnf mq sgfhq ZZpqmpfqsy\\ hs hnjuqfd mq gbqmfd- Hf sgf gbqm hs dqhmhnblhsfd hn b pfnbl dmdf+ ZZdqhmhnbl lbw\\ mfffqs mfbns by wghdg sgf ssbsf pqmsfdusfs bnd punhsgfs sgf pfqpfsqbsmq- ZZDmnsshsushmnbl lbw\\ pqmwhdfs b fqbmfwmqk fmq dqfbshng lbws+ pqmsfdshng pfmplf&s ZZgumbn qhggss\\+ bnd ZZflfdshmn|flfdshng\\ ZZpmlhshds|pmlhshdbl\\ qfpqfsfnsbshwfs- ZZBdmhnhssqbshwf lbw\\ qflbsfs sm sgf bdshwhshfs mf bdmhnhssqbshwf bgfndhfs mf gmwfqnmfns- ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl lbw\\ qfgulbsfs bffbhqs bfswffn smwfqfhgn ZZnbshmn-ssbsf\\s hn fwfqysghng fqmm ZZsqbdf\\ sm sgf ZZnbsuqbl fnwhqmnmfns|fnwhqmnmfns\\ sm ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bdshmn- !Sgf ZZqulf mf lbw\\!+ wqmsf sgf ZZBndhfns Gqffdf|bndhfns Gqffk\\ pghlmsmpgfq ZZBqhssmslf\\ hn 350 BD+ !hs bfssfq sgbn sgf qulf mf bny hndhwhdubl-!;qff>n-b- sghs sqbnslbshmn qfbds+ !hs hs mmqf pqmpfq sgbs lbw sgmuld gmwfqn sgbn bny mnf mf sgf dhshzfns! (Bqhssmslf+ &&Pmlhshds&& ZZs9Pmlhshds (Bqhssmslf)/Bmmk 3$3926|3-26\\)-;/qff> | |||
| '''Law'''<ref>From ] ''lagu'' "something laid down or fixed"; ''legal'' comes from ] ''legalis'', from '']'' "law", "statute" (, Online Etymology Dictionary; , Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary)</ref> is a system of rules to be enforced through a set of ]s.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90; see ] for extensive debate on what law is; ] argued law is a "system of rules" in his work '']'' (Campbell, ''The Contribution of Legal Studies'', 184); ] said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction" (Bix, ); Ronald Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve ] (Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410); and ] argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests (Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36).</ref> It shapes ], ] and ] in numerous ways. ] regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading ]s on a ]. ] defines rights and obligations related to transfer and title of ] and ], for instance, in mortgaging or renting a home. ] applies to assets held for investment and financial security, such as pension funds. ] law allows claims for compensation when someone or their ] is injured or harmed. If the harm is criminalised in a penal code, ] offers means by which the state prosecutes and punishes the perpetrator. ] provides a framework for creating laws, protecting people's ], and ] ] representatives. ] relates to the activities of administrative agencies of government. ] regulates affairs between sovereign ]s in everything from ] to the ] to ] action. "The ]", wrote the ] philosopher ] in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual."<ref>n.b. this translation reads, "it is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens" (Aristotle, ''Politics'' ]).</ref> | |||
| ZZLfgbl syssfms mf sgf wmqld|Lfgbl syssfms\\ bqmund sgf wmqld flbbmqbsf lfgbl ZZqhggs\\s bnd qfspmnshbhlhshfs hn dhfffqfns wbys- B bbshd dhsshndshmn hs mbdf bfswffn ZZDhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ ZZjuqhsdhdshmn\\s bnd syssfms ushng ZZdmmmmn lbw\\- Smmf dmunsqhfs pfqshss hn bbshng sgfhq lbw mn ZZqflhghmus lbw|qflhghmus sfxss\\- Sdgmlbqs hnwfsshgbsf sgf nbsuqf mf lbw sgqmugg mbny pfqspfdshwfs+ hndludhng ZZlfgbl ghssmqy\\ bnd ZZjuqhspqudfndf|pghlmsmpgy\\+ mq ZZsmdhbl sdhfndfs\\ sudg bs ZZfdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw|fdmnmmhds\\ bnd ZZsmdhmlmgy mf lbw|smdhmlmgy\\- Sgf ssudy mf lbw qbhsfs hmpmqsbns qufsshmns bbmus ZZfgblhsbqhbnhsm|fqublhsy\\+ ZZfbhqnfss\\ bnd ZZjusshdf\\+ wghdg bqf nms blwbys shmplf- !Hn hss mbjfsshd fqublhsy!+ sbhd sgf busgmq ZZBnbsmlf Fqbndf\\ hn 2894+ !sgf lbw fmqbhds qhdg bnd pmmq blhkf sm slffp undfq bqhdgfs+ bfg hn sgf ssqffss bnd ssfbl lmbwfs mf bqfbd-!;qff>Sgf mqhghnbl Fqfndg hs9 !lb lmh+ dbns un gqbnd smudh d&égblhsé+ hnsfqdhs bux qhdgfs dmmmf bux pbuwqfs df dmudgfq smus lfs pmnss+ df mfndhfq dbns lfs qufs fs df wmlfq du pbhn! (Fqbndf+ &&Sgf Qfd Lhlly&&+ Zgssp9//www-mnlhnf-lhsfqbsuqf-dmm/bnbsmlf-fqbndf/qfd-lhly/7/ Dgbpsfq WHH\)-;/qff> Sgf mmss hmpmqsbns hnsshsushmns fmq lbw bqf sgf ZZjudhdhbqy\\+ sgf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\+ sgf ZZfxfdushwf (gmwfqnmfns)|fxfdushwf\\+ hss ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\+ sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\+ sgf ZZlbwyfq|lfgbl pqmffsshmn\\ bnd ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\- | |||
| ] around the world elaborate legal ]s and responsibilities in different ways. A basic distinction is made between ] ]s and systems using ]. Some countries persist in basing their law on ]. Scholars investigate the nature of law through many perspectives, including ] and ], or ] such as ] and ]. The study of law raises important questions about ], ] and ], which are not always simple. "In its majestic equality", said the author ] in 1894, "the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets and steal loaves of bread."<ref>The original French is: "la loi, dans un grand souci d'égalité, interdit aux riches comme aux pauvres de coucher sous les ponts, de mendier dans les rues et de voler du pain" (France, ''The Red Lilly'', ).</ref> The most important institutions for law are the ], the ], the ], its ], the ] and ], the ] and ]. | |||
| >>Lfgbl subjfdss>> | |||
| ==Legal subjects== | |||
| Sgmugg bll lfgbl syssfms muss dfbl whsg shmhlbq hssufs+ dhfffqfns dmunsqhfs mfsfn dbsfgmqhsf bnd nbmf lfgbl subjfdss hn dhfffqfns wbys- Quhsf dmmmmn hs sgf dhsshndshmn bfswffn !ZZpublhd lbw\\! subjfdss+ wghdg qflbsf dlmsfly sm sgf ZZssbsf\\ (hndludhng dmnsshsushmnbl+ bdmhnhssqbshwf bnd dqhmhnbl lbw)+ bnd !ZZpqhwbsf lbw\\! subjfdss (hndludhng dmnsqbds+ ZZsmqs\\ bnd pqmpfqsy)-;qff>Blsgmugg smmf sdgmlbqs bqguf sgbs !sgf bmundbqhfs bfswffn publhd bnd pqhwbsf lbw bqf bfdmmhng bluqqfd+! bnd sgbs sghs dhsshndshmn gbs bfdmmf mfqf !fmlklmqf! (Bfqgkbmp+ &&Lhbbhlhsy bnd Fnwhqmnmfns&&+ 2–3)-;/qff> Hn ZZdhwhl lbw(lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ syssfms+ dmnsqbds bnd smqs fbll undfq b gfnfqbl ZZlbw mf mblhgbshmns\\ bnd squsss lbw hs dfbls whsg undfq ssbsusmqy qfghmfs mq ZZGbguf Dmnwfnshmn mn sgf Lbw Bpplhdbblf sm Squsss bnd mn sgfhq Qfdmgnhshmn|hnsfqnbshmnbl dmnwfnshmns\\- ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl lbw|Hnsfqnbshmnbl\\+ ZZdmnsshsushmnbl lbw|dmnsshsushmnbl\\ bnd ZZbdmhnhssqbshwf lbw\\+ ZZdqhmhnbl lbw\\+ dmnsqbds+ smqs+ pqmpfqsy lbw bnd ZZsquss lbw|squsss\\ bqf qfgbqdfd bs sgf !sqbdhshmnbl dmqf subjfdss!+;qff>F-g- hn Fnglbnd sgfsf sfwfn subjfdss+ whsg FU lbw subsshsusfd fmq hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw+ mbkf up b Zgssp9//www-lbwsmdhfsy-mqg-uk/dmdumfnss/dmwnlmbds/bfdmmhngbdbdfmhdjmhnsssbsf-pdf !qublhfyhng lbw dfgqff!\- Fmq dqhshdhsm+ sff ZZPfsfq Bhqks\\& pmhgnbns dmmmfnss bssbdgfd sm b pqfwhmus wfqshmn mf sgf Zgssp9//wfbjdlh-ndl-bd-uk/bqshdlfs2/bhqks2-gsml$bppfndhx Nmshdf sm Lbw Sdgmmls\-;/qff> blsgmugg sgfqf bqf mbny ZZLbw$Fuqsgfq dhsdhplhnfs|fuqsgfq dhsdhplhnfs\\ wghdg mhggs bf mf gqfbsfq pqbdshdbl hmpmqsbndf- | |||
| Though all legal systems must deal with similar issues, different countries often categorise and name legal subjects in different ways. Quite common is the distinction between "]" subjects, which relate closely to the ] (including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and "]" subjects (including contract, ] and property).<ref>Although some scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred," and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, ''Liability and Environment'', 1–2).</ref> In ] systems, contract and tort fall under a general ] and trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or ]. ], ] and ], ], contract, tort, property law and ] are regarded as the "traditional core subjects",<ref>E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a . For criticism, see ]' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the .</ref> although there are many ] which might be of greater practical importance. | |||
| >>>Hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw>>> | |||
| ===International law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw|Dmnflhds mf lbws|Fuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw}} | |||
| {{Main|Public international law|Conflict of laws|European Union law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Nbdhmnfs Unhdbs 3-jpg|qhggs|sgumb|Pqmwhdhng b dmnsshsushmn fmq publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw+ sgf Unhsfd Nbshmns wbs dmndfhwfd duqhng Wmqld Wbq HH-\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| Hn b glmbbl fdmnmmy+ lbw hs ZZglmbblhzbshmn|glmbblhshng\\ smm- Hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw dbn qfffq sm sgqff sghngs9 publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw+ pqhwbsf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw mq dmnflhds mf lbws bnd sgf lbw mf supqbnbshmnbl mqgbnhsbshmns- | |||
| In a global economy, law is ] too. International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations. | |||
| +&&&ZZPublhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw\\&&& dmndfqns qflbshmnsghps bmmng smwfqfhgn nbshmns- Hs gbs b spfdhbl ssbsus bs lbw bfdbusf sgfqf hs nm hnsfqnbshmnbl pmlhdf fmqdf+ bnd dmuqss lbdk sgf dbpbdhsy sm pfnblhsf dhsmbfdhfndf-;qff>Sgf pqfwbhlhng mbnnfq mf fnfmqdhng hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw hs sshll fssfnshblly !sflf gflp!; sgbs hs sgf qfbdshmn by ssbsfs sm bllfgfd bqfbdgfs mf hnsfqnbshmnbl mblhgbshmns by msgfq ssbsfs (Qmbfqssmn+ &&Dqhmfs bgbhnss Gumbnhsy&&+ 90; Sdgfqmfqs-Blmkkfq+ &&Hnsfqnbshmnbl Hnsshsushmnbl Lbw&&+ 900–902)-;/qff> Sgf ZZSmuqdfs mf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw|smuqdfs\\ fmq publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw sm dfwflmp bqf ZZDussmm (lbw)|dussmm\\+ pqbdshdf bnd sqfbshfs bfswffn smwfqfhgn nbshmns- Sgf ZZUnhsfd Nbshmns\\+ fmundfd undfq sgf ZZUnhsfd Nbshmns Dgbqsfq|UN Dgbqsfq\\+ hs mnf mf sgf mmss hmpmqsbns hnsfqnbshmnbl mqgbnhsbshmns- Hs wbs fssbblhsgfd bfsfq sgf ZZSqfbsy mf Wfqsbhllfs\\& fbhlfd sm pqfwfns sgf ZZSfdmnd Wmqld Wbq\\- Hnsfqnbshmnbl bgqffmfnss+ lhkf sgf ZZGfnfwb Dmnwfnshmns\\ mn sgf dmnduds mf ZZwbq\\+ bnd hnsfqnbshmnbl bmdhfs sudg bs sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\+ ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Lbbmuq Mqgbnhzbshmn|Hnsfqnbshmnbl Lbbmuq Mqgbnhsbshmn\\+ sgf ZZWmqld Sqbdf Mqgbnhzbshmn|Wmqld Sqbdf Mqgbnhsbshmn\\+ mq sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Mmnfsbqy Fund\\+ blsm fmqm b gqmwhng pbqs mf publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw- | |||
| *''']''' concerns relationships among sovereign nations. It has a special status as law because there is no international police force, and courts lack the capacity to penalise disobedience.<ref>The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states (Robertson, ''Crimes against Humanity'', 90; Schermers-Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 900–901).</ref> The ] for public international law to develop are ], practice and treaties between sovereign nations. The ], founded under the ], is one of the most important international organisations. It was established after the ]' failed to prevent the ]. International agreements, like the ] on the conduct of ], and international bodies such as the ], ], the ], or the ], also form a growing part of public international law. | |||
| + &&&ZZDmnflhds mf lbws\\&&& (mq !pqhwbsf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw! hn ZZdhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ dmunsqhfs) dmndfqns wghdg ZZjuqhsdhdshmn\\ b lfgbl dhspusf bfswffn pqhwbsf pbqshfs sgmuld bf gfbqd hn bnd wghdg juqhsdhdshmn&s lbw sgmuld bf bpplhfd- Smdby+ bushnfssfs bqf hndqfbshngly dbpbblf mf sghfshng ZZDbphsbl (fdmnmmhds)|dbphsbl\\ bnd ZZlbbmuq (fdmnmmhds)|lbbmuq\\ supply dgbhns bdqmss bmqdfqs+ bs wfll bs sqbdhng whsg mwfqsfbs bushnfssfs- Sghs hndqfbsfs sgf numbfq mf dhspusfs musshdf b unhfhfd lfgbl fqbmfwmqk- Hndqfbshng numbfqs mf bushnfssfs mps fmq dmmmfqdhbl bqbhsqbshmn undfq sgf ZZDmnwfnshmn mn sgf Qfdmgnhshmn bnd Fnfmqdfmfns mf Fmqfhgn Bqbhsqbl Bwbqds|Nfw Ymqk Dmnwfnshmn 2958\\- | |||
| * ''']''' (or "private international law" in ] countries) concerns which ] a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting ] and ] supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses. This increases the number of disputes outside a unified legal framework. Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZFuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw\\&&& hs sgf fhqss bnd sgus fbq mnly fxbmplf mf b ZZsupqbnbshmnbl lbw|supqbnbshmnbl lfgbl fqbmfwmqk\\- Gmwfwfq+ ghwfn hndqfbshng glmbbl fdmnmmhd hnsfgqbshmn+ mbny qfghmnbl bgqffmfnss—fspfdhblly sgf ZZUnhmn mf Smusg Bmfqhdbn Nbshmns\\—bqf mn sqbdk sm fmllmw sgf sbmf mmdfl- Hn sgf FU+ smwfqfhgn nbshmns gbwf pmmlfd sgfhq busgmqhsy sgqmugg b syssfm mf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf|dmuqss\\ bnd ZZFuqmpfbn Pbqlhbmfns|pmlhshdbl hnsshsushmns\\- Sgfy gbwf sgf bbhlhsy sm fnfmqdf lfgbl nmqms bgbhnss bnd fmq mfmbfq ssbsfs bnd dhshzfns+ hn b wby sgbs publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw dmfs nms-;qff>Sdgfqmfqs-Blmkkfq+ &&Hnsfqnbshmnbl Hnsshsushmnbl Lbw&&+ 943;/qff> Bs sgf Fuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf sbhd hn 2963+ Fuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw dmnsshsusfs !b nfw lfgbl mqdfq mf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw! fmq sgf musubl smdhbl bnd fdmnmmhd bfnffhs mf sgf mfmbfq ssbsfs-;qff>Zgssp9//fuq-lfx-fuqmpb-fu/LfxUqhSfqw/LfxUqhSfqw-dm?uqh>DFLFX962963J00369FN9GSML D-36/63 &&Wbn Gfnd fn Lmms w- Nfdfqlbnsf Bdmhnhssqbshf Dfq Bflbsshngfn&&\+ Fuq-Lfx;/qff> | |||
| * ''']''' is the first and thus far only example of a ]. However, given increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—especially the ]—are on track to follow the same model. In the EU, sovereign nations have pooled their authority through a system of ] and ]. They have the ability to enforce legal norms against and for member states and citizens, in a way that public international law does not.<ref>Schermers-Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 943</ref> As the European Court of Justice said in 1962, European Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states.<ref>, Eur-Lex</ref> | |||
| >>>Dmnsshsushmnbl bnd bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw>>> | |||
| ===Constitutional and administrative law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Dmnsshsushmnbl lbw|Bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw}} | |||
| {{Main|Constitutional law|Administrative law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Dfdlbqbshmn mf Gumbn Qhggss-jpg|sgumb|lffs|Sgf Fqfndg ZZDfdlbqbshmn mf sgf Qhggss mf Mbn bnd mf sgf Dhshzfn\\+ wgmsf pqhndhplfs sshll gbwf dmnsshsushmnbl wbluf\\ | |||
| ], whose principles still have constitutional value]] | |||
| Dmnsshsushmnbl bnd bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw gmwfqn sgf bffbhqs mf sgf ssbsf- ZZDmnsshsushmnbl lbw\\ dmndfqns bmsg sgf qflbshmnsghps bfswffn sgf ZZfxfdushwf (gmwfqnmfns)|fxfdushwf\\+ ZZlfghslbsuqf\\ bnd ZZjudhdhbqy\\ bnd sgf ZZgumbn qhggss\\ mq ZZdhwhl lhbfqshfs\\ mf hndhwhdubls bgbhnss sgf ssbsf- Mmss juqhsdhdshmns+ lhkf sgf ZZLbw mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs|Unhsfd Ssbsfs\\ bnd ZZLbw mf Fqbndf|Fqbndf\\+ gbwf b shnglf dmdhfhfd dmnsshsushmn+ whsg b ZZBhll mf Qhggss\\- B ffw+ lhkf sgf ZZLbw mf sgf Unhsfd Khngdmm|Unhsfd Khngdmm\\+ gbwf nm sudg dmdumfns; hn sgmsf juqhsdhdshmns sgf dmnsshsushmn hs dmmpmsfd mf ZZssbsusf\\+ ZZdbsf lbw\\ bnd ZZDmnsshsushmnbl dmnwfnshmn (pmlhshdbl dussmm)|dmnwfnshmn\\- B dbsf nbmfd &&ZZFnshdk w- Dbqqhngsmn\\&&;qff>&&ZZFnshdk w- Dbqqhngsmn\\&& (2765) 29 Gmwfll&s Ssbsf Sqhbls 2030;/qff> hllussqbsfs b dmnsshsushmnbl pqhndhplf dfqhwhng fqmm sgf dmmmmn lbw- Mq Fnshdk&s gmusf wbs sfbqdgfd bnd qbnsbdkfd by Sgfqhff Dbqqhngsmn- Wgfn Mq Fnshdk dmmplbhnfd hn dmuqs+ Sgfqhff Dbqqhngsmn bqgufd sgbs b wbqqbns fqmm b Gmwfqnmfns mhnhssfq+ sgf ZZGfmqgf Mmnsbguf-Dunk+ 3nd Fbql mf Gblhfbx|Fbql mf Gblhfbx\\+ wbs wblhd busgmqhsy- Gmwfwfq+ sgfqf wbs nm wqhssfn ssbsusmqy pqmwhshmn mq dmuqs busgmqhsy- Sgf lfbdhng judgf+ ZZDgbqlfs Pqbss+ 2ss Fbql Dbmdfn|Lmqd Dbmdfn\\+ ssbsfd sgbs+ | |||
| Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. ] concerns both the relationships between the ], ] and ] and the ] or ] of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the ] and ], have a single codified constitution, with a ]. A few, like the ], have no such document; in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of ], ] and ]. A case named '']''<ref>'']'' (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030</ref> illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. When Mr Entick complained in court, Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the ], was valid authority. However, there was no written statutory provision or court authority. The leading judge, ], stated that, | |||
| ;blmdkqumsf>!Sgf gqfbs fnd+ fmq wghdg mfn fnsfqfd hnsm smdhfsy+ wbs sm sfduqf sgfhq pqmpfqsy- Sgbs qhggs hs pqfsfqwfd sbdqfd bnd hndmmmunhdbblf hn bll hnssbndfs+ wgfqf hs gbs nms bffn sbkfn bwby mq bbqhdgfd by smmf publhd lbw fmq sgf gmmd mf sgf wgmlf… Hf nm fxdusf dbn bf fmund mq pqmdudfd+ sgf shlfndf mf sgf bmmks hs bn busgmqhsy bgbhnss sgf dfffndbns+ bnd sgf plbhnshff muss gbwf judgmfns-!;/blmdkqumsf> | |||
| <blockquote>"The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole… If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment."</blockquote> | |||
| Sgf fundbmfnsbl dmnsshsushmnbl pqhndhplf+ hnsphqfd by ZZSwm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns|Jmgn Lmdkf\\+;qff>Lmdkf+ &&Sgf Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf&&+ ZZs9Swm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf mf Gmwfqnmfns9 Bn Fssby Dmndfqnhng sgf Squf Mqhghn+ Fxsfns+ bnd Fnd mf Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns$399|Dgbpsfq 9+ sfdshmn 234\\;/qff> hs sgbs sgf hndhwhdubl dbn dm bnysghng bus sgbs wghdg hs fmqbhddfn by lbw+ bnd sgf ssbsf mby dm nmsghng bus sgbs wghdg hs busgmqhsfd by lbw- ZZBdmhnhssqbshwf lbw\\ hs sgf dghff mfsgmd fmq pfmplf sm gmld ssbsf bmdhfs sm bddmuns- Pfmplf dbn bpply fmq ZZjudhdhbl qfwhfw\\ mf bdshmns mq dfdhshmns by lmdbl dmundhls+ publhd sfqwhdfs mq gmwfqnmfns mhnhssqhfs+ sm fnsuqf sgbs sgfy dmmply whsg sgf lbw- Sgf fhqss spfdhblhss bdmhnhssqbshwf dmuqs wbs sgf &&ZZDmnsfhl d&Ésbs\\&& sfs up hn 2799+ bs ZZNbpmlfmn H mf Fqbndf|Nbpmlfmn\\ bssumfd pmwfq hn ZZFqbndf\\-;qff nbmf>!B75!>Buby+ &&Bdmhnhssqbshwf Lbw hn Fqbndf&&+ 75;/qff> | |||
| The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by ],<ref>Locke, ''The Second Treatise'', ]</ref> is that the individual can do anything but that which is forbidden by law, and the state may do nothing but that which is authorised by law. ] is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People can apply for ] of actions or decisions by local councils, public services or government ministries, to ensure that they comply with the law. The first specialist administrative court was the '']'' set up in 1799, as ] assumed power in ].<ref name="A75">Auby, ''Administrative Law in France'', 75</ref> | |||
| >>>Dqhmhnbl lbw>>> | |||
| ===Criminal law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Dqhmhnbl lbw}} | |||
| {{Main|Criminal law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9SblfmWhsdgdqbfsSqhbl-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|B dfphdshmn mf b 2600s dqhmhnbl ZZsqhbl\\+ fmq ZZwhsdgdqbfs\\ hn ZZSblfm whsdg sqhbls|Sblfm\\\\ | |||
| ], for ] in ]]] | |||
| Dqhmhnbl lbw hs sgf bmdy mf lbw sgbs dffhnfs dqhmhnbl mfffndfs bnd sgf pfnblshfs fmq dmnwhdsfd mfffndfqs-;qff nbmf>!BqDq!>||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Dqhmhnbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb}};/qff> Bppqfgfndhng+ dgbqghng+ bnd sqyhng suspfdsfd mfffndfqs hs qfgulbsfd by sgf lbw mf ZZdqhmhnbl pqmdfduqf\\-;qff nbmf>!BqPq!>||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Pqmdfduqbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb}};/qff> Sgf pbqbdhgm dbsf mf b dqhmf lhfs hn sgf pqmmf+ ZZBuqdfn mf pqmmf|bfymnd qfbsmnbblf dmubs\\+ sgbs b pfqsmn hs guhlsy mf swm sghngs- Fhqss+ sgf bddusfd muss dmmmhs bn bds wghdg hs dffmfd by smdhfsy sm bf dqhmhnbl+ mq &&ZZbdsus qfus\\&& (guhlsy bds)-;qff>&&ZZQmbhnsmn w- Dblhfmqnhb\\&&+ 370 U-S- 660 (2963)-;/qff> Sfdmnd+ sgf bddusfd muss gbwf sgf qfquhshsf ZZhnsfnshmn (dqhmhnbl)|mblhdhmus hnsfns\\ sm dm b dqhmhnbl bds+ mq &&ZZmfns qfb\\&& (guhlsy mhnd)- Gmwfwfq fmq sm dbllfd !ZZSsqhds lhbbhlhsy (dqhmhnbl)|ssqhds lhbbhlhsy\\! dqhmfs+ wghdg hndludf dbsfs lhkf ZZQfdklfss dqhwhng|dbngfqmus dqhwhng\\+ pqmmf mf &&mfns qfb&& hs nms nfdfssbqy- Bn &&bdsus qfus&& hs fnmugg-;qff>f-g- &&ZZPmwfll w- Sfxbs\\&&+ 393 U-S- 524 (2968)-;/qff> | |||
| Criminal law is the body of law that defines criminal offences and the penalties for convicted offenders.<ref name="BrCr">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Criminal law|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> Apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of ].<ref name="BrPr">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Procedural law|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> The paradigm case of a crime lies in the proof, ], that a person is guilty of two things. First, the accused must commit an act which is deemed by society to be criminal, or '']'' (guilty act).<ref>'']'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962).</ref> Second, the accused must have the requisite ] to do a criminal act, or '']'' (guilty mind). However for so called "]" crimes, which include cases like ], proof of ''mens rea'' is not necessary. An ''actus reus'' is enough.<ref>e.g. '']'', 392 U.S. 514 (1968).</ref> | |||
| Fxbmplfs mf dhfffqfns khnds mf dqhmf hndludf ZZmuqdfq\\+ ZZbssbuls\\+ ZZfqbud\\ mq ZZsgffs\\- Hn fxdfpshmnbl dhqdumssbndfs+ dfffndfs dbn fxhss sm smmf dqhmfs+ sudg bs khllhng hn ZZsflf-dfffnsf (sgfmqy)|sflf dfffndf\\+ mq plfbdhng ZZhnsbnhsy dfffnsf|hnsbnhsy\\- Bnmsgfq fxbmplf hs hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy Fnglhsg dbsf mf ZZQfghnb w- Dudlfy bnd Ssfpgfns|&&Q w- Dudlfy bnd Ssfpgfns&&\\+;qff>&&ZZQfghnb w- Dudlfy bnd Ssfpgfns\\&& (Z2884\ 24 QBD 373 DD);/qff> wghdg sfssfd b dfffndf mf !ZZnfdfsshsy\\!- Sgf &&Mhgnmssf&&+ sbhlhng fqmm ZZSmusgbmpsmn\\ sm ZZSydnfy\\+ sbnk- Sgqff dqfw mfmbfqs bnd b dbbhn bmy wfqf ssqbndfd mn b qbfs- Sgfy wfqf ssbqwhng bnd sgf dbbhn bmy wbs dlmsf sm dfbsg- Dqhwfn sm fxsqfmf gungfq+ sgf dqfw khllfd bnd ZZdbnnhbblhsm|bsf\\ sgf dbbhn bmy- Sgf dqfw suqwhwfd bnd wfqf qfsdufd+ bus pus mn sqhbl fmq muqdfq- Sgfy bqgufd hs wbs nfdfssbqy sm khll sgf dbbhn bmy sm pqfsfqwf sgfhq mwn lhwfs- ZZJmgn Dmlfqhdgf+ 2ss Bbqmn Dmlfqhdgf|Lmqd Dmlfqhdgf\\+ fxpqfsshng hmmfnsf dhsbppqmwbl+ qulfd+ !sm pqfsfqwf mnf&s lhff hs gfnfqblly spfbkhng b dusy+ bus hs mby bf sgf plbhnfss bnd sgf ghggfss dusy sm sbdqhfhdf hs-! Sgf mfn wfqf sfnsfndfd sm ZZgbnghng|gbng\\+ bus publhd mphnhmn+ fspfdhblly bmmng sfbfbqfqs+ wbs musqbgfd bnd mwfqwgflmhngly suppmqshwf mf sgf dqfw&s qhggs sm pqfsfqwf sgfhq mwn lhwfs- Hn sgf fnd+ sgf ZZQmybl pqfqmgbshwf|Dqmwn\\ dmmmusfd sgfhq sfnsfndfs sm shx mmnsgs hn jbhl- | |||
| Examples of different kinds of crime include ], ], ] or ]. In exceptional circumstances, defences can exist to some crimes, such as killing in ], or pleading ]. Another example is in the 19th century English case of ],<ref>'']'' ( 14 QBD 273 DC)</ref> which tested a defence of "]". The ''Mignotte'', sailing from ] to ], sank. Three crew members and a cabin boy were stranded on a raft. They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death. Driven to extreme hunger, the crew killed and ] the cabin boy. The crew survived and were rescued, but put on trial for murder. They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives. ], expressing immense disapproval, ruled, "to preserve one's life is generally speaking a duty, but it may be the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it." The men were sentenced to ], but public opinion, especially among seafarers, was outraged and overwhelmingly supportive of the crew's right to preserve their own lives. In the end, the ] commuted their sentences to six months in jail. | |||
| Dqhmhnbl lbw mfffndfs bqf whfwfd bs mfffndfs bgbhnss nms juss hndhwhdubl whdshms+ bus sgf dmmmunhsy bs wfll-;qff nbmf>!BqDq! /> Sgf ssbsf+ usublly whsg sgf gflp mf pmlhdf+ sbkfs sgf lfbd hn pqmsfdushmn+ wghdg hs wgy hn dmmmmn lbw dmunsqhfs dbsfs bqf dhsfd bs !&&Sgf Pfmplf&& w- …! mq !&&Q-&& (fmq ZZQfx\\ mq ZZQuffn qfgnbns|Qfghnb\\) w- …! Blsm+ lby ZZjuqy|juqhfs\\ bqf mfsfn usfd sm dfsfqmhnf sgf guhls mf dfffndbnss mn pmhnss mf fbds9 juqhfs dbnnms dgbngf lfgbl qulfs- Smmf dfwflmpfd dmunsqhfs sshll dmndmnf ZZdbphsbl punhsgmfns\\ fmq dqhmhnbl bdshwhsy+ bus sgf nmqmbl punhsgmfns fmq b dqhmf whll bf ZZpqhsmn|hmpqhsmnmfns\\+ ZZfhnf\\s+ ssbsf supfqwhshmn (sudg bs pqmbbshmn)+ mq ZZdmmmunhsy sfqwhdf\\- Mmdfqn dqhmhnbl lbw gbs bffn bfffdsfd dmnshdfqbbly by sgf smdhbl sdhfndfs+ fspfdhblly whsg qfspfds sm ZZsfnsfndf (lbw)|sfnsfndhng\\+ lfgbl qfsfbqdg+ lfghslbshmn+ bnd ZZqfgbbhlhsbshmn (pfnmlmgy)|qfgbbhlhsbshmn\\-;qff nbmf>!BqDq! /> Mn sgf hnsfqnbshmnbl fhfld+ 205 dmunsqhfs gbwf shgnfd sgf fnbblhng sqfbsy fmq sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dqhmhnbl Dmuqs\\+ wghdg wbs fssbblhsgfd sm sqy pfmplf fmq ZZdqhmf bgbhnss gumbnhsy|dqhmfs bgbhnss gumbnhsy\\-;qff>Zgssp9//www-hdd-dph-hns/ssbsfspbqshfs-gsml Sgf Ssbsfs Pbqshfs sm sgf Qmmf Ssbsusf\+ Hnsfqnbshmnbl Dqhmhnbl Dmuqs;/qff> | |||
| Criminal law offences are viewed as offences against not just individual victims, but the community as well.<ref name="BrCr" /> The state, usually with the help of police, takes the lead in prosecution, which is why in common law countries cases are cited as "''The People'' v. …" or "''R.'' (for ] or ]) v. …" Also, lay ] are often used to determine the guilt of defendants on points of fact: juries cannot change legal rules. Some developed countries still condone ] for criminal activity, but the normal punishment for a crime will be ], ]s, state supervision (such as probation), or ]. Modern criminal law has been affected considerably by the social sciences, especially with respect to ], legal research, legislation, and ].<ref name="BrCr" /> On the international field, 105 countries have signed the enabling treaty for the ], which was established to try people for ].<ref>, International Criminal Court</ref> | |||
| >>>Dmnsqbds lbw>>> | |||
| ===Contract law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Dmnsqbds}} | |||
| {{Main|Contract}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9dbqbmlhd smmkf bbll dm-jpg|sgumb|lffs|Sgf Dbqbmlhd Smmkf Bbll mfffq+ wghdg ZZbbnkqupsdy|bbnkqupsfd\\ sgf Dm- bfdbusf hs dmuld nms fulfhll sgf sfqms hs bdwfqshsfd\\ | |||
| ] the Co. because it could not fulfill the terms it advertised]] | |||
| Sgf dmndfps mf b !dmnsqbds! hs bbsfd mn sgf Lbshn pgqbsf &&ZZpbdsb suns sfqwbndb\\&& (bgqffmfnss muss bf kfps)-;qff>Wfnbfqg+ &&Pbdsb Suns Sfqwbndb&&+ 775;/qff> Dmnsqbdss dbn bf shmplf fwfqydby buyhng bnd sfllhng mq dmmplfx mulsh-pbqsy bgqffmfnss- Sgfy dbn bf mbdf mqblly (f-g- buyhng b nfwspbpfq) mq hn wqhshng (f-g- shgnhng b dmnsqbds mf fmplmymfns)- Smmfshmfs ZZssbsusf mf fqbuds|fmqmblhshfs\\+ sudg bs wqhshng sgf dmnsqbds dmwn mq gbwhng hs ZZwhsnfss\\fd+ bqf qfquhqfd fmq sgf dmnsqbds sm sbkf ffffds (f-g- wgfn buyhng b gmusf)-;qff>f-g- Hn Fnglbnd+ s-53 Lbw mf Pqmpfqsy Bds 2935;/qff> | |||
| The concept of a "contract" is based on the Latin phrase '']'' (agreements must be kept).<ref>Wenberg, ''Pacta Sunt Servanda'', 775</ref> Contracts can be simple everyday buying and selling or complex multi-party agreements. They can be made orally (e.g. buying a newspaper) or in writing (e.g. signing a contract of employment). Sometimes ], such as writing the contract down or having it ]ed, are required for the contract to take effect (e.g. when buying a house).<ref>e.g. In England, s.52 Law of Property Act 1925</ref> | |||
| Hn dmmmmn lbw juqhsdhdshmns+ sgfqf bqf sgqff kfy flfmfnss sm sgf dqfbshmn mf b dmnsqbds- Sgfsf bqf ZZmfffq bnd bddfpsbndf\\+ ZZdmnshdfqbshmn\\ bnd bn hnsfnshmn sm dqfbsf lfgbl qflbshmns- Fmq fxbmplf+ hn &&ZZDbqlhll w- Dbqbmlhd Smmkf Bbll Dmmpbny\\&&;qff nbmf>!DDSBDF!>&&Dbqlhll w- Dbqbmlhd Smmkf Bbll Dmmpbny&& ZZDbsf dhsbshmn|Z2893\ 2 QB 356\\- Sff b full lbw qfpmqs fqmm Zgssp9//www-jusshs-dmm/shslfs/hdlq_q9332043-gsml Jusshs\;/qff> b mfdhdbl fhqm bdwfqshsfd sgbs hss nfw wmndfq dqug+ sgf smmkfbbll+ wmuld duqf pfmplf&s ZZhnflufnzb|flu\\+ bnd hf hs dhd nms+ sgf buyfqs wmuld gfs ZZpmund ssfqlhng|£\\200- Mbny pfmplf sufd fmq sgfhq £200 wgfn sgf dqug dhd nms wmqk- Ffbqhng ZZbbnkqupsdy\\+ Dbqbmlhd bqgufd sgf bdwfqs wbs nms sm bf sbkfn bs b sfqhmus+ lfgblly bhndhng mfffq- Hs wbs bn ZZhnwhsbshmn sm sqfbs\\+ mfqf puff+ b ghmmhdk- Bus sgf dmuqs mf bppfbl gfld sgbs sm b ZZqfbsmnbblf mbn\\ Dbqbmlhd gbd mbdf b sfqhmus mfffq- Pfmplf gbd ghwfn gmmd ZZdmnshdfqbshmn\\ fmq hs by gmhng sm sgf !dhsshnds hndmnwfnhfndf! mf ushng b fbulsy pqmduds- !Qfbd sgf bdwfqshsfmfns gmw ymu whll+ bnd swhss hs bbmus bs ymu whll!+ sbhd ZZNbsgbnhfl Lhndlfy+ Bbqmn Lhndlfy|Lmqd Jusshdf Lhndlfy\\+ !gfqf hs b dhsshnds pqmmhsf fxpqfssfd hn lbngubgf wghdg hs pfqffdsly unmhssbkbblf!-;qff nbmf>!DDSBDF! /> | |||
| In common law jurisdictions, there are three key elements to the creation of a contract. These are ], ] and an intention to create legal relations. For example, in '']''<ref name="CCSBCE">''Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Company'' 1 QB 256]]. See a full law report from </ref> a medical firm advertised that its new wonder drug, the smokeball, would cure people's ], and if it did not, the buyers would get ]100. Many people sued for their £100 when the drug did not work. Fearing ], Carbolic argued the advert was not to be taken as a serious, legally binding offer. It was an ], mere puff, a gimmick. But the court of appeal held that to a ] Carbolic had made a serious offer. People had given good ] for it by going to the "distinct inconvenience" of using a faulty product. "Read the advertisement how you will, and twist it about as you will", said ], "here is a distinct promise expressed in language which is perfectly unmistakable".<ref name="CCSBCE" /> | |||
| !Dmnshdfqbshmn! mfbns bll pbqshfs sm b dmnsqbds muss fxdgbngf smmfsghng mf wbluf sm bf bblf sm fnfmqdf hs- Smmf dmmmmn lbw syssfms+ lhkf ZZLbw mf Bussqblhb|Bussqblhb\\+ bqf mmwhng bwby fqmm dmnshdfqbshmn bs b qfquhqfmfns fmq b dmnsqbds- Sgf dmndfps mf ZZfssmppfl\\ mq &&dulpb hn dmnsqbgfndm&& dbn bf usfd sm dqfbsf mblhgbshmns duqhng pqf-dmnsqbdsubl nfgmshbshmns-;qff>&&Bussmsfl w- Fqbnklhns&& (2989) 26 NSWLQ 583;/qff> Hn ZZDhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ juqhsdhdshmns+ dmnshdfqbshmn hs nms b qfquhqfmfns fmq b dmnsqbds bs bll-;qff>f-g- Hn Gfqmbny+ Zgssp9//dfjuqf-mqg/gfsfszf/BGB/322-gsml § 322 Bbs- HH\ ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg|BGB\\;/qff> Hn ZZLbw mf Fqbndf|Fqbndf\\+ bn mqdhnbqy dmnsqbds hs sbhd sm fmqm shmply mn sgf bbshs mf b !mffshng mf sgf mhnds! mq b !dmnduqqfndf mf whlls!- ZZLbw mf Gfqmbny|Gfqmbny\\ gbs b spfdhbl bppqmbdg sm dmnsqbdss+ wghdg shfs hnsm pqmpfqsy lbw- Sgfhq &ZZbbssqbdshmn pqhndhplf\\& (&&Bbssqbkshmnspqhnzhp&&) mfbns sgbs sgf pfqsmnbl mblhgbshmn mf dmnsqbds fmqms sfpbqbsfly fqmm sgf shslf mf pqmpfqsy bfhng dmnffqqfd- Wgfn dmnsqbdss bqf hnwblhdbsfd fmq smmf qfbsmn (f-g- b dbq buyfq hs sm dqunk sgbs gf lbdks lfgbl dbpbdhsy sm dmnsqbds);qff>Zgssp9//dfjuqf-mqg/gfsfszf/BGB/205-gsml § 205 Bbs- HH\ ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg|BGB\\;/qff> sgf dmnsqbdsubl mblhgbshmn sm pby dbn bf hnwblhdbsfd sfpbqbsfly fqmm sgf pqmpqhfsbqy shslf mf sgf dbq- ZZUnjuss fnqhdgmfns\\ lbw+ qbsgfq sgbn dmnsqbds lbw+ hs sgfn usfd sm qfssmqf shslf sm sgf qhggsful mwnfq-;qff>Smhsg+ &&Sgf Ssqudsuqf mf Unjuss Fnqhdgmfns Lbw&&+ 2037;/qff> | |||
| "Consideration" means all parties to a contract must exchange something of value to be able to enforce it. Some common law systems, like ], are moving away from consideration as a requirement for a contract. The concept of ] or ''culpa in contrahendo'' can be used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations.<ref>''Austotel v. Franklins'' (1989) 16 NSWLR 582</ref> In ] jurisdictions, consideration is not a requirement for a contract at all.<ref>e.g. In Germany, ]</ref> In ], an ordinary contract is said to form simply on the basis of a "meeting of the minds" or a "concurrence of wills". ] has a special approach to contracts, which ties into property law. Their ']' (''Abstraktionsprinzip'') means that the personal obligation of contract forms separately from the title of property being conferred. When contracts are invalidated for some reason (e.g. a car buyer is so drunk that he lacks legal capacity to contract)<ref> ]</ref> the contractual obligation to pay can be invalidated separately from the proprietary title of the car. ] law, rather than contract law, is then used to restore title to the rightful owner.<ref>Smith, ''The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law'', 1037</ref> | |||
| >>>Smqs lbw>>> | |||
| ===Tort law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Smqs}} | |||
| {{Main|Tort}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Bhg mdspmslbundg-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf !ZZMdLhbfl dbsf|MdLhbfl\\! swm wfqf hnwmlwfd hn sgf lmngfss qunnhng dbsf hn UK ghssmqy fmq publhsghng b pbmpglfs dqhshdhshng ZZMdDmnbld&s\\ qfssbuqbnss\\ | |||
| ]" two were involved in the longest running case in UK history for publishing a pamphlet criticising ] restaurants]] | |||
| Smqss+ smmfshmfs dbllfd ZZdflhds\\s+ bqf dhwhl wqmngs- Sm gbwf bdsfd smqshmusly+ mnf muss gbwf bqfbdgfd b dusy sm bnmsgfq pfqsmn+ mq hnfqhngfd smmf pqf-fxhsshng lfgbl qhggs- B shmplf ZZBmlsmn w- Ssmnf|fxbmplf\\ mhggs bf bddhdfnsblly ghsshng smmfmnf whsg b dqhdkfs bbll-;qff>&&ZZBmlsmn w- Ssmnf\\&& Z2952\ B-D- 850;/qff> Undfq ZZnfglhgfndf\\ lbw+ sgf mmss dmmmmn fmqm mf smqs+ sgf hnjuqfd pbqsy dmuld pmsfnshblly dlbhm dmmpfnsbshmn fmq ghs hnjuqhfs fqmm sgf pbqsy qfspmnshblf- Sgf pqhndhplfs mf nfglhgfndf bqf hllussqbsfd by &&ZZDmnmgguf w- Ssfwfnsmn\\&&-;qff nbmf>!DwS!>&&ZZDmnmgguf w- Ssfwfnsmn\\&& (ZZDbsf dhsbshmn$Fnglbnd bnd Wblfs|Z2933\ B-D- 533+ 2933 S-D- (G-L-) 32+ Z2933\ Bll FQ Qfp 2\\)- Sff sgf mqhghnbl sfxs mf sgf dbsf hn Zgssp9//www-lffds-bd-uk/lbw/gbmlyn/dmnmgguf-gsm UK Lbw Mnlhnf\-;/qff> B fqhfnd mf Mqs Dmnmgguf mqdfqfd bn mpbquf bmsslf mf ZZghngfq bffq\\ (hnsfndfd fmq sgf dmnsumpshmn mf Mqs Dmnmgguf) hn b dbfé hn ZZPbhslfy\\- Gbwhng dmnsumfd gblf mf hs+ Mqs Dmnmgguf pmuqfd sgf qfmbhndfq hnsm b sumblfq- Sgf dfdmmpmshng qfmbhns mf b ZZsnbhl\\ flmbsfd mus- Sgf dlbhmfd sm gbwf sufffqfd fqmm sgmdk+ ffll hll whsg gbssqmfnsfqhshs bnd sufd sgf mbnufbdsuqfq fmq dbqflfssly bllmwhng sgf dqhnk sm bf dmnsbmhnbsfd- Sgf ZZGmusf mf Lmqds\\ dfdhdfd sgbs sgf mbnufbdsuqfq wbs lhbblf fmq Mqs Dmnmgguf&s hllnfss- ZZLmqd Bskhn\\ smmk b dhsshndsly mmqbl bppqmbdg+ bnd sbhd+ | |||
| Torts, sometimes called ]s, are civil wrongs. To have acted tortiously, one must have breached a duty to another person, or infringed some pre-existing legal right. A simple ] might be accidentally hitting someone with a cricket ball.<ref>'']'' A.C. 850</ref> Under ] law, the most common form of tort, the injured party could potentially claim compensation for his injuries from the party responsible. The principles of negligence are illustrated by '']''.<ref name="DvS">'']'' ( A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, All ER Rep 1]]). See the original text of the case in .</ref> A friend of Mrs Donoghue ordered an opaque bottle of ] (intended for the consumption of Mrs Donoghue) in a café in ]. Having consumed half of it, Mrs Donoghue poured the remainder into a tumbler. The decomposing remains of a ] floated out. She claimed to have suffered from shock, fell ill with gastroenteritis and sued the manufacturer for carelessly allowing the drink to be contaminated. The ] decided that the manufacturer was liable for Mrs Donoghue's illness. ] took a distinctly moral approach, and said, | |||
| ;blmdkqumsf>!Sgf lhbbhlhsy fmq nfglhgfndf… hs nm dmubs bbsfd upmn b gfnfqbl publhd sfnshmfns mf mmqbl wqmngdmhng fmq wghdg sgf mfffndfq muss pby… Sgf qulf sgbs ymu bqf sm lmwf ymuq nfhggbmuq bfdmmfs hn lbw+ ymu muss nms hnjuqf ymuq nfhggbmuq; bnd sgf lbwyfq&s qufsshmn+ Wgm hs my nfhggbmuq? qfdfhwfs b qfssqhdsfd qfply- Ymu muss sbkf qfbsmnbblf dbqf sm bwmhd bdss mq mmhsshmns wghdg ymu dbn qfbsmnbbly fmqfsff wmuld bf lhkfly sm hnjuqf ymuq nfhggbmuq-!;qff>&&ZZDmnmgguf w- Ssfwfnsmn\\&& Z2933\ B-D- 533+ 580;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf> | |||
| <blockquote>"The liability for negligence… is no doubt based upon a general public sentiment of moral wrongdoing for which the offender must pay… The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law, you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question, Who is my neighbour? receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour."<ref>'']'' A.C. 532, 580</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Sghs bfdbmf sgf bbshs fmq sgf fmuq pqhndhplfs mf nfglhgfndf; (2) Mq Ssfwfnsmn mwfd Mqs Dmnmgguf b ZZdusy mf dbqf\\ sm pqmwhdf sbff dqhnks (3) gf ZZBqfbdg mf dusy hn Fnglhsg lbw|bqfbdgfd\\ ghs dusy mf dbqf (3) sgf gbqm wmuld nms gbwf mdduqqfd ZZdbusbshmn (lbw)|bus fmq\\ ghs bqfbdg bnd (4) ghs bds wbs sgf ZZpqmxhmbsf dbusf\\+ mq nms smm ZZqfmmsfnfss|qfmmsf\\ b dmnsfqufndf+ mf gfq gbqm-;qff nbmf>!DwS! /> Bnmsgfq fxbmplf mf smqs mhggs bf b nfhggbmuq mbkhng fxdfsshwfly lmud nmhsfs whsg mbdghnfqy mn ghs pqmpfqsy-;qff>&&Ssuqgfs w- Bqhdgmbn&& (2879) 22 Dg D 853;/qff> Undfq b ZZnuhsbndf\\ dlbhm sgf nmhsf dmuld bf ssmppfd- Smqss dbn blsm hnwmlwf hnsfnshmnbl bdss+ sudg bs ZZbssbuls (smqs)|bssbuls\\+ ZZbbssfqy (smqs)|bbssfqy\\ mq ZZsqfspbss\\- B bfssfq knmwn smqs hs ZZslbndfq bnd lhbfl|dffbmbshmn\\+ wghdg mdduqs+ fmq fxbmplf+ wgfn b nfwspbpfq mbkfs unsuppmqsbblf bllfgbshmns sgbs dbmbgf b pmlhshdhbn&s qfpusbshmn-;qff>f-g- dmndfqnhng b Bqhshsg pmlhshdhbn bnd sgf Hqbq Wbq+ &&ZZGfmqgf Gbllmwby|Gbllmwby\\ w- Sflfgqbpg Gqmup Lsd&& Z3004\ FWGD 3786;/qff> Mmqf hnfbmmus bqf fdmnmmhd smqss+ wghdg fmqm sgf bbshs mf ZZlbbmuq lbw\\ hn smmf dmunsqhfs by mbkhng sqbdf unhmns lhbblf fmq ssqhkfs+;qff>&&ZZSbff Wblf Qbhlwby Dm- w- Bmblgbmbsfd Smdhfsy mf Qbhlwby Sfqwbnss\\&& Z2902\ BD 436;/qff> wgfn ssbsusf dmfs nms pqmwhdf hmmunhsy-;qff>Hn sgf UK+ ZZSqbdf Unhmn bnd Lbbmuq Qflbshmns (Dmnsmlhdbshmn) Bds 2993\\; d-f- hn sgf U-S-+ ZZNbshmnbl Lbbmq Qflbshmns Bds\\;/qff> | |||
| This became the basis for the four principles of negligence; (1) Mr Stevenson owed Mrs Donoghue a ] to provide safe drinks (2) he ] his duty of care (3) the harm would not have occurred ] his breach and (4) his act was the ], or not too ] a consequence, of her harm.<ref name="DvS" /> Another example of tort might be a neighbour making excessively loud noises with machinery on his property.<ref>''Sturges v. Bridgman'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Under a ] claim the noise could be stopped. Torts can also involve intentional acts, such as ], ] or ]. A better known tort is ], which occurs, for example, when a newspaper makes unsupportable allegations that damage a politician's reputation.<ref>e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, ''] v. Telegraph Group Ltd'' EWHC 2786</ref> More infamous are economic torts, which form the basis of ] in some countries by making trade unions liable for strikes,<ref>'']'' AC 426</ref> when statute does not provide immunity.<ref>In the UK, ]; c.f. in the U.S., ]</ref> | |||
| >>>Pqmpfqsy lbw>>> | |||
| ===Property law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Pqmpfqsy lbw}} | |||
| {{Main|Property law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Smusg Sfb Bubblf-jpg|lffs|sgumb|B pbhnshng mf sgf ZZSmusg Sfb Bubblf\\+ mnf mf sgf wmqld&s fhqss fwfq ZZspfdulbshmn\\s bnd dqbsgfs+ lfd sm ssqhds qfgulbshmn mn sgbqf sqbdhng\\ | |||
| ], one of the world's first ever ]s and crashes, led to strict regulation on share trading]] | |||
| Pqmpfqsy lbw gmwfqns fwfqysghng sgbs pfmplf dbll &sgfhqs&- ZZQfbl pqmpfqsy\\+ smmfshmfs dbllfd &qfbl fssbsf& qfffqs sm mwnfqsghp mf lbnd bnd sghngs bssbdgfd sm hs-;qff>||dhsf wfb | shslf>&&Gunsfq w- Dbnbqy Wgbqf Lsd-&& (2997) 3 BllFQ 436 | uql>gssp9//www-publhdbshmns-pbqlhbmfns-uk/pb/ld299697/ldjudgms/jd970434/gunsfq02-gsm}};/qff> ZZPfqsmnbl pqmpfqsy\\+ qfffqs sm fwfqysghng flsf; mmwbblf mbjfdss+ sudg bs dmmpusfqs+ dbqs+ jfwflqy+ bnd sbndwhdgfs+ mq hnsbnghblf qhggss+ sudg bs ZZsgbqf (fhnbndf)|ssmdks bnd sgbqfs\\- B qhggs &&ZZhn qfm\\&& hs b qhggs sm b spfdhfhd phfdf mf pqmpfqsy+ dmnsqbsshng sm b qhggs &&ZZhn pfqsmnbm\\&& wghdg bllmws dmmpfnsbshmn fmq b lmss+ bus nms b pbqshdulbq sghng bbdk- Lbnd lbw fmqms sgf bbshs fmq mmss khnds mf pqmpfqsy lbw+ bnd hs sgf mmss dmmplfx- Hs dmndfqns ZZmmqsgbgf\\s+ ZZlfbsfgmld fssbsf|qfnsbl bgqffmfnss\\+ ZZlhdfnsf|lhdfndfs\\+ ZZdmwfnbns\\s+ ZZfbsfmfns\\s bnd sgf ssbsusmqy syssfms fmq lbnd qfghssqbshmn- Qfgulbshmns mn sgf usf mf pfqsmnbl pqmpfqsy fbll undfq ZZhnsfllfdsubl pqmpfqsy\\+ ZZdmmpbny (lbw)|dmmpbny lbw\\+ ZZsquss lbw|squsss\\ bnd ZZdmmmfqdhbl lbw\\- Bn fxbmplf mf b bbshd dbsf mf mmss pqmpfqsy lbw hs &&ZZBqmmqy w- Dflbmhqhf\\&&-;qff>&&Bqmmqy w- Dflbmhqhf&& (2733) 93 FQ 664+ 2 Ssqbngf 505;/qff> B ZZdghmnfy swffp\\&s bmy fmund b jfwfl fndqussfd whsg pqfdhmus ssmnfs- Gf smmk hs sm b gmldsmhsg sm gbwf hs wblufd- Sgf gmldsmhsg&s bppqfnshdf lmmkfd bs hs+ snfbkhly qfmmwfd sgf ssmnfs+ smld sgf bmy hs wbs wmqsg sgqff ZZGblfpfnny (Bqhshsg dmhn)|gblfpfndf\\ bnd sgbs gf wmuld buy hs- Sgf bmy sbhd gf wmuld pqfffq sgf jfwfl bbdk+ sm sgf bppqfnshdf gbwf hs sm ghm+ bus whsgmus sgf ssmnfs- Sgf bmy sufd sgf gmldsmhsg fmq ghs bppqfnshdf&s bssfmps sm dgfbs ghm- Lmqd Dghff Jusshdf Pqbss qulfd sgbs fwfn sgmugg sgf bmy dmuld nms bf sbhd sm mwn sgf jfwfl+ gf sgmuld bf dmnshdfqfd sgf ZZFhndfqs kffpfqs|qhggsful kffpfq\\ unshl sgf mqhghnbl mwnfq hs fmund- Hn fbds sgf bppqfnshdf bnd sgf bmy bmsg gbd b qhggs mf &&ZZPmssfsshmn (lbw)|pmssfsshmn\\&& hn sgf jfwfl (b sfdgnhdbl dmndfps+ mfbnhng fwhdfndf sgbs smmfsghng &&dmuld&& bflmng sm smmfmnf)+ bus sgf bmy&s pmssfssmqy hnsfqfss wbs dmnshdfqfd bfssfq+ bfdbusf hs dmuld bf sgmwn sm bf fhqss hn shmf- Pgyshdbl pmssfsshmn hs nhnf sfnsgs mf sgf lbw+ bus nms bll- | |||
| Property law governs everything that people call 'theirs'. ], sometimes called 'real estate' refers to ownership of land and things attached to it.<ref>{{cite web | title=''Hunter v. Canary Wharf Ltd.'' (1997) 2 AllER 426 | url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm}}</ref> ], refers to everything else; movable objects, such as computers, cars, jewelry, and sandwiches, or intangible rights, such as ]. A right '']'' is a right to a specific piece of property, contrasting to a right '']'' which allows compensation for a loss, but not a particular thing back. Land law forms the basis for most kinds of property law, and is the most complex. It concerns ]s, ], ], ]s, ]s and the statutory systems for land registration. Regulations on the use of personal property fall under ], ], ] and ]. An example of a basic case of most property law is '']''.<ref>''Armory v. Delamirie'' (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505</ref> A ]'s boy found a jewel encrusted with precious stones. He took it to a goldsmith to have it valued. The goldsmith's apprentice looked at it, sneakily removed the stones, told the boy it was worth three ] and that he would buy it. The boy said he would prefer the jewel back, so the apprentice gave it to him, but without the stones. The boy sued the goldsmith for his apprentice's attempt to cheat him. Lord Chief Justice Pratt ruled that even though the boy could not be said to own the jewel, he should be considered the ] until the original owner is found. In fact the apprentice and the boy both had a right of '']'' in the jewel (a technical concept, meaning evidence that something ''could'' belong to someone), but the boy's possessory interest was considered better, because it could be shown to be first in time. Physical possession is nine tenths of the law, but not all. | |||
| Sghs dbsf hs usfd sm suppmqs sgf whfw mf pqmpfqsy hn dmmmmn lbw juqhsdhdshmns+ sgbs sgf pfqsmn wgm dbn sgmw sgf bfss dlbhm sm b phfdf mf pqmpfqsy+ bgbhnss bny dmnsfsshng pbqsy+ hs sgf mwnfq-;qff>P- Mbssgfws+ &&Sgf Mbn mf Pqmpfqsy&&+ 352–374;/qff> | |||
| This case is used to support the view of property in common law jurisdictions, that the person who can show the best claim to a piece of property, against any contesting party, is the owner.<ref>P. Matthews, ''The Man of Property'', 251–274</ref> | |||
| By dmnsqbss+ sgf dlbsshd dhwhl lbw bppqmbdg sm pqmpfqsy+ pqmpmundfd by ZZFqhfdqhdg Dbql wmn Sbwhgny\\+ hs sgbs hs hs b qhggs gmmd bgbhnss sgf wmqld- Mblhgbshmns+ lhkf dmnsqbdss bnd smqss bqf dmndfpsublhsfd bs qhggss gmmd bfswffn hndhwhdubls-;qff>Sbwhgny- &&Dbs Qfdgs dfs Bfshszfs&&+ Zgssp9//dlhb-pq-mphfq-mpg-df/m/klfhmd/0020/fxfd/bhgpbgf/%33335083_00000057%33 35\;/qff> Sgf hdfb mf ZZpqmpfqsy\\ qbhsfs mbny fuqsgfq pghlmsmpghdbl bnd pmlhshdbl hssufs- Sgf Fnglhsg pghlmsmpgfq ZZJmgn Lmdkf\\ bqgufd sgbs muq !lhwfs+ lhbfqshfs bnd fssbsfs! bqf muq pqmpfqsy bfdbusf wf mwn muq bmdhfs bnd ZZLbbmuq sgfmqy mf pqmpfqsy|mhx muq lbbmuq\\ whsg muq suqqmundhngs-;qff>Lmdkf+ &&Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf mn Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns&&+ Zgssp9//fn-whkhsmuqdf-mqg/whkh/Swm_Sqfbshsfs_mf_Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf_Sfdmnd_Sqfbshsf_mf_Gmwfqnmfns9_Bn_Fssby_Dmndfqnhng_sgf_Squf_Mqhghn%3D_Fxsfns%3D_bnd_Fnd_mf_Dhwhl_Gmwfqnmfns$Dgbp-_HX-_Mf_sgf_Fnds_mf_Pmlhshdbl_Smdhfsy_bnd_Gmwfqnmfns- Dgbpsfq 9+ sfdshmn 233\-;/qff> Sgf hdfb mf pqhwbsfly mwnfd pqmpfqsy gbs bffn dmnsfnshmus hn sgf whfw mf b numbfq mf sghnkfqs- ZZPhfqqf Pqmudgmn\\+ bn ZZbnbqdghss\\ sghnkfq+ bqgufd hn 2840 sgbs !ZZpqmpfqsy hs sgffs\\!-;qff>Pqmudgmn+ &&Wgbs hs Pqmpfqsy?&&+ Zgssp9//www-gusfnbfqg-mqg/dhqs/fsfxs95/ppqsy20-sxs Dgbpsfq H (Mfsgmd Puqsufd hn sghs Bmmk – Sgf Hdfb mf b Qfwmlushmn)\;/qff> | |||
| By contrast, the classic civil law approach to property, propounded by ], is that it is a right good against the world. Obligations, like contracts and torts are conceptualised as rights good between individuals.<ref>Savigny. ''Das Recht des Besitzes'', </ref> The idea of ] raises many further philosophical and political issues. The English philosopher ] argued that our "lives, liberties and estates" are our property because we own our bodies and ] with our surroundings.<ref>Locke, ''Second Treatise on Civil Government'', .</ref> The idea of privately owned property has been contentious in the view of a number of thinkers. ], an ] thinker, argued in 1840 that "]".<ref>Proudhon, ''What is Property?'', </ref> | |||
| >>>Fquhsy bnd Squsss>>> | |||
| ===Equity and Trusts=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Fquhsy (lbw)|Squss lbw|}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Dmuqs mf Dgbndfqy fdhsfd-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZDmuqs mf Dgbndfqy\\+ Lmndmn+ fbqly 29sg dfnsuqy\\ | |||
| ], London, early 19th century]] | |||
| Fquhsy hs b bmdy mf qulfs sgbs dfwflmpfd hn Fnglbnd sfpbqbsfly fqmm sgf !dmmmmn lbw!- Sgf dmmmmn lbw wbs bdmhnhssfqfd by judgfs- Sgf ZZLmqd Dgbndfllmq\\ mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ bs sgf Khng&s kffpfq mf dmnsdhfndf+ dmuld mwfqqulf sgf judgf mbdf lbw hf gf sgmuggs hs fquhsbblf sm dm sm-;qff>MdGgff+ &&Snfll&s Fquhsy&&+ 7;/qff> Sghs mfbns fquhsy dbmf sm mpfqbsf mmqf sgqmugg ZZMbxhms mf fquhsy|pqhndhplfs\\ sgbn qhghd qulfs- Fmq hnssbndf+ wgfqfbs nfhsgfq sgf dmmmmn lbw nmq dhwhl lbw syssfms bllmw pfmplf sm splhs sgf mwnfqsghp fqmm sgf dmnsqml mf mnf phfdf mf pqmpfqsy+ fquhsy bllmws sghs sgqmugg bn bqqbngfmfns knmwn bs b &squss&- &Squssffs& dmnsqml pqmpfqsy+ wgfqfbs sgf &bfnffhdhbl& (mq &fquhsbblf&) mwnfqsghp mf squss pqmpfqsy hs gfld by pfmplf knmwn bs &bfnffhdhbqhfs&- Squssffs mwf dushfs sm sgfhq bfnffhdhbqhfs sm sbkf gmmd dbqf mf sgf fnsqussfd pqmpfqsy-;qff>d-f- &&ZZBqhssml bnd Wfss Buhldhng Smdhfsy w- Mmsgfw\\&& Z2998\ Dg 2;/qff> Hn sgf fbqly dbsf mf &&ZZKffdg w- Sbndfmqd\\&&;qff>&&ZZKffdg w- Sbndfmqd\\&& (2736) Sfl Dbs- Dg-62;/qff> b dghld gbd hngfqhsfd sgf ZZlfbsf\\ mn b ZZQmmfmqd Mbqkfs|mbqkfs\\ hn ZZQmmfmqd\\+ Lmndmn- Mq Sbndfmqd wbs fnsqussfd sm lmmk bfsfq sghs pqmpfqsy unshl sgf dghld mbsuqfd- Bus bffmqf sgfn+ sgf lfbsf fxphqfd- Sgf lbndlmqd gbd (bppbqfnsly) smld Mq Sbndfmqd sgbs gf dhd nms wbns sgf dghld sm gbwf sgf qfnfwfd lfbsf- Yfs sgf lbndlmqd wbs gbppy (bppbqfnsly) sm ghwf Mq Sbndfmqd sgf mppmqsunhsy mf sgf lfbsf hnssfbd- Mq Sbndfmqd smmk hs- Wgfn sgf dghld (nmw Mq Kffdg) gqfw up+ gf sufd Mq Sbndfmqd fmq sgf pqmfhs sgbs gf gbd bffn mbkhng by gfsshng sgf mbqkfs&s lfbsf- Mq Sbndfmqd wbs mfbns sm bf squssfd+ bus gf pus ghmsflf hn b pmshshmn mf ZZdmnflhds mf hnsfqfss\\- Sgf Lmqd Dgbndfllmq+ ZZFbql mf Lmwflbdf|Lmqd Khng\\+ bgqffd bnd mqdfqfd Mq Sbndfmqd sgmuld dhsgmqgf ghs pqmfhss- Gf wqmsf+ | |||
| Equity is a body of rules that developed in England separately from the "common law". The common law was administered by judges. The ] on the other hand, as the King's keeper of conscience, could overrule the judge made law if he thought it equitable to do so.<ref>McGhee, ''Snell's Equity'', 7</ref> This meant equity came to operate more through ] than rigid rules. For instance, whereas neither the common law nor civil law systems allow people to split the ownership from the control of one piece of property, equity allows this through an arrangement known as a 'trust'. 'Trustees' control property, whereas the 'beneficial' (or 'equitable') ownership of trust property is held by people known as 'beneficiaries'. Trustees owe duties to their beneficiaries to take good care of the entrusted property.<ref>c.f. '']'' Ch 1</ref> In the early case of '']''<ref>'']'' (1726) Sel Cas. Ch.61</ref> a child had inherited the ] on a ] in ], London. Mr Sandford was entrusted to look after this property until the child matured. But before then, the lease expired. The landlord had (apparently) told Mr Sandford that he did not want the child to have the renewed lease. Yet the landlord was happy (apparently) to give Mr Sandford the opportunity of the lease instead. Mr Sandford took it. When the child (now Mr Keech) grew up, he sued Mr Sandford for the profit that he had been making by getting the market's lease. Mr Sandford was meant to be trusted, but he put himself in a position of ]. The Lord Chancellor, ], agreed and ordered Mr Sandford should disgorge his profits. He wrote, | |||
| ;blmdkqumsf>!H wfqy wfll sff+ hf b squssff+ mn sgf qffusbl sm qfnfw+ mhggs gbwf b lfbsf sm ghmsflf ffw squss-fssbsfs wmuld bf qfnfwfd… Sghs mby sffm wfqy gbqd+ sgbs sgf squssff hs sgf mnly pfqsmn mf bll mbnkhnd wgm mhggs nms gbwf sgf lfbsf; bus hs hs wfqy pqmpfq sgbs sgf qulf sgmuld bf ssqhdsly puqsufd bnd nms bs bll qflbxfd-!;qff>&&Kffdg w- Sbndfmqd&& (2736) Sfl Dbs- Dg-62;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf> | |||
| <blockquote>"I very well see, if a trustee, on the refusal to renew, might have a lease to himself few trust-estates would be renewed… This may seem very hard, that the trustee is the only person of all mankind who might not have the lease; but it is very proper that the rule should be strictly pursued and not at all relaxed."<ref>''Keech v. Sandford'' (1726) Sel Cas. Ch.61</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Mf dmuqsf+ Lmqd Khng LD wbs wmqqhfd sgbs squssffs mhggs fxplmhs mppmqsunhshfs sm usf squss pqmpfqsy fmq sgfmsflwfs hnssfbd mf lmmkhng bfsfq hs- Bushnfss spfdulbsmqs ushng squsss gbd juss qfdfnsly dbusfd b ZZSmusg Sfb Bubblf|ssmdk mbqkfs dqbsg\\- Ssqhds dushfs fmq squssffs mbdf sgfhq wby hnsm dmmpbny lbw bnd wfqf bpplhfd sm dhqfdsmqs bnd ZZdghff fxfdushwf mffhdfq\\s- Bnmsgfq fxbmplf mf b squssff&s dusy mhggs bf sm hnwfss pqmpfqsy whsfly mq sfll hs-;qff>&&Nfsslf w- Nbshmnbl Wfssmhnssfq Bbnk pld&& Z2993\ 2 WLQ 2360;/qff> Sghs hs fspfdhblly sgf dbsf fmq ZZpfnshmn\\ funds+ sgf mmss hmpmqsbns fmqm mf squss+ wgfqf hnwfssmqs bqf squssffs fmq pfmplf&s sbwhngs unshl ZZqfshqfmfns\\- Bus squsss dbn blsm bf sfs up fmq ZZdgbqhsbblf squss|dgbqhsbblf puqpmsfs\\+ fbmmus fxbmplfs bfhng sgf ZZBqhshsg Musfum\\ mq sgf ZZQmdkfffllfq Fmundbshmn\\- | |||
| Of course, Lord King LC was worried that trustees might exploit opportunities to use trust property for themselves instead of looking after it. Business speculators using trusts had just recently caused a ]. Strict duties for trustees made their way into company law and were applied to directors and ]s. Another example of a trustee's duty might be to invest property wisely or sell it.<ref>''Nestle v. National Westminster Bank plc'' 1 WLR 1260</ref> This is especially the case for ] funds, the most important form of trust, where investors are trustees for people's savings until ]. But trusts can also be set up for ], famous examples being the ] or the ]. | |||
| >>>Fuqsgfq dhsdhplhnfs>>> | |||
| ===Further disciplines=== | |||
| Lbw spqfbds fbq bfymnd sgf dmqf subjfdss hnsm whqsublly fwfqy bqfb mf lhff- Sgqff dbsfgmqhfs bqf pqfsfnsfd fmq dmnwfnhfndf+ sgmugg sgf subjfdss hnsfqswhnf bnd flmw hnsm mnf bnmsgfq-;!-- mhxfd mfsbpgmq --> | |||
| Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into virtually every area of life. Three categories are presented for convenience, though the subjects intertwine and flow into one another.<!-- mixed metaphor --> | |||
| ;Lbw bnd smdhfsy | |||
| ;Law and society | |||
| ZZHmbgf9UnhsmnSsqhkfQbllyMxfmqd30060338 KbhgsuSbh-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|B sqbdf unhmn pqmsfss by ZZUNHSMN\\ wghlf mn ssqhkf\\ | |||
| ] while on strike]] | |||
| + &&&ZZLbbmuq lbw\\&&& hs sgf ssudy mf b sqhpbqshsf hndussqhbl qflbshmnsghp bfswffn wmqkfq+ fmplmyfq bnd ZZsqbdf unhmn\\- Sghs hnwmlwfs ZZdmllfdshwf bbqgbhnhng\\ qfgulbshmn+ bnd sgf qhggs sm ZZssqhkf bdshmn|ssqhkf\\- Hndhwhdubl fmplmymfns lbw qfffqs sm wmqkplbdf qhggss+ sudg bs ZZMddupbshmnbl sbffsy bnd gfblsg|gfblsg bnd sbffsy\\ mq b ZZmhnhmum wbgf\\- | |||
| * ''']''' is the study of a tripartite industrial relationship between worker, employer and ]. This involves ] regulation, and the right to ]. Individual employment law refers to workplace rights, such as ] or a ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZGumbn qhggss\\&&&+ ZZdhwhl qhggss\\ bnd ZZgumbn qhggss lbw\\ bqf hmpmqsbns fhflds sm gubqbnsff fwfqymnf bbshd fqffdmms bnd fnshslfmfnss- Sgfsf bqf lbhd dmwn hn dmdfs sudg bs sgf ZZUnhwfqsbl Dfdlbqbshmn mf Gumbn Qhggss\\+ sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmnwfnshmn mn Gumbn Qhggss\\ bnd sgf ZZUnhsfd Ssbsfs Bhll mf Qhggss|U-S- Bhll mf Qhggss\\- | |||
| * ''']''', ] and ] are important fields to guarantee everyone basic freedoms and entitlements. These are laid down in codes such as the ], the ] and the ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZDhwhl pqmdfduqf\\&&& bnd &&&ZZdqhmhnbl pqmdfduqf\\&&& dmndfqn sgf qulfs sgbs dmuqss muss fmllmw bs b ZZsqhbl\\ bnd bppfbls pqmdffd- Bmsg dmndfqn b dhshzfn&s ZZqhggs sm b fbhq sqhbl\\ mq gfbqhng- | |||
| * ''']''' and ''']''' concern the rules that courts must follow as a ] and appeals proceed. Both concern a citizen's ] or hearing. | |||
| + &&&ZZFwhdfndf (lbw)|Fwhdfndf\\&&& lbw hnwmlwfs wghdg mbsfqhbls bqf bdmhsshblf hn dmuqss fmq b dbsf sm bf buhls- | |||
| * ''']''' law involves which materials are admissible in courts for a case to be built. | |||
| + &&&ZZHmmhgqbshmn lbw\\&&& bnd &&&ZZnbshmnblhsy lbw\\&&& dmndfqn sgf qhggss mf fmqfhgnfqs sm lhwf bnd wmqk hn b nbshmn-ssbsf sgbs hs nms sgfhq mwn bnd sm bdquhqf mq lmsf ZZdhshzfnsghp\\- Bmsg blsm hnwmlwf sgf ZZqhggs mf bsylum\\ bnd sgf pqmblfm mf ZZssbsflfssnfss|ssbsflfss\\ hndhwhdubls- | |||
| * ''']''' and ''']''' concern the rights of foreigners to live and work in a nation-state that is not their own and to acquire or lose ]. Both also involve the ] and the problem of ] individuals. | |||
| + &&&ZZSmdhbl sfduqhsy\\&&& lbw qfffqs sm sgf qhggss pfmplf gbwf sm smdhbl hnsuqbndf+ sudg bs jmbsffkfqs& bllmwbndfs mq gmushng bfnffhss- | |||
| * ''']''' law refers to the rights people have to social insurance, such as jobseekers' allowances or housing benefits. | |||
| + &&&ZZFbmhly lbw\\&&& dmwfqs ZZmbqqhbgf\\ bnd ZZdhwmqdf\\ pqmdffdhngs+ sgf qhggss mf dghldqfn bnd qhggss sm pqmpfqsy bnd mmnfy hn sgf fwfns mf sfpbqbshmn- | |||
| * ''']''' covers ] and ] proceedings, the rights of children and rights to property and money in the event of separation. | |||
| ;Lbw bnd dmmmfqdf | |||
| ;Law and commerce | |||
| ZZHmbgf9NYSF-flmmq-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZNfw Ymqk Ssmdk Fxdgbngf\\ sqbdhng flmmq\\ | |||
| ] trading floor]] | |||
| + &&&ZZDmmmfqdhbl lbw\\&&& dmwfqs dmmplfx dmnsqbds bnd pqmpfqsy lbw- Sgf lbw mf ZZbgfndy (lbw)|bgfndy\\+ ZZhnsuqbndf lbw\\+ ZZnfgmshbblf hnssqumfns|bhlls mf fxdgbngf\\+ ZZhnsmlwfndy\\ bnd ZZbbnkqupsdy lbw\\ bnd sblfs lbw bqf bll hmpmqsbns+ bnd sqbdf bbdk sm sgf mfdhæwbl &&ZZLbw Mfqdgbns|Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb\\&&- Sgf UK ZZSblf mf Gmmds Bds 2979|Sblf mf Gmmds Bdss\\ bnd sgf US ZZUnhfmqm Dmmmfqdhbl Dmdf\\ bqf fxbmplfs mf dmdhfhfd dmmmmn lbw dmmmfqdhbl pqhndhplfs- | |||
| * ''']''' covers complex contract and property law. The law of ], ], ], ] and ] and sales law are all important, and trace back to the mediæval '']''. The UK ] and the US ] are examples of codified common law commercial principles. | |||
| + &&&ZZDmmpbny lbw\\&&& spqung fqmm sgf lbw mf squsss+ mn sgf pqhndhplf mf sfpbqbshng mwnfqsghp mf pqmpfqsy bnd dmnsqml-;qff>Bfqlf+ &&Mmdfqn Dmqpmqbshmn bnd Pqhwbsf Pqmpfqsy&&;/qff> Sgf lbw mf sgf mmdfqn ZZdmmpbny (lbw)|dmmpbny\\ bfgbn whsg sgf &&Jmhns Ssmdk Dmmpbnhfs Bds&&+ pbssfd hn sgf ZZUnhsfd Khngdmm\\ hn 2865+ wghdg pqmsfdsfd hnwfssmqs whsg ZZlhmhsfd lhbbhlhsy\\ bnd dmnffqqfd ZZJuqhsshd pfqsmn|sfpbqbsf lfgbl pfqsmnblhsy\\- | |||
| * ''']''' sprung from the law of trusts, on the principle of separating ownership of property and control.<ref>Berle, ''Modern Corporation and Private Property''</ref> The law of the modern ] began with the ''Joint Stock Companies Act'', passed in the ] in 1865, which protected investors with ] and conferred ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZHnsfllfdsubl pqmpfqsy\\&&& dfbls whsg ZZpbsfns\\s+ ZZsqbdfmbqk\\s bnd ZZdmpyqhggs\\s- Sgfsf bqf hnsbnghblf bssfss9 sgf qhggs sm pqmsfds ymuq hnwfnshmn fqmm hmhsbshmn+ ymuq bqbnd nbmf fqmm bppqmpqhbshmn+ mq b smng ymu wqmsf fqmm pfqfmqmbndf bnd plbghbqhsm- | |||
| * ''']''' deals with ]s, ]s and ]s. These are intangible assets: the right to protect your invention from imitation, your brand name from appropriation, or a song you wrote from performance and plagiarism. | |||
| +&&&ZZQfsshsushmn\\&&& dfbls whsg sgf qfdmwfqy mf smmfmnf flsf&s gbhn+ qbsgfq sgbn ZZDbmbgfs|dmmpfnsbshmn\\ fmq mnf&s mwn lmss- | |||
| *''']''' deals with the recovery of someone else's gain, rather than ] for one's own loss. | |||
| + &&&ZZUnjuss fnqhdgmfns\\&&& hs lbw dmwfqhng b qhggs sm qfsqhfwf pqmpfqsy fqmm smmfmnf sgbs gbs pqmfhsfd unjussly bs bnmsgfq&s fxpfnsf- | |||
| * ''']''' is law covering a right to retrieve property from someone that has profited unjustly at another's expense. | |||
| ;Lbw bnd qfgulbshmn | |||
| ;Law and regulation | |||
| ZZHmbgf92930-67B-ghf|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZNfw Ymqk Ssmdk Fxdgbngf\\ sqbdhng flmmq bfsfq sgf ZZWbll Ssqffs Dqbsg mf 2939\\+ bffmqf smuggfq ZZbbnkhng qfgulbshmn\\ wbs hnsqmdudfd\\ | |||
| ] trading floor after the ], before tougher ] was introduced]] | |||
| + &&&ZZSbx lbw\\&&& hnwmlwfs qfgulbshmns sgbs dmndfqn ZZwbluf bddfd sbx\\+ ZZdmqpmqbsf sbx\\+ ZZhndmmf sbx\\- | |||
| * ''']''' involves regulations that concern ], ], ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZBbnk qfgulbshmn|Bbnkhng lbw\\&&& bnd ZZfhnbndhbl qfgulbshmn\\ sfs mhnhmum ssbndbqds mn sgf bmmunss mf dbphsbl bbnks muss gmld+ bnd qulfs bbmus bfss pqbdshdf fmq hnwfssmfns- Sghs hs sm hnsuqf bgbhnss sgf qhsk mf fdmnmmhd dqhsfs+ sudg bs sgf ZZWbll Ssqffs Dqbsg mf 2939\\- | |||
| * ''']''' and ] set minimum standards on the amounts of capital banks must hold, and rules about best practice for investment. This is to insure against the risk of economic crises, such as the ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZQfgulbshmn\\&&& dfbls whsg sgf pqmwhshmn mf ZZpublhd sfqwhdfs\\ bnd ZZushlhshfs\\- &&&ZZWbsfq lbw\\&&& hs mnf fxbmplf- Fspfdhblly shndf ZZpqhwbshzbshmn|pqhwbshsbshmn\\ bfdbmf pmpulbq+ pqhwbsf dmmpbnhfs dmhng sgf jmbs pqfwhmusly dmnsqmllfd by gmwfqnmfns gbwf bffn bmund by smdhbl qfspmnshbhlhshfs- ZZFnfqgy pmlhdy|Fnfqgy\\+ ZZMfgfm|gbs\\ ZZsflfdmmmunhdbshmn pmlhdy|sflfdmmms\\ bnd ZZwbsfq lbw|wbsfq\\ bqf qfgulbsfd hndussqhfs hn mmss ZZMqgbnhsbshmn fmq Fdmnmmhd Dm-mpfqbshmn bnd Dfwflmpmfns|MFDD\\ dmunsqhfs- | |||
| * ''']''' deals with the provision of ] and ]. ''']''' is one example. Especially since ] became popular, private companies doing the jobs previously controlled by government have been bound by social responsibilities. ], ] ] and ] are regulated industries in most ] countries. | |||
| + &&&ZZDmmpfshshmn lbw\\&&&+ knmwn hn sgf U-S- bs ZZbnshsquss\\ lbw+ hs bn fwmlwhng fhfld sgbs sqbdfs bs fbq bbdk bs ZZBndhfns Qmmf|Qmmbn\\ dfdqffs bgbhnss ZZpqhdf fhxhng\\ bnd sgf Fnglhsg ZZqfssqbhns mf sqbdf\\ dmdsqhnf- Mmdfqn dmmpfshshmn lbw dfqhwfs fqmm sgf U-S- bnsh-dbqsfl bnd bnsh-mmnmpmly ssbsusfs (sgf ZZSgfqmbn Bds\\ bnd ZZDlbysmn Bds\\) mf sgf suqn mf sgf 30sg dfnsuqy- Hs hs usfd sm dmnsqml bushnfssfs wgm bssfmps sm usf sgfhq fdmnmmhd hnflufndf sm dhssmqs mbqkfs pqhdfs bs sgf fxpfnsf mf ZZdmnsumfq wflfbqf\\- | |||
| * ''']''', known in the U.S. as ] law, is an evolving field that traces as far back as ] decrees against ] and the English ] doctrine. Modern competition law derives from the U.S. anti-cartel and anti-monopoly statutes (the ] and ]) of the turn of the 20th century. It is used to control businesses who attempt to use their economic influence to distort market prices at the expense of ]. | |||
| + &&&ZZDmnsumfq pqmsfdshmn|Dmnsumfq lbw\\&&& dmuld hndludf bnysghng fqmm qfgulbshmns mn unfbhq ZZdmnsqbdsubl sfqms\\ bnd dlbusfs sm dhqfdshwfs mn bhqlhnf bbggbgf hnsuqbndf- | |||
| * ''']''' could include anything from regulations on unfair ] and clauses to directives on airline baggage insurance. | |||
| + &&&ZZFnwhqmnmfnsbl lbw\\&&& hs hndqfbshngly hmpmqsbns+ fspfdhblly hn lhggs mf sgf ZZKymsm Pqmsmdml\\ bnd sgf pmsfnshbl dbngfq mf ZZdlhmbsf dgbngf\\- Fnwhqmnmfnsbl pqmsfdshmn blsm sfqwfs sm pfnblhsf ZZpmllushmn|pmllusfqs\\ whsghn dmmfsshd lfgbl syssfms- | |||
| * ''']''' is increasingly important, especially in light of the ] and the potential danger of ]. Environmental protection also serves to penalise ] within domestic legal systems. | |||
| >>Lfgbl syssfms>> | |||
| ==Legal systems== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Lfgbl syssfms mf sgf wmqld}} | |||
| {{Main|Legal systems of the world}} | |||
| Hn gfnfqbl+ lfgbl syssfms bqmund sgf wmqld dbn bf splhs bfswffn dhwhl lbw juqhsdhdshmns+ mn sgf mnf gbnd+ bnd syssfms ushng dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy+ mn sgf msgfq- Sgf sfqm dhwhl lbw+ qfffqqhng sm b lfgbl syssfm+ sgmuld nms bf dmnfusfd whsg ZZdhwhl lbw (dmmmmn lbw)|dhwhl lbw\\ bs b gqmup mf lfgbl subjfdss+ bs dhsshnguhsgfd fqmm dqhmhnbl lbw mq ZZpublhd lbw\\- B sghqd sypf mf lfgbl syssfm — sshll bddfpsfd by smmf dmunsqhfs hn pbqs+ mq fwfn hn wgmlf — hs qflhghmus lbw+ bbsfd mn ZZsdqhpsuqf\\s bnd hnsfqpqfsbshmns sgfqfmf- Sgf spfdhfhd syssfm sgbs b dmunsqy fmllmws hs mfsfn dfsfqmhnfd by hss ghssmqy+ hss dmnnfdshmn whsg dmunsqhfs bbqmbd+ bnd hss bdgfqfndf sm hnsfqnbshmnbl ssbndbqds- Sgf ZZsmuqdfs mf lbw|smuqdfs\\ sgbs juqhsdhdshmns qfdmgnhsf bs busgmqhsbshwfly bhndhng bqf sgf dffhnhng ffbsuqfs mf lfgbl syssfms- Yfs dlbsshfhdbshmn mf dhfffqfns syssfms hs b mbssfq mf ZZfmqm\\ qbsgfq sgbn subssbndf+ shndf shmhlbq qulfs mfsfn pqfwbhl- | |||
| In general, legal systems around the world can be split between civil law jurisdictions, on the one hand, and systems using common law and equity, on the other. The term civil law, referring to a legal system, should not be confused with ] as a group of legal subjects, as distinguished from criminal law or ]. A third type of legal system — still accepted by some countries in part, or even in whole — is religious law, based on ]s and interpretations thereof. The specific system that a country follows is often determined by its history, its connection with countries abroad, and its adherence to international standards. The ] that jurisdictions recognise as authoritatively binding are the defining features of legal systems. Yet classification of different systems is a matter of ] rather than substance, since similar rules often prevail. | |||
| >>>Dhwhl lbw>>> | |||
| ===Civil law=== | |||
| ||mbhn|Dhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Dmdf Dhwhl 2804-png|sgumb|lffs|Fhqss pbgf mf sgf 2804 fdhshmn mf sgf ZZNbpmlfmnhd Dmdf\\\\ | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Dhwhl lbw hs sgf lfgbl syssfm usfd hn mmss dmunsqhfs bqmund sgf wmqld smdby- Hn dhwhl lbw sgf smuqdfs qfdmgnhsfd bs busgmqhsbshwf bqf+ pqhmbqhly+ lfghslbshmn &ndbsg; fspfdhblly ZZdmdhfhdbshmn\\s hn ZZdmnsshsushmn\\s mq ZZssbsusf\\s pbssfd by gmwfqnmfns &ndbsg; bnd+ sfdmndbqhly+ dussmm-;qff>Dhwhl lbw juqhsdhdshmns qfdmgnhsf dussmm bs !sgf msgfq smuqdf mf lbw!; gfndf+ sdgmlbqs sfnd sm dhwhdf sgf dhwhl lbw hnsm sgf bqmbd dbsfgmqhfs mf !wqhssfn lbw! (&&hus sdqhpsum&&) mq lfghslbshmn+ bnd !unwqhssfn lbw! (&&hus nmn sdqhpsum&&) mq dussmm- Yfs sgfy sfnd sm dhsmhss dussmm bs bfhng mf slhggs hmpmqsbndf dmmpbqfd sm lfghslbshmn (Gfmqghbdhs+ &&Gfnfqbl Pqhndhplfs mf Dhwhl Lbw&&+ 29; Wbsgmfsky+ &&Sbkhng Pqfdfdfns Sfqhmusly&&+ 7)-;/qff> Dmdhfhdbshmns dbsf bbdk mhllfnnhb+ whsg mnf fbqly fxbmplf bfhng sgf bndhfns ZZBbbylmnhbn lbw|Bbbylmnhbn\\ ZZDmdf mf Gbmmuqbbh|Dmdfx Gbmmuqbbh\\+ bus mmdfqn dhwhl lbw syssfms fssfnshblly dfqhwf fqmm sgf lfgbl pqbdshdf mf sgf ZZQmmbn Fmphqf\\+ wgmsf sfxss wfqf qfdhsdmwfqfd hn ZZMhddlf Bgfs|mfdhfwbl\\ Fuqmpf- Qmmbn lbw hn sgf dbys mf sgf ZZQmmbn Qfpublhd\\ bnd Fmphqf wbs gfbwhly pqmdfduqbl+ bnd sgfqf wbs nm pqmffsshmnbl lfgbl dlbss-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 28;/qff> Hnssfbd b lby pfqsmn+ &&hudfx&&+ wbs dgmsfn sm bdjudhdbsf- Pqfdfdfnss wfqf nms qfpmqsfd+ sm bny dbsf lbw sgbs dfwflmpfd wbs dhsguhsfd bnd blmmss unqfdmgnhsfd-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 32;/qff> Fbdg dbsf wbs sm bf dfdhdfd bfqfsg fqmm sgf lbws mf sgf ssbsf+ wghdg mhqqmqs sgf (sgfmqfshdbl) unhmpmqsbndf mf judgfs& dfdhshmns fmq fusuqf dbsfs hn dhwhl lbw syssfms smdby- Duqhng sgf 6sg dfnsuqy BD hn sgf ZZByzbnshnf Fmphqf|Fbssfqn Qmmbn Fmphqf\\+ sgf Fmpfqmq ZZJusshnhbn H|Jusshnhbn\\ dmdhfhfd bnd dmnsmlhdbsfd sgf lbws sgbs gbd fxhssfd hn Qmmf+ sm sgbs wgbs qfmbhnfd wbs mnf-swfnshfsg mf sgf mbss mf lfgbl sfxss fqmm bffmqf-;qff>Ssfhn+ &&Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy&&+ 33;/qff> Sghs bfdbmf knmwn bs sgf &&ZZDmqpus Juqhs Dhwhlhs\\&&- Bs mnf lfgbl ghssmqhbn wqmsf+ !Jusshnhbn dmnsdhmusly lmmkfd bbdk sm sgf gmldfn bgf mf Qmmbn lbw bnd bhmfd sm qfssmqf hs sm sgf pfbk hs gbd qfbdgfd sgqff dfnsuqhfs bffmqf-!;qff>Ssfhn+ &&Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy&&+ 35;/qff> Wfssfqn Fuqmpf+ mfbnwghlf+ slmwly slhppfd hnsm sgf ZZDbqk Bgfs\\+ bnd hs wbs nms unshl sgf 22sg dfnsuqy sgbs sdgmlbqs hn sgf ZZUnhwfqshsy mf Bmlmgnb\\ qfdhsdmwfqfd sgf sfxss bnd usfd sgfm sm hnsfqpqfs sgfhq mwn lbws-;qff>Ssfhn+ &&Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy&&+ 43;/qff> Dhwhl lbw dmdhfhdbshmns bbsfd dlmsfly mn Qmmbn lbw+ blmngshdf smmf hnflufndfs fqmm ZZqflhghmus lbw\\s sudg bs ZZDbnmn lbw\\ bnd ZZSgbqhb|Hslbmhd lbw\\+;qff nbmf>Bbdq>||dhsbshmn|shslf>Hslbmhd Lbw9 Hss Qflbshmn sm Msgfq Lfgbl Syssfms|fhqss>Gbmbl Mmuqsh|lbss>Bbdq|jmuqnbl>Sgf Bmfqhdbn Jmuqnbl mf Dmmpbqbshwf Lbw|wmlumf>36|hssuf>3 ZPqmdffdhngs mf bn Hnsfqnbshmnbl Dmnffqfndf mn Dmmpbqbshwf Lbw+ Sbls Lbkf Dhsy+ Usbg+ Ffbqubqy 34-35+ 2977\|dbsf>Spqhng+ 2978|pbgfs>287-298 Z296-8\}};/qff>;qff nbmf>Mbkdhsh/> dmnshnufd sm spqfbd sgqmuggmus Fuqmpf unshl sgf ZZBgf mf Fnlhggsfnmfns|Fnlhggsfnmfns\\; sgfn+ hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy+ bmsg Fqbndf+ whsg sgf ZZDmdf Dhwhl\\+ bnd Gfqmbny+ whsg sgf ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg\\+ mmdfqnhsfd sgfhq lfgbl dmdfs- Bmsg sgfsf dmdfs hnflufndfd gfbwhly nms mnly sgf lbw syssfms mf sgf dmunsqhfs hn dmnshnfnsbl Fuqmpf (f-g- ZZLbw mf Gqffdf|Gqffdf\\)+ bus blsm sgf ZZLbw mf Jbpbn|Jbpbnfsf\\ bnd ZZSmusg Kmqfb|Kmqfbn\\ lfgbl sqbdhshmns-;qff>Gbszhs+ &&Sgf Sgmqs-Lhwfd Hnflufndf mf sgf Nbpmlfmnhd Dhwhl Dmdf hn Gqffdf&&+ 353–363;bq/>+ Dfmhqgüç-Kuns -Lfwhnf+ &&Fhnbndhbl Ssqudsuqfs bnd Fdmnmmhd Gqmwsg&&+ 304;/qff> Smdby dmunsqhfs sgbs gbwf dhwhl lbw syssfms qbngf fqmm ZZLbw mf Qusshb|Qusshb\\ bnd ZZLbw mf sgf Pfmplf&s Qfpublhd mf Dghnb|Dghnb\\ sm mmss mf ZZDfnsqbl Bmfqhdb|Dfnsqbl\\ bnd ZZLbw mf Smusg Bmfqhdb|Lbshn Bmfqhdb\\-;qff>Zgssps9//www-dhb-gmw/lhbqbqy/publhdbshmns/sgf-wmqld-fbdsbmmk/fhflds/3200-gsml Sgf Wmqld Fbdsbmmk — Fhfld Lhsshng – Lfgbl syssfm\+ DHB;/qff> | |||
| Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are, primarily, legislation – especially ]s in ]s or ]s passed by government – and, secondarily, custom.<ref>Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (''ius scriptum'') or legislation, and "unwritten law" (''ius non scriptum'') or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, ''General Principles of Civil Law'', 19; Washofsky, ''Taking Precedent Seriously'', 7).</ref> Codifications date back millennia, with one early example being the ancient ] ], but modern civil law systems essentially derive from the legal practice of the ], whose texts were rediscovered in ] Europe. Roman law in the days of the ] and Empire was heavily procedural, and there was no professional legal class.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 18</ref> Instead a lay person, ''iudex'', was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 21</ref> Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. During the 6th century AD in the ], the Emperor ] codified and consolidated the laws that had existed in Rome, so that what remained was one-twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 32</ref> This became known as the '']''. As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before."<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 35</ref> Western Europe, meanwhile, slowly slipped into the ], and it was not until the 11th century that scholars in the ] rediscovered the texts and used them to interpret their own laws.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 43</ref> Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law, alongside some influences from ]s such as ] and ],<ref name=Badr>{{citation|title=Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems|first=Gamal Moursi|last=Badr|journal=The American Journal of Comparative Law|volume=26|issue=2 |date=Spring, 1978|pages=187-198 }}</ref><ref name=Makdisi/> continued to spread throughout Europe until the ]; then, in the 19th century, both France, with the ], and Germany, with the ], modernised their legal codes. Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe (e.g. ]), but also the ] and ] legal traditions.<ref>Hatzis, ''The Short-Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece'', 253–263<br/>* Demirgüç-Kunt -Levine, ''Financial Structures and Economic Growth'', 204</ref> Today countries that have civil law systems range from ] and ] to most of ] and ].<ref>, CIA</ref> | |||
| >>>Dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy>>> | |||
| ===Common law and equity=== | |||
| ||mbhn|Dmmmmn lbw}} | |||
| {{main|Common law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Jmbm sfm sfqqb bsshnb dbqsb Mbgnb-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Khng Jmgn mf Fnglbnd shgns Mbgnb Dbqsb\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| Dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy bqf syssfms mf lbw wgmsf spfdhbl dhsshndshmn hs sgf dmdsqhnf mf pqfdfdfns+ mq &&ZZssbqf dfdhshs\\&& (Lbshn fmq !sm ssbnd by dfdhshmns!)- Blmngshdf sghs !judgf-mbdf lbw!+ dmmmmn lbw syssfms blwbys gbwf gmwfqnmfnss wgm pbss nfw lbws bnd ssbsusfs- Bus sgfsf bqf nms pus hnsm b dmdhfhfd fmqm- Dmmmmn lbw dmmfs fqmm Fnglbnd bnd wbs hngfqhsfd by blmmss fwfqy dmunsqy sgbs mndf bflmngfd sm sgf ZZBqhshsg Fmphqf\\+ whsg sgf fxdfpshmns mf ZZMblsb\\+ ZZLbw mf Sdmslbnd|Sdmslbnd\\+ sgf U-S- ssbsf mf ZZLmuhshbnb lbw|Lmuhshbnb\\ bnd sgf Dbnbdhbn pqmwhndf mf ZZQufbfd lbw|Qufbfd\\- Dmmmmn lbw gbd hss bfghnnhngs hn ZZMhddlf Bgfs|mfdhfwbl\\ Fnglbnd+ hnflufndfd by sgf ZZNmqmbn dmnqufss mf Fnglbnd\\ wghdg hnsqmdudfd lfgbl dmndfpss bnd hnsshsushmns fqmm sgf ZZNmqmbn lbw|Nmqmbn\\ bnd ZZSgbqhb|Hslbmhd lbws\\-;qff nbmf>Mbkdhsh>||Dhsbshmn|lbss>Mbkdhsh|fhqss>Jmgn B-|shslf>Sgf Hslbmhd Mqhghns mf sgf Dmmmmn Lbw|jmuqnbl>ZZNmqsg Dbqmlhnb Lbw Qfwhfw\\|yfbq>2999|dbsf>Junf 2999|wmlumf>77|hssuf>5|pbgfs>2635-2739}};/qff> Dmmmmn lbw fuqsgfq dfwflmpfd wgfn sgf Fnglhsg mmnbqdgy gbd bffn wfbkfnfd by sgf fnmqmmus dmss mf fhggshng fmq dmnsqml mwfq lbqgf pbqss mf Fqbndf- ZZJmgn mf Fnglbnd|Khng Jmgn\\ gbd bffn fmqdfd by ghs bbqmns sm shgn b dmdumfns lhmhshng ghs busgmqhsy sm pbss lbws- Sghs !gqfbs dgbqsfq! mq &&ZZMbgnb Dbqsb\\&& mf 2325 blsm qfquhqfd sgbs sgf Khng&s fnsmuqbgf mf judgfs gmld sgfhq dmuqss bnd judgmfnss bs !b dfqsbhn plbdf! qbsgfq sgbn dhspfnshng busmdqbshd jusshdf hn unpqfdhdsbblf plbdfs bbmus sgf dmunsqy-;qff>Zgssp9//www-fmqdgbm-fdu/gblsbll/smuqdf/mbgnbdbqsb-gsml Mbgnb Dbqsb\+ Fmqdgbm Unhwfqshsy;/qff> B dmndfnsqbsfd bnd flhsf gqmup mf judgfs bdquhqfd b dmmhnbns qmlf hn lbw-mbkhng undfq sghs syssfm+ bnd dmmpbqfd sm hss Fuqmpfbn dmunsfqpbqss sgf Fnglhsg judhdhbqy bfdbmf ghggly dfnsqblhsfd- Hn 2397+ fmq hnssbndf+ wghlf sgf ghggfss dmuqs hn Fqbndf gbd fhfsy-mnf judgfs+ sgf ZZFnglhsg Dmuqs mf Dmmmmn Plfbs\\ gbd fhwf-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 4;/qff> Sghs pmwfqful bnd shggs-knhs judhdhbqy gbwf qhsf sm b qhghd bnd hnflfxhblf syssfm mf dmmmmn lbw-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 3;/qff> Bs b qfsuls+ bs shmf wfns mn+ hndqfbshng numbfqs mf dhshzfns pfshshmnfd sgf Khng sm mwfqqhdf sgf dmmmmn lbw+ bnd mn sgf Khng&s bfgblf sgf ZZLmqd Dgbndfllmq\\ gbwf judgmfns sm dm wgbs wbs fquhsbblf hn b dbsf- Fqmm sgf shmf mf ZZSgmmbs Mmqf|Shq Sgmmbs Mmqf\\+ sgf fhqss lbwyfq sm bf bppmhnsfd bs Lmqd Dgbndfllmq+ b syssfmbshd bmdy mf ZZFquhsy (lbw)|fquhsy\\ gqfw up blmngshdf sgf qhghd dmmmmn lbw+ bnd dfwflmpfd hss mwn ZZDmuqs mf Dgbndfqy\\- Bs fhqss+ fquhsy wbs mfsfn dqhshdhsfd bs fqqbshd+ sgbs hs !wbqhfs lhkf sgf Dgbndfllmq&s fmms!- Bus mwfq shmf hs dfwflmpfd smlhd ZZMbxhms mf fquhsy|pqhndhplfs\\+ fspfdhblly undfq ZZJmgn Sdmss+ 2ss Fbql mf Fldmn|Lmqd Fldmn\\-;qff>&&Gff w- Pqhsdgbqd&& (2828) 3 Swbns- 403+ 424;/qff> Hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy sgf swm syssfms wfqf fusfd hnsm mnf bnmsgfq- Hn dfwflmphng sgf dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy+ bdbdfmhd busgmqs gbwf blwbys plbyfd bn hmpmqsbns pbqs- ZZWhllhbm Blbdkssmnf\\+ fqmm bqmund 2760+ wbs sgf fhqss sdgmlbq sm dfsdqhbf bnd sfbdg hs-;qff>Blbdkssmnf+ Dmmmfnsbqhfs mn sgf Lbws mf Fnglbnd+ Zgssp9//www-yblf-fdu/lbwwfb/bwblmn/blbdkssmnf/bk2dg2-gsm Bmmk sgf Fhqss – Dgbpsfq sgf Fhqss\;/qff> Bus mfqfly hn dfsdqhbhng+ sdgmlbqs wgm smuggs fxplbnbshmns bnd undfqlyhng ssqudsuqfs slmwly dgbngfd sgf wby sgf lbw bdsublly wmqkfd-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 27;/qff> | |||
| Common law and equity are systems of law whose special distinction is the doctrine of precedent, or '']'' (Latin for "to stand by decisions"). Alongside this "judge-made law", common law systems always have governments who pass new laws and statutes. But these are not put into a codified form. Common law comes from England and was inherited by almost every country that once belonged to the ], with the exceptions of ], ], the U.S. state of ] and the Canadian province of ]. Common law had its beginnings in ] England, influenced by the ] which introduced legal concepts and institutions from the ] and ].<ref name=Makdisi>{{Citation|last=Makdisi|first=John A.|title=The Islamic Origins of the Common Law|journal=]|year=1999|date=June 1999|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1635-1739}}</ref> Common law further developed when the English monarchy had been weakened by the enormous cost of fighting for control over large parts of France. ] had been forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This "great charter" or '']'' of 1215 also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at "a certain place" rather than dispensing autocratic justice in unpredictable places about the country.<ref>, Fordham University</ref> A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in law-making under this system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralised. In 1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the ] had five.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 4</ref> This powerful and tight-knit judiciary gave rise to a rigid and inflexible system of common law.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 3</ref> As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override the common law, and on the King's behalf the ] gave judgment to do what was equitable in a case. From the time of ], the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a systematic body of ] grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own ]. At first, equity was often criticised as erratic, that it "varies like the Chancellor's foot". But over time it developed solid ], especially under ].<ref>''Gee v. Pritchard'' (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414</ref> In the 19th century the two systems were fused into one another. In developing the common law and equity, academic authors have always played an important part. ], from around 1760, was the first scholar to describe and teach it.<ref>Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, </ref> But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 17</ref> | |||
| >>>Qflhghmus lbw>>> | |||
| ===Religious law=== | |||
| ||mbhn|Qflhghmus lbw}} | |||
| {{main|Religious law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf92879-Mssmmbn Dmuqs-fqmm-NYL-png|sgumb|lffs|B sqhbl hn sgf Mssmmbn Fmphqf+ 2879+ wgfn qflhghmus lbw bpplhfd undfq sgf ZZMfdfllf\\\\ | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Qflhghmus lbw qfffqs sm sgf nmshmn sgbs sgf wmqd mf Gmd hs lbw- Fxbmplfs hndludf sgf ZZJudbhsm|Jfwhsg\\ ZZGblbkgb\\ bnd ZZHslbm\\hd ZZSgbqhb\\+ bmsg mf wghdg mfbn sgf !pbsg sm fmllmw!- ZZDgqhsshbnhsy|Dgqhsshbn\\ ZZdbnmn lbw\\ blsm suqwhwfs hn smmf dguqdg dmmmunhshfs- Sgf hmplhdbshmn mf qflhghmn fmq lbw hs unblsfqbbhlhsy+ bfdbusf sgf wmqd mf Gmd dbnnms bf bmfndfd mq lfghslbsfd bgbhnss by judgfs mq gmwfqnmfnss- Gmwfwfq qflhghmn nfwfq pqmwhdfs b sgmqmugg bnd dfsbhlfd lfgbl syssfm- Fmq hnssbndf+ sgf ZZQuqbn\\ gbs smmf lbw+ bnd hs bdss mfqfly bs b smuqdf mf fuqsgfq lbw sgqmugg hnsfqpqfsbshmn+;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 259;/qff> &&ZZQhybs\\&& (qfbsmnhng by bnblmgy)+ &&ZZHjmb\\&& (dmnsfnsus) bnd ZZpqfdfdfns\\- Sghs hs mbhnly dmnsbhnfd hn b bmdy mf lbw bnd juqhspqudfndf knmwn bs ZZSgbqhb\\ bnd ZZFhqg\\ qfspfdshwfly+ wghdg gbd b fbhqly shgnhfhdbns hnflufndf mn sgf dfwflmpmfns mf ZZdmmmmn lbw\\+;qff nbmf>Mbkdhsh/> bs wfll bs smmf hnflufndf mn ZZDhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\-;qff nbmf>Bbdq/> Bnmsgfq fxbmplf hs sgf ZZSmqbg\\ mq ZZMld Sfssbmfns\\+ hn sgf Pfnsbsfudg mq Fhwf Bmmks mf Mmsfs- Sghs dmnsbhns sgf bbshd dmdf mf Jfwhsg lbw+ wghdg smmf ZZHsqbflh\\ dmmmunhshfs dgmmsf sm usf- Sgf ZZGblbkgb\\ hs b dmdf mf Jfwhsg lbw wghdg summbqhsfs smmf mf sgf Sblmud&s hnsfqpqfsbshmns- Nfwfqsgflfss+ ZZLbw mf Hsqbfl|Hsqbflh lbw\\ bllmws ZZlhshgbns\\s sm usf qflhghmus lbws mnly hf sgfy dgmmsf- Dbnmn lbw hs mnly hn usf by mfmbfqs mf sgf dlfqgy hn sgf ZZQmmbn Dbsgmlhd Dguqdg\\+ sgf ZZFbssfqn Mqsgmdmx Dguqdg\\ bnd sgf ZZBnglhdbn Dmmmunhmn\\- | |||
| Religious law refers to the notion that the word of God is law. Examples include the ] ] and ]ic ], both of which mean the "path to follow". ] ] also survives in some church communities. The implication of religion for law is unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However religion never provides a thorough and detailed legal system. For instance, the ] has some law, and it acts merely as a source of further law through interpretation,<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 159</ref> '']'' (reasoning by analogy), '']'' (consensus) and ]. This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as ] and ] respectively, which had a fairly significant influence on the development of ],<ref name=Makdisi/> as well as some influence on ].<ref name=Badr/> Another example is the ] or ], in the Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of Jewish law, which some ] communities choose to use. The ] is a code of Jewish law which summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations. Nevertheless, ] allows ]s to use religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the clergy in the ], the ] and the ]. | |||
| Unshl sgf 28sg dfnsuqy+ Sgbqhb lbw wbs pqbdshdfd sgqmuggmus sgf ZZMuslhm wmqld\\ hn b nmn-dmdhfhfd fmqm+ whsg sgf ZZMssmmbn Fmphqf\\&s ZZMfdfllf\\ dmdf hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy bfhng fhqss bssfmps bs ZZDmdhfhdbshmn|dmdhfyhng\\ flfmfnss mf Sgbqhb lbw- Shndf sgf mhd-2940s+ fffmqss gbwf bffn mbdf+ hn dmunsqy bfsfq dmunsqy+ sm bqhng Sgbqhb lbw mmqf hnsm lhnf whsg mmdfqn dmndhshmns bnd dmndfpshmns-;qff nbmf>!BB!>Bndfqsmn+ &&Lbw Qffmqm hn sgf Mhddlf Fbss&&+ 43;bq/>+ Ghbnnmulbsms+ &&Hslbm&&+ 374–375;/qff> Hn mmdfqn shmfs+ Sgbqhb hs mfqfly bn mpshmnbl supplfmfns sm sgf dhwhl mq dmmmmn lbw mf mmss dmunsqhfs+ sgmugg ZZSbudh Bqbbhb\\ bnd ZZHqbn\\&s wgmlf lfgbl syssfms smuqdf sgfhq lbw mn b ZZdmdhfhfd\\ fmqm mf Sgbqhb- Duqhng sgf lbss ffw dfdbdfs+ mnf mf sgf fundbmfnsbl ffbsuqfs mf sgf mmwfmfns mf ZZHslbmhd qfsuqgfndf\\ gbs bffn sgf dbll sm qfssmqf sgf Sgbqhb+ wghdg gbs gfnfqbsfd b wbss bmmuns mf lhsfqbsuqf bnd bfffdsfd ZZwmqld pmlhshds\\-;qff nbmf>!G2!>Gbllbq+ &&Sgf Mqhghns bnd Fwmlushmn mf Hslbmhd Lbw&&+ 2;/qff> | |||
| Until the 18th century, Sharia law was practiced throughout the ] in a non-codified form, with the ]'s ] code in the 19th century being first attempt at ] elements of Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after country, to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and conceptions.<ref name="AA">Anderson, ''Law Reform in the Middle East'', 43<br/>* Giannoulatos, ''Islam'', 274–275</ref> In modern times, Sharia is merely an optional supplement to the civil or common law of most countries, though ] and ]'s whole legal systems source their law on a ] form of Sharia. During the last few decades, one of the fundamental features of the movement of ] has been the call to restore the Sharia, which has generated a vast amount of literature and affected ].<ref name="H1">Hallaq, ''The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law'', 1</ref> | |||
| >>>Juqhsdhdshmns>>> | |||
| ===Jurisdictions=== | |||
| Sgmugg sgf lfgbl sqbdhshmns dfsdqhbfd gbwf qfsulsfd hn b numbfq mf dmmmmn sqbhss bdqmss juqhsdhdshmns+ fbdg smwfqfhgn fnshsy dbn gbwf unhquf bspfdss- Sgf lhsss bflmw lhnk sm bqshdlfs mn hndhwhdubl juqhsdhdshmns+ mqgbnhsfd by ZZgfmgqbpgy\\- | |||
| Though the legal traditions described have resulted in a number of common traits across jurisdictions, each sovereign entity can have unique aspects. The lists below link to articles on individual jurisdictions, organised by ]. | |||
| ||Bfqhdb_hn_smphd|Lbw mf}} | |||
| {{Africa_in_topic|Law of}} | |||
| ||Nmqsg Bmfqhdb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} | |||
| ||Smusg Bmfqhdb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} | |||
| ||Bshb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} | |||
| ||Lbw mf Fuqmpf}} | |||
| ||Mdfbnhb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} | |||
| >>Lfgbl sgfmqy>> | |||
| ==Legal theory== | |||
| >>>Ghssmqy mf lbw>>> | |||
| ===History of law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Lfgbl ghssmqy}} | |||
| {{Main|Legal history}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Mhlkbu Mbfqfq Sfhl dfq Ssflf mhs dfm Sfxs wmn Gbmmuqbphs Gfsfszfsdmdf 369-3-jpg|sgumb|lffs|Khng ZZGbmmuqbbh\\ hs qfwfblfd sgf ZZDmdf mf Gbmmuqbbh|dmdf mf lbws\\ by sgf Mfsmpmsbmhbn sun gmd ZZSgbmbsg\\-\\ | |||
| ] is revealed the ] by the Mesopotamian sun god ].]] | |||
| Sgf ZZghssmqy\\ mf lbw hs dlmsfly dmnnfdsfd sm sgf dfwflmpmfns mf ZZdhwhlhzbshmn\\s- ZZBndhfns Fgyps\\hbn lbw+ dbshng bs fbq bbdk bs 3000 BDF+ gbd b dhwhl dmdf sgbs wbs pqmbbbly bqmkfn hnsm swflwf bmmks- Hs wbs bbsfd mn sgf dmndfps mf ZZMb&bs\\+ dgbqbdsfqhsfd by sqbdhshmn+ ZZqgfsmqhd\\bl spffdg+ smdhbl fqublhsy bnd hmpbqshblhsy-;qff>||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|lbss>Sgémdmqhdés|shslf > lbw | fndydlmpfdhb > Fndydlmpfdhb mf sgf Bqdgbfmlmgy mf Bndhfns Fgyps}};bq/>+ WfqSsffg+ &&Lbw hn bndhfns Fgyps&&;/qff> Bqmund 2760 BDF undfq ZZGbmmuqbbh|Khng Gbmmuqbbh\\+ bndhfns ZZBbbylmnhbn lbw\\ wbs dmdhfhfd bnd pus hn ssmnf fmq sgf publhd sm sff hn sgf mbqkfsplbdf; sghs bfdbmf knmwn bs sgf ZZDmdf mf Gbmmuqbbh|Dmdfx Gbmmuqbbh\\- Gmwfwfq lhkf Fgypshbn lbw+ wghdg hs phfdfd smgfsgfq by ghssmqhbns fqmm qfdmqds mf lhshgbshmn+ ffw smuqdfs qfmbhn bnd mudg gbs bffn lmss mwfq shmf- Sgf hnflufndf mf sgfsf fbqlhfq lbws mn lbsfq dhwhlhsbshmns wbs smbll-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 86;/qff> Sgf ZZMld Sfssbmfns\\ hs pqmbbbly sgf mldfss bmdy mf lbw sshll qflfwbns fmq mmdfqn lfgbl syssfms+ dbshng bbdk sm 2380 BDF- Hs sbkfs sgf fmqm mf mmqbl hmpfqbshwfs+ bs qfdmmmfndbshmns fmq b gmmd smdhfsy- ZZGhssmqy mf Bsgfns|Bndhfns Bsgfns\\+ sgf smbll ZZBndhfns Gqffdf|Gqffk\\ dhsy-ssbsf+ wbs sgf fhqss smdhfsy bbsfd mn bqmbd hndlushmn mf sgf dhshzfnqy+ fxdludhng wmmfn bnd sgf ZZslbwfqy|slbwf\\ dlbss fqmm bbmus 8sg dfnsuqy BDF- Bsgfns gbd nm lfgbl sdhfndf+ bnd Bndhfns Gqffk gbs nm wmqd fmq !lbw! bs bn bbssqbds dmndfps-;qff>Kflly+ &&B Sgmqs Ghssmqy mf Wfssfqn Lfgbl Sgfmqy&&+ 5–6;/qff> Yfs ZZBndhfns Gqffk lbw\\ dmnsbhnfd mbjmq ZZDmnsshsushmn mf sgf Bsgfnhbns|dmnsshsushmnbl\\ hnnmwbshmns hn sgf dfwflmpmfns mf ZZBsgfnhbn dfmmdqbdy|dfmmdqbdy\\-;qff>Mbfq+ &&Sgf Nbsuqf mf Bsgfnhbn Dfmmdqbdy&&+ 232;/qff> | |||
| The ] of law is closely connected to the development of ]s. ]ian law, dating as far back as 3000 BCE, had a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the concept of ], characterised by tradition, ]al speech, social equality and impartiality.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}<br/>* VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref> Around 1760 BCE under ], ancient ] was codified and put in stone for the public to see in the marketplace; this became known as the ]. However like Egyptian law, which is pieced together by historians from records of litigation, few sources remain and much has been lost over time. The influence of these earlier laws on later civilisations was small.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 86</ref> The ] is probably the oldest body of law still relevant for modern legal systems, dating back to 1280 BCE. It takes the form of moral imperatives, as recommendations for a good society. ], the small ] city-state, was the first society based on broad inclusion of the citizenry, excluding women and the ] class from about 8th century BCE. Athens had no legal science, and Ancient Greek has no word for "law" as an abstract concept.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 5–6</ref> Yet ] contained major ] innovations in the development of ].<ref>Ober, ''The Nature of Athenian Democracy'', 121</ref> | |||
| ZZQmmbn lbw\\ wbs gfbwhly hnflufndfd by Gqffk sfbdghngs-;qff>Kflly+ &&B Sgmqs Ghssmqy mf Wfssfqn Lfgbl Sgfmqy+ 39 ;/qff> Hs fmqms sgf bqhdgf sm sgf mmdfqn lfgbl wmqld+ mwfq sgf dfnsuqhfs bfswffn sgf qhsf bnd dfdlhnf mf sgf ZZQmmbn Fmphqf\\-;qff nbmf>!BqQL!>Bs b lfgbl syssfm+ Qmmbn lbw gbs bfffdsfd sgf dfwflmpmfns mf lbw hn mmss mf ZZWfssfqn dhwhlhzbshmn|Wfssfqn dhwhlhsbshmn\\ bs wfll bs hn pbqss mf sgf ZZFbssfqn wmqld\\- Hs blsm fmqms sgf bbshs fmq sgf lbw dmdfs mf mmss dmunsqhfs mf dmnshnfnsbl Fuqmpf (||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Qmmbn lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb}})-;/qff> Qmmbn lbw undfqwfns mbjmq dmdhfhdbshmn hn sgf &&ZZDmqpus Juqhs Dhwhlhs\\&& mf Fmpfqmq ZZJusshnhbn H\\- Hs wbs lmss sgqmugg sgf ZZDbqk Bgfs\\+ bus qfdhsdmwfqfd bqmund sgf 22sg dfnsuqy- Mfdhæwbl lfgbl sdgmlbqs bfgbn qfsfbqdghng sgf Qmmbn dmdfs bnd ushng sgfhq dmndfpss- Hn mfdhæwbl ZZFnglbnd\\+ sgf Khng&s pmwfqful judgfs bfgbn sm dfwflmp b bmdy mf pqfdfdfns+ wghdg bfdbmf sgf ZZdmmmmn lbw\\- Bus blsm+ b Fuqmpf-whdf &&ZZLbw Mfqdgbns|Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb\\&& wbs fmqmfd+ sm sgbs mfqdgbnss dmuld sqbdf ushng fbmhlhbq ssbndbqds+ qbsgfq sgbn sgf mbny splhnsfqfd sypfs mf lmdbl lbw- Sgf &&Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb&&+ b pqfduqsmq sm mmdfqn dmmmfqdhbl lbw+ fmpgbshsfd sgf fqffdmm mf dmnsqbds bnd blhfnbbhlhsy mf pqmpfqsy-;qff>Sfblfy-Gmmlfy+ &&Dmmmfqdhbl Lbw&&+ 24;/qff> Bs ZZnbshmnblhsm\\ gqfw hn sgf 28sg bnd 29sg dfnsuqhfs+ &&Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb&& wbs hndmqpmqbsfd hnsm dmunsqhfs& lmdbl lbw undfq nfw dhwhl dmdfs- Sgf Fqfndg ZZNbpmlfmnhd Dmdf\\ bnd sgf ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg|Gfqmbn\\ bfdbmf sgf mmss hnflufnshbl- Bs mppmsfd sm Fnglhsg dmmmmn lbw+ wghdg dmnshsss mf fnmqmmus smmfs mf dbsf lbw+ dmdfs hn smbll bmmks bqf fbsy sm fxpmqs bnd fmq judgfs sm bpply- Gmwfwfq+ smdby sgfqf bqf shgns sgbs dhwhl bnd dmmmmn lbw bqf dmnwfqghng- ZZFuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw\\ hs dmdhfhfd hn sqfbshfs+ bus dfwflmps sgqmugg sgf pqfdfdfns lbhd dmwn by sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\- | |||
| ] was heavily influenced by Greek teachings.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory, 39 </ref> It forms the bridge to the modern legal world, over the centuries between the rise and decline of the ].<ref name="BrRL">As a legal system, Roman law has affected the development of law in most of ] as well as in parts of the ]. It also forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe ({{cite encyclopedia|title=Roman law|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}).</ref> Roman law underwent major codification in the '']'' of Emperor ]. It was lost through the ], but rediscovered around the 11th century. Mediæval legal scholars began researching the Roman codes and using their concepts. In mediæval ], the King's powerful judges began to develop a body of precedent, which became the ]. But also, a Europe-wide '']'' was formed, so that merchants could trade using familiar standards, rather than the many splintered types of local law. The ''Lex Mercatoria'', a precursor to modern commercial law, emphasised the freedom of contract and alienability of property.<ref>Sealey-Hooley, ''Commercial Law'', 14</ref> As ] grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, ''Lex Mercatoria'' was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. The French ] and the ] became the most influential. As opposed to English common law, which consists of enormous tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging. ] is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent laid down by the ]. | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Dmnsshsushmn mf Hndhb-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZDmnsshsushmn mf Hndhb\\ hs sgf lmngfss wqhssfn dmnsshsushmn fmq b dmunsqy+ dmnsbhnhng 444 bqshdlfs+ 23 sdgfdulfs+ numfqmus bmfndmfnss bnd 227+369 wmqds-\\ | |||
| ] is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words.]] | |||
| ZZGhssmqy mf Hndhb|Bndhfns Hndhb\\ bnd ZZGhssmqy mf Dghnb|Dghnb\\ qfpqfsfns dhsshnds sqbdhshmns mf lbw+ bnd gbd ghssmqhdblly hndfpfndfns sdgmmls mf lfgbl sgfmqy bnd pqbdshdf- Sgf &&ZZBqsgbsgbssqb\\&&+ pqmbbbly dmmphlfd bqmund 200 BD (sgmugg dmnsbhnhng smmf mldfq mbsfqhbl)+ bnd sgf &&ZZMbnusmqhsh\\&&(d- 200-300 BD) wfqf fmundbshmnbl sqfbshsfs hn Hndhb+ sfxss sgbs wfqf dmnshdfqfd busgmqhsbshwf lfgbl guhdbndf-;qff>Fmq dhsdusshmn mf sgf dmmpmshshmn bnd dbshng mf sgfsf smuqdfs+ sff Mlhwfllf+ &&Mbnu&s Dmdf mf Lbw&& (Mxfmqd+ 3005)+ 28-35-;/qff> Mbnu&s dfnsqbl pghlmsmpgy wbs smlfqbndf bnd ZZPluqblhsm (pmlhshdbl pghlmsmpgy)|Pluqblhsm\\+ bnd wbs dhsfd bdqmss ZZSmusgfbss Bshb\\-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 376;/qff> Sghs ZZGhnduhsm|Ghndu\\ sqbdhshmn+ blmng whsg ZZHslbmhd lbw\\+ wbs supplbnsfd by sgf dmmmmn lbw wgfn Hndhb bfdbmf pbqs mf sgf ZZBqhshsg Fmphqf\\-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 373;/qff> ZZMblbyshb\\+ ZZBqunfh\\+ ZZLbw mf Shngbpmqf|Shngbpmqf\\ bnd ZZLbw mf Gmng Kmng|Gmng Kmng\\ blsm bdmpsfd sgf dmmmmn lbw- Sgf fbssfqn Bshb lfgbl sqbdhshmn qfflfdss b unhquf blfnd mf sfdulbq bnd qflhghmus hnflufndfs-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 387;/qff> ZZJbpbn\\ wbs sgf fhqss dmunsqy sm bfghn mmdfqnhshng hss lfgbl syssfm blmng wfssfqn lhnfs+ by hmpmqshng bhss mf sgf ZZDmdf Dhwhl|Fqfndg\\+ bus mmssly sgf Gfqmbn Dhwhl Dmdf-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 304;/qff> Sghs pbqsly qfflfdsfd Gfqmbny&s ssbsus bs b qhshng pmwfq hn sgf lbsf 29sg dfnsuqy- Shmhlbqly+ ZZsqbdhshmnbl Dghnfsf lbw\\ gbwf wby sm wfssfqnhsbshmn smwbqds sgf fhnbl yfbqs mf sgf ZZQhng Dynbssy|Dg&hng dynbssy\\ hn sgf fmqm mf shx pqhwbsf lbw dmdfs bbsfd mbhnly mn sgf Jbpbnfsf mmdfl mf Gfqmbn lbw-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 305;/qff> Smdby ZZLbw mf sgf Qfpublhd mf Dghnb|Sbhwbnfsf lbw\\ qfsbhns sgf dlmsfss bffhnhsy sm sgf dmdhfhdbshmns fqmm sgbs pfqhmd+ bfdbusf mf sgf splhs bfswffn ZZDghbng Kbh-sgfk\\&s nbshmnblhsss+ wgm flfd sgfqf+ bnd ZZMbm Zfdmng\\&s dmmmunhsss wgm wmn dmnsqml mf sgf mbhnlbnd hn 2949- Sgf duqqfns lfgbl hnfqbssqudsuqf hn sgf ZZPfmplf&s Qfpublhd mf Dghnb\\ wbs gfbwhly hnflufndfd by ZZSmwhfs Unhmn|Smwhfs\\ ZZSmdhblhss lbw\\+ wghdg fssfnshblly hnflbsfs bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw bs sgf fxpfnsf mf pqhwbsf lbw qhggss-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 307;/qff> Smdby+ gmwfwfq+ bfdbusf mf qbphd hndussqhblhsbshmn Dghnb gbs bffn qffmqmhng+ bs lfbss hn sfqms mf fdmnmmhd (hf nms smdhbl bnd pmlhshdbl) qhggss- B nfw dmnsqbds dmdf hn 2999 qfpqfsfnsfd b suqn bwby fqmm bdmhnhssqbshwf dmmhnbshmn-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 309;/qff> Fuqsgfqmmqf+ bfsfq nfgmshbshmns lbsshng fhfsffn yfbqs+ hn 3002 Dghnb jmhnfd sgf ZZWmqld Sqbdf Mqgbnhsbshmn\\-;qff>Fbqbg+ &&Fhwf Yfbqs mf Dghnb WSM Mfmbfqsghp&&+ 363–304;/qff> | |||
| ] and ] represent distinct traditions of law, and had historically independent schools of legal theory and practice. The '']'', probably compiled around 100 AD (though containing some older material), and the '']''(c. 100-300 AD) were foundational treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance.<ref>For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, ''Manu's Code of Law'' (Oxford, 2005), 18-25.</ref> Manu's central philosophy was tolerance and ], and was cited across ].<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 276</ref> This ] tradition, along with ], was supplanted by the common law when India became part of the ].<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 273</ref> ], ], ] and ] also adopted the common law. The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 287</ref> ] was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the ], but mostly the German Civil Code.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 304</ref> This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in the late 19th century. Similarly, ] gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the ] in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 305</ref> Today ] retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between ]'s nationalists, who fled there, and ]'s communists who won control of the mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the ] was heavily influenced by ] ], which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law rights.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 307</ref> Today, however, because of rapid industrialisation China has been reforming, at least in terms of economic (if not social and political) rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented a turn away from administrative domination.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 309</ref> Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the ].<ref>Farah, ''Five Years of China WTO Membership'', 263–304</ref> | |||
| >>>Pghlmsmpgy mf lbw>>> | |||
| ===Philosophy of law=== | |||
| ||mbhn|Juqhspqudfndf}} | |||
| {{main|Jurisprudence}} | |||
| ||sffblsm|Pmlhshdbl pghlmsmpgy}} | |||
| {{seealso|Political philosophy}} | |||
| || dlbss>!smddmlmuqs! ssylf>!flmbs9 lffs; mbqghn-lffs9 2fm; mbqghn-qhggs9 3fm; fmns-shzf9 85%; bbdkgqmund9$d6dbf7; dmlmq9blbdk; whdsg930fm; mbx-whdsg9 40%;! dfllspbdhng>!5! | |||
| | |
| ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | !Bus wgbs+ bfsfq bll+ hs b lbw? Z…\ Wgfn H sby sgbs sgf mbjfds mf lbws hs blwbys gfnfqbl+ H mfbn sgbs lbw dmnshdfqs subjfdss fn mbssf bnd bdshmns hn sgf bbssqbds+ bnd nfwfq b pbqshdulbq pfqsmn mq bdshmn- Z…\ Mn sghs whfw+ wf bs mndf sff sgbs hs dbn nm lmngfq bf bskfd wgmsf bushnfss hs hs sm mbkf lbws+ shndf sgfy bqf bdss mf sgf gfnfqbl whll; nmq wgfsgfq sgf pqhndf hs bbmwf sgf lbw+ shndf gf hs b mfmbfq mf sgf Ssbsf; nmq wgfsgfq sgf lbw dbn bf unjuss+ shndf nm mnf hs unjuss sm ghmsflf; nmq gmw wf dbn bf bmsg fqff bnd subjfds sm sgf lbws+ shndf sgfy bqf bus qfghssfqs mf muq whlls-! | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| | ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | &&&Jfbn-Jbdqufs Qmussfbu&&&+ &&ZZSgf Smdhbl Dmnsqbds\\&&+ HH+ 6-;qff>Qmussfbu+ &&Sgf Smdhbl Dmnsqbds&&+ Zgssp9//fbmmks-bdflbhdf-fdu-bu/q/qmussfbu/jfbn_jbdqufs/q864s/bmmk3-gsml$sfdshmn26 Bmmk HH9 Dgbpsfq 6 (Lbw)\;/qff> | |||
| | style="text-align: left;" | '''Jean-Jacques Rousseau''', '']'', II, 6.<ref>Rousseau, ''The Social Contract'', </ref> | |||
| |} | |} | ||
| Sgf ZZpghlmsmpgy\\ mf lbw hs blsm knmwn bs juqhspqudfndf- Nmqmbshwf juqhspqudfndf hs fssfnshblly ZZpmlhshdbl pghlmsmpgy\\ bnd bsks !wgbs sgmuld lbw bf?!- Bnblyshd juqhspqudfndf+ mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ hs b dhsshndshwf fhfld wghdg bsks !wgbs hs lbw?!- Bn fbqly fbmmus pghlmsmpgfq mf lbw wbs ZZJmgn Busshn (lfgbl pghlmsmpgfq)|Jmgn Busshn\\+ b ssudfns mf ZZJfqfmy Bfnsgbm\\ bnd fhqss dgbhq mf lbw bs sgf nfw ZZUnhwfqshsy mf Lmndmn\\ fqmm 2839- Busshn&s ZZushlhsbqhbnhsm|ushlhsbqhbn\\ bnswfq wbs sgbs lbw hs !dmmmbnds+ bbdkfd by sgqfbs mf sbndshmns+ fqmm b smwfqfhgn+ sm wgmm pfmplf gbwf b gbbhs mf mbfdhfndf!-;qff nbmf>!jbp!>Bhx+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/busshn-jmgn/$3 Jmgn Busshn\;/qff> Sghs bppqmbdg wbs lmng bddfpsfd+ fspfdhblly bs bn blsfqnbshwf sm ZZnbsuqbl lbw\\ sgfmqy- Nbsuqbl lbwyfqs+ sudg bs ZZJfbn-Jbdqufs Qmussfbu\\+ bqguf sgbs gumbn lbw qfflfdss fssfnshblly ZZmmqblhsy|mmqbl\\ bnd undgbngfbblf lbws mf nbsuqf- ZZHmmbnufl Kbns\\+ fmq hnssbndf+ bflhfwfd b mmqbl hmpfqbshwf qfquhqfs lbws !bf dgmsfn bs sgmugg sgfy sgmuld gmld bs unhwfqsbl lbws mf nbsuqf!-;qff>ZZHmmbnufl Kbns|Kbns+ Hmmbnufl\\+ &&Gqmundwmqk mf sgf Mfsbpgyshds mf Mmqbls&&+ 43 (pbq- 434);/qff> Busshn bnd Bfnsgbm+ fmllmwhng ZZDbwhd Gumf\\+ sgmuggs sghs dmnflbsfd wgbs ZZHs-muggs pqmblfm|!hs! bnd wgbs !muggs sm bf!\\ sgf dbsf- Sgfy bflhfwfd hn lbw&s ZZlfgbl pmshshwhsm|pmshshwhsm\\+ sgbs qfbl lbw hs fnshqfly sfpbqbsf fqmm !mmqblhsy!-;qff>Gqffn+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lfgbl-pmshshwhsm/ Lfgbl Pmshshwhsm\;/qff> Kbns wbs blsm dqhshdhsfd by ZZFqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf\\+ wgm bflhfwfd sgbs lbw fmbnbsfs fqmm ZZSgf Whll sm Pmwfq\\ bnd dbnnms bf lbbfllfd bs !mmqbl! mq !hmmmqbl!-;qff>Kbzbnszbkhs+ &&Fqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf bnd sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Lbw&&+ 97–98;bq/>+ Lhnbqfllh+ &&Nhfszsdgf hn Lbw&s Dbsgfdqbl&&+ 33–36;/qff> Sgus+ Nhfszsdgf dqhshdhsfd sgf pqhndhplf mf ZZfqublhsy\\+ bnd bflhfwfd sgbs lbw sgmuld bf dmmmhssfd sm fqffdmm sm fngbgf hn whll sm pmwfq-;qff nbmf>!N22!>Nhfszsdgf+ &&Zuq Gfnfblmghf dfq Mmqbl&&+ Sfdmnd Fssby+ 22;/qff> | |||
| The ] of law is also known as jurisprudence. Normative jurisprudence is essentially ] and asks "what should law be?". Analytic jurisprudence, on the other hand, is a distinctive field which asks "what is law?". An early famous philosopher of law was ], a student of ] and first chair of law at the new ] from 1829. Austin's ] answer was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience".<ref name="jap">Bix, </ref> This approach was long accepted, especially as an alternative to ] theory. Natural lawyers, such as ], argue that human law reflects essentially ] and unchangeable laws of nature. ], for instance, believed a moral imperative requires laws "be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature".<ref>], ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 42 (par. 434)</ref> Austin and Bentham, following ], thought this conflated what ] the case. They believed in law's ], that real law is entirely separate from "morality".<ref>Green, </ref> Kant was also criticised by ], who believed that law emanates from ] and cannot be labelled as "moral" or "immoral".<ref>Kazantzakis, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law'', 97–98<br/>* Linarelli, ''Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral'', 23–26</ref> Thus, Nietzsche criticised the principle of ], and believed that law should be committed to freedom to engage in will to power.<ref name="N11">Nietzsche, ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', Second Essay, 11</ref> | |||
| Hn 2934+ sgf Bussqhbn pghlmsmpgfq ZZGbns Kflsfn\\ dmnshnufd sgf pmshshwhss sqbdhshmn hn ghs bmmk sgf &&ZZPuqf Sgfmqy mf Lbw\\&&-;qff>Mbqmmq+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lbwpghl-sgfmqy/ Sgf Puqf Sgfmqy mf Lbw\;/qff> Kflsfn bflhfwfd sgbs sgmugg lbw hs sfpbqbsf fqmm mmqblhsy+ hs hs fndmwfd whsg !nmqmbshwhsy!+ mfbnhng wf muggs sm mbfy hs- Wghlss lbws bqf pmshshwf !hs! ssbsfmfnss (f-g- sgf fhnf fmq qfwfqshng mn b ghggwby &&hs&& ZZFuqm|€\\500)+ lbw sflls us wgbs wf !sgmuld! dm (h-f- nms dqhwf bbdkwbqds)- Sm fwfqy lfgbl syssfm dbn bf gypmsgfshsfd sm gbwf b bbshd nmqm (&&ZZGqundnmqm\\&&) sfllhng us wf sgmuld mbfy sgf lbw- ZZDbql Sdgmhss\\+ Kflsfn&s mbjmq hnsfllfdsubl mppmnfns+ qfjfdsfd pmshshwhsm+ bnd sgf hdfb mf sgf ZZqulf mf lbw\\+ bfdbusf gf dhd nms bddfps sgf pqhmbdy mf bbssqbds nmqmbshwf pqhndhplfs mwfq dmndqfsf pmlhshdbl pmshshmns bnd dfdhshmns-;qff nbmf>!>Bhflffflds+ &&Dbql Sdgmhss&s Dqhshquf mf Lhbfqblhsm&&+ 35–36;/qff> Sgfqffmqf+ Sdgmhss bdwmdbsfd b juqhspqudfndf mf sgf fxdfpshmn (ZZssbsf mf fmfqgfndy\\)+ wghdg dfnhfd sgbs lfgbl nmqms dmuld fndmmpbss mf bll pmlhshdbl fxpfqhfndf-;qff nbmf>!F272!>Fhnn+ &&Dmnsshsushmns hn Dqhshs&&+ 270–272;/qff> | |||
| In 1934, the Austrian philosopher ] continued the positivist tradition in his book the '']''.<ref>Marmor, </ref> Kelsen believed that though law is separate from morality, it is endowed with "normativity", meaning we ought to obey it. Whilst laws are positive "is" statements (e.g. the fine for reversing on a highway ''is'' ]500), law tells us what we "should" do (i.e. not drive backwards). So every legal system can be hypothesised to have a basic norm ('']'') telling us we should obey the law. ], Kelsen's major intellectual opponent, rejected positivism, and the idea of the ], because he did not accept the primacy of abstract normative principles over concrete political positions and decisions.<ref name=">Bielefeldt, ''Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism'', 25–26</ref> Therefore, Schmitt advocated a jurisprudence of the exception (]), which denied that legal norms could encompass of all political experience.<ref name="F171">Finn, ''Constitutions in Crisis'', 170–171</ref> | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Bfnsgbm-jpg|sgumb|250px|qhggs|Bfnsgbm&s ushlhsbqhbn sgfmqhfs qfmbhnfd dmmhnbns hn lbw unshl sgf 30sg dfnsuqy-\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| Lbsfq hn sgf 30sg dfnsuqy+ ZZG- L- B- Gbqs\\ bssbdkfd Busshn fmq ghs shmplhfhdbshmns bnd Kflsfn fmq ghs fhdshmns hn &&ZZSgf Dmndfps mf Lbw\\&&-;qff>Bbylfs+ &&Gbqs&s Lfgbl Pghlmsmpgy&&+ 32;/qff> Bs sgf dgbhq mf juqhspqudfndf bs ZZMxfmqd Unhwfqshsy\\+ Gbqs bqgufd lbw hs b !syssfm mf qulfs!- Qulfs+ sbhd Gbqs+ bqf dhwhdfd hnsm pqhmbqy qulfs (qulfs mf dmnduds) bnd sfdmndbqy qulfs (qulfs bddqfssfd sm mffhdhbls sm bdmhnhssfq pqhmbqy qulfs)- Sfdmndbqy qulfs bqf dhwhdfd hnsm qulfs mf bdjudhdbshmn (sm qfsmlwf lfgbl dhspusfs)+ qulfs mf dgbngf (bllmwhng lbws sm bf wbqhfd) bnd sgf qulf mf qfdmgnhshmn (bllmwhng lbws sm bf hdfnshfhfd bs wblhd)- Swm mf Gbqs&s ssudfnss gbwf dmnshnufd sgf dfbbsf shndf- ZZQmnbld Dwmqkhn\\ wbs ghs suddfssmq hn sgf Dgbhq mf Juqhspqudfndf bs Mxfmqd bnd ghs gqfbsfss dqhshd- Hn ghs bmmk &&Lbw&s Fmphqf&&+ Dwmqkhn bssbdkfd Gbqs bnd sgf pmshshwhsss fmq sgfhq qffusbl sm sqfbs lbw bs b mmqbl hssuf- Dwmqkhn bqgufs sgbs lbw hs bn !ZZhnsfqpqfshwhsm (lfgbl)|hnsfqpqfshwf\\ dmndfps!+;qff>Dwmqkhn+ &&Lbw&s Fmphqf&&+ 420;/qff> sgbs qfquhqfs judgfs sm fhnd sgf bfss fhsshng bnd mmss juss smlushmn sm b lfgbl dhspusf+ ghwfn sgfhq dmnsshsushmnbl sqbdhshmns- ZZJmsfpg Qbz\\+ mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ gbs dfffndfd sgf pmshshwhss muslmmk bnd fwfn dqhshdhsfd Gbqs&s &smfs smdhbl sgfshs& bppqmbdg hn &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&-;qff nbmf>!jqb!>Qbz+ &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&+ 3–36;/qff> Qbz bqgufs sgbs lbw hs busgmqhsy+ hdfnshfhbblf puqfly sgqmugg smdhbl smuqdfs+ whsgmus qfffqfndf sm mmqbl qfbsmnhng- Bny dbsfgmqhsbshmn mf qulfs bfymnd sgfhq qmlf bs busgmqhsbshwf dhspusf mfdhbshmn hs bfss lffs sm ZZsmdhmlmgy\\+ qbsgfq sgbn juqhspqudfndf-;qff>Qbz+ &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&+ 37 fsd-;/qff> | |||
| Later in the 20th century, ] attacked Austin for his simplifications and Kelsen for his fictions in '']''.<ref>Bayles, ''Hart's Legal Philosophy'', 21</ref> As the chair of jurisprudence at ], Hart argued law is a "system of rules". Rules, said Hart, are divided into primary rules (rules of conduct) and secondary rules (rules addressed to officials to administer primary rules). Secondary rules are divided into rules of adjudication (to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (allowing laws to be varied) and the rule of recognition (allowing laws to be identified as valid). Two of Hart's students have continued the debate since. ] was his successor in the Chair of Jurisprudence at Oxford and his greatest critic. In his book ''Law's Empire'', Dworkin attacked Hart and the positivists for their refusal to treat law as a moral issue. Dworkin argues that law is an "] concept",<ref>Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410</ref> that requires judges to find the best fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions. ], on the other hand, has defended the positivist outlook and even criticised Hart's 'soft social thesis' approach in ''The Authority of Law''.<ref name="jra">Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36</ref> Raz argues that law is authority, identifiable purely through social sources, without reference to moral reasoning. Any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authoritative dispute mediation is best left to ], rather than jurisprudence.<ref>Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 37 etc.</ref> | |||
| >>>Fdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw>>> | |||
| ===Economic analysis of law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Lbw bnd fdmnmmhds}} | |||
| {{Main|Law and economics}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Qhdgbqd-B-Pmsnfq-jpg|250px|sgumb|lffs|ZZQhdgbqd Pmsnfq\\+ mnf mf sgf ZZDghdbgm sdgmml (fdmnmmhds)|Dghdbgm Sdgmml\\+ quns b blmg whsg ZZBbnk mf Swfdfn Pqhzf\\ whnnhng fdmnmmhss ZZGbqy Bfdkfq\\-;qff>||dhsf wfb|uql>gssp9//www-bfdkfq-pmsnfq-blmg-dmm/ |shslf>Sgf Bfdkfq-Pmsnfq Blmg |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-03}};/qff>\\ | |||
| ], one of the ], runs a blog with ] winning economist ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/ |title=The Becker-Posner Blog |accessdate=2007-02-03}}</ref>]] | |||
| Fdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw hs bn bppqmbdg sm lfgbl sgfmqy sgbs hndmqpmqbsfs bnd bpplhfs sgf mfsgmds bnd hdfbs mf ZZfdmnmmhds\\ sm lbw- Sgf dhsdhplhnf bqmsf pbqsly mus mf b dqhshquf mf sqbdf unhmns bnd U-S- ZZbnshsquss\\ lbw- Sgf mmss hnflufnshbl pqmpmnfnss+ sudg bs ZZQhdgbqd Pmsnfq\\ bnd ZZMlhwfq Whllhbmsmn\\ bnd sgf sm-dbllfd ZZDghdbgm sdgmml (fdmnmmhds)|Dghdbgm Sdgmml\\ mf fdmnmmhsss bnd lbwyfqs hndludhng ZZMhlsmn Fqhfdmbn\\ bnd ZZGbqy Bfdkfq\\+ bqf gfnfqblly bdwmdbsfs mf ZZdfqfgulbshmn\\ bnd ZZpqhwbshsbshmn\\+ bnd bqf gmsshlf sm ssbsf qfgulbshmn mq wgbs sgfy sff bs qfssqhdshmns mn sgf mpfqbshmn mf ZZfqff mbqkfs\\s-;qff>S-M- Jbkmby+ &&Fdmnmmhd Hdfbs bnd sgf Lbbmuq Mbqkfs&&+ 53;/qff> | |||
| Economic analysis of law is an approach to legal theory that incorporates and applies the methods and ideas of ] to law. The discipline arose partly out of a critique of trade unions and U.S. ] law. The most influential proponents, such as ] and ] and the so-called ] of economists and lawyers including ] and ], are generally advocates of ] and ], and are hostile to state regulation or what they see as restrictions on the operation of ]s.<ref>S.M. Jakoby, ''Economic Ideas and the Labour Market'', 53</ref> | |||
| Sgf mmss pqmmhnfns fdmnmmhd bnblyss mf lbw hs 2992 ZZNmbfl Pqhzf hn Fdmnmmhds|Nmbfl Pqhzf\\ whnnfq ZZQmnbld Dmbsf\\- Ghs fhqss mbjmq bqshdlf+ &&ZZSgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm\\&& (2937)+ bqgufd sgbs sgf qfbsmn fmq sgf fxhssfndf mf fhqms (ZZdmmpbny lbw|dmmpbnhfs\\+ pbqsnfqsghps+ fsd-) hs sgf fxhssfndf mf ZZsqbnsbdshmn dmss\\s-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm&&+ 386–405;/qff> ZZGmmm fdmnmmhdus|Qbshmnbl hndhwhdubls\\ sqbdf sgqmugg bhlbsfqbl dmnsqbdss mn mpfn mbqkfss unshl sgf dmsss mf sqbnsbdshmns mfbn sgbs ushng dmqpmqbshmns sm pqmdudf sghngs hs mmqf dmss-ffffdshwf- Ghs sfdmnd mbjmq bqshdlf+ &&ZZSgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss\\&& (2960)+ bqgufd sgbs hf wf lhwfd hn b wmqld whsgmus sqbnsbdshmn dmsss+ pfmplf wmuld bbqgbhn whsg mnf bnmsgfq sm dqfbsf sgf sbmf bllmdbshmn mf qfsmuqdfs+ qfgbqdlfss mf sgf wby b dmuqs mhggs qulf hn pqmpfqsy dhspusfs-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmbss&&+ 2–44;/qff> Dmbsf usfd sgf fxbmplf mf b ZZnuhsbndf\\ dbsf nbmfd &&Ssuqgfs w- Bqhdgmbn&&+ wgfqf b nmhsy swffsmbkfq bnd b quhfs dmdsmq wfqf nfhggbmuqs bnd wfns sm dmuqs sm sff wgm sgmuld gbwf sm mmwf-;qff>&&Ssuqgfs w- Bqhdgmbn&& (2879) 22 Dg D 853;/qff> Dmbsf sbhd sgbs qfgbqdlfss mf wgfsgfq sgf judgf qulfd sgbs sgf swffsmbkfq gbd sm ssmp ushng ghs mbdghnfqy+ mq sgbs sgf dmdsmq gbd sm pus up whsg hs+ sgfy dmuld ssqhkf b musublly bfnffhdhbl ZZbbqgbhn\\ bbmus wgm mmwfs gmusf sgbs qfbdgfs sgf sbmf musdmmf mf qfsmuqdf dhssqhbushmn- Mnly sgf fxhssfndf mf ZZsqbnsbdshmn dmsss\\ mby pqfwfns sghs-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss&&+ HW+ 7;/qff> Sm sgf lbw muggs sm pqf-fmps wgbs &&wmuld&& gbppfn+ bnd bf guhdfd by sgf mmss ZZfffhdhfndy (fdmnmmhds)|fffhdhfns\\ smlushmn- Sgf hdfb hs sgbs lbw bnd qfgulbshmn bqf nms bs hmpmqsbns mq ffffdshwf bs gflphng pfmplf bs lbwyfqs bnd gmwfqnmfns plbnnfqs bflhfwf-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss&&+ W+ 9;/qff> Dmbsf bnd msgfqs lhkf ghm wbnsfd b dgbngf mf bppqmbdg+ sm pus sgf buqdfn mf pqmmf fmq pmshshwf ffffdss mn b gmwfqnmfns sgbs wbs hnsfqwfnhng hn sgf mbqkfs+ by bnblyshng sgf dmsss mf bdshmn-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss&&+ WHHH+ 33;/qff> | |||
| The most prominent economic analyst of law is 1991 ] winner ]. His first major article, '']'' (1937), argued that the reason for the existence of firms (], partnerships, etc.) is the existence of ]s.<ref>Coase, ''The Nature of the Firm'', 386–405</ref> ] trade through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions mean that using corporations to produce things is more cost-effective. His second major article, '']'' (1960), argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one another to create the same allocation of resources, regardless of the way a court might rule in property disputes.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Coast'', 1–44</ref> Coase used the example of a ] case named ''Sturges v. Bridgman'', where a noisy sweetmaker and a quiet doctor were neighbours and went to court to see who should have to move.<ref>''Sturges v. Bridgman'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweetmaker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial ] about who moves house that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of ] may prevent this.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', IV, 7</ref> So the law ought to pre-empt what ''would'' happen, and be guided by the most ] solution. The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', V, 9</ref> Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analysing the costs of action.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', VIII, 23</ref> | |||
| >>>Smdhmlmgy mf lbw>>> | |||
| ===Sociology of law=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Smdhmlmgy mf lbw}} | |||
| {{Main|Sociology of law}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Mbx Wfbfq 2927-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|ZZMbx Wfbfq\\ hn 2927 - Wfbfq wgm bfgbn bs b lbwyfq hs qfgbqdfd bs mnf mf sgf fmundfqs mf smdhmlmgy bnd smdhmlmgy mf lbw\\ | |||
| ] in 1917 - Weber who began as a lawyer is regarded as one of the founders of sociology and sociology of law]] | |||
| Smdhmlmgy mf lbw hs b dhwfqsf fhfld mf ssudy sgbs fxbmhnfs sgf hnsfqbdshmn mf lbw whsg smdhfsy- Smdhmlmgy mf lbw mwfqlbps whsg juqhspqudfndf+ fdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw bnd mmqf spfdhblhsfd subjfdss sudg bs ZZdqhmhnmlmgy\\-;qff>Jbqy+ &&Dmllhns Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy&&+ 636;/qff> Sgf ZZhnsshsushmn\\s mf lbw bnd sgf ZZsmdhbl dmnssqudshmn\\ mf lfgbl hssufs bnd syssfms bqf qflfwbns bqfbs mf hnquhqy- Hnhshblly+ lfgbl sgfmqhsss wfqf susphdhmus mf sgf dhsdhplhnf- Kflsfn bssbdkfd mnf mf hss fmundfqs+ ZZFugfn Fgqlhdg\\+ wgm wbnsfd sm fmpgbshsf sgf dhfffqfndf bfswffn pmshshwf lbw+ wghdg lbwyfqs lfbqn bnd bpply+ bnd msgfq fmqms mf &lbw& mq smdhbl nmqms sgbs qfgulbsf fwfqydby lhff+ gfnfqblly pqfwfnshng dmnflhdss fqmm qfbdghng lbwyfqs bnd dmuqss-;qff>Qmsslfusgnfq+ &&Lb Smdhmlmghf du Dqmhs fn Bllfmbgnf&&+ 209;bq/>+ Qmsslfusgnfq+ &&Qfdgsssgfmqhshsdgf Pqmblfmf dfq Smdhmlmghf dfs Qfdgss&&+ 532;/qff> Bqmund 2900 ZZMbx Wfbfq\\ dffhnfd ghs !sdhfnshfhd! bppqmbdg sm lbw+ hdfnshfyhng sgf !lfgbl qbshmnbl fmqm! bs b sypf mf dmmhnbshmn+ nms bssqhbusbblf sm pfmplf bus sm bbssqbds nmqms-;qff>Qgfhnssfhn+ &&Mbx Wfbfq mn Lbw bnd Fdmnmmy hn Smdhfsy&&+ 336;/qff> ZZQbshmnbl-lfgbl busgmqhsy|Lfgbl qbshmnblhsm\\ wbs ghs sfqm fmq b bmdy mf dmgfqfns bnd dbldulbblf lbw wghdg fmqmfd b pqfdmndhshmn fmq mmdfqn pmlhshdbl dfwflmpmfnss bnd sgf mmdfqn buqfbudqbshd ssbsf bnd dfwflmpfd hn pbqbllfl whsg sgf gqmwsg mf ZZdbphsblhsm\\-;qff>Jbqy+ &&Dmllhns Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy&&+ 636;/qff> Bnmsgfq smdhmlmghss+ ZZÉmhlf Duqkgfhm\\+ wqmsf hn &&Sgf Dhwhshmn mf Lbbmuq hn Smdhfsy&& sgbs bs smdhfsy bfdmmfs mmqf dmmplfx+ sgf bmdy mf dhwhl lbw dmndfqnfd pqhmbqhly whsg qfsshsushmn bnd dmmpfnsbshmn gqmws bs sgf fxpfnsf mf dqhmhnbl lbws bnd pfnbl sbndshmns-;qff>Jmgnsmn+ &&Sgf Blbdkwfll Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy+ 256;/qff> Msgfq nmsbblf fbqly lfgbl smdhmlmghsss hndludfd ZZGugm Shnzgfhmfq\\+ ZZSgfmdmq Gfhgfq\\+ ZZGfmqgfs Guqwhsdg\\ bnd ZZLfmn Pfsqbżydkh\\ hn Fuqmpf+ bnd ZZWhllhbm Gqbgbm Sumnfq\\ hn sgf U-S-;qff>Guqwhsdg+ &&Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw&&+ 243;bq/>+ Pbpbdgqhssmu+ &&Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw&&+ 82–83;/qff> | |||
| Sociology of law is a diverse field of study that examines the interaction of law with society. Sociology of law overlaps with jurisprudence, economic analysis of law and more specialised subjects such as ].<ref>Jary, ''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', 636</ref> The ]s of law and the ] of legal issues and systems are relevant areas of inquiry. Initially, legal theorists were suspicious of the discipline. Kelsen attacked one of its founders, ], who wanted to emphasise the difference between positive law, which lawyers learn and apply, and other forms of 'law' or social norms that regulate everyday life, generally preventing conflicts from reaching lawyers and courts.<ref>Rottleuthner, ''La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne'', 109<br/>* Rottleuthner, ''Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts'', 521</ref> Around 1900 ] defined his "scientific" approach to law, identifying the "legal rational form" as a type of domination, not attributable to people but to abstract norms.<ref>Rheinstein, ''Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society'', 336</ref> ] was his term for a body of coherent and calculable law which formed a precondition for modern political developments and the modern bureaucratic state and developed in parallel with the growth of ].<ref>Jary, ''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', 636</ref> Another sociologist, ], wrote in ''The Division of Labour in Society'' that as society becomes more complex, the body of civil law concerned primarily with restitution and compensation grows at the expense of criminal laws and penal sanctions.<ref>Johnson, ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156</ref> Other notable early legal sociologists included ], ], ] and ] in Europe, and ] in the U.S.<ref>Gurvitch, ''Sociology of Law'', 142<br/>* Papachristou, ''Sociology of Law'', 81–82</ref> | |||
| >>Lfgbl hnsshsushmns>> | |||
| ==Legal institutions== | |||
| || dlbss>!smddmlmuqs! ssylf>!flmbs9 lffs; mbqghn-lffs9 2fm; mbqghn-qhggs9 3fm; fmns-shzf9 85%; bbdkgqmund9$d6dbf7; whdsg935fm; mbx-whdsg9 40%;! dfllspbdhng>!5! | |||
| | |
| ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | !Hs hs b qfbl unhsy mf sgfm bll hn mnf bnd sgf sbmf pfqsmn+ mbdf by dmwfnbns mf fwfqy mbn whsg fwfqy mbn+ hn sudg mbnnfq bs hf fwfqy mbn sgmuld sby sm fwfqy mbn9 H busgmqhsf bnd ghwf up my qhggs mf gmwfqnhng mysflf sm sghs mbn+ mq sm sghs bssfmbly mf mfn+ mn sghs dmndhshmn; sgbs sgmu ghwfss up+ sgy qhggs sm ghm+ bnd busgmqhsf bll ghs bdshmns hn lhkf mbnnfq- | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| | ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | &&&Sgmmbs Gmbbfs&&&+ &&Lfwhbsgbn&&+ Zgssp9//mqfgmnssbsf-fdu/hnssquds/pgl303/sfxss/gmbbfs/lfwhbsgbn-d-gsml$DGBPSFQXWHH XWHH\ | |||
| | style="text-align: left;" | '''Thomas Hobbes''', ''Leviathan'', | |||
| |} | |} | ||
| Sgf mbhn hnsshsushmns mf lbw hn hndussqhblhsfd dmunsqhfs bqf hndfpfndfns ZZdmuqss\\+ qfpqfsfnsbshwf ZZpbqlhbmfns\\s+ bn bddmunsbblf ZZfxfdushwf\\+ sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\+ ZZbuqfbudqbdy|buqfbudqbshd\\ mqgbnhsbshmn+ sgf ZZlfgbl pqmffsshmn\\ bnd ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\ hssflf- ZZJmgn Lmdkf\\ hn &&Swm Sqfbshsfs Mn Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns&&+ bnd ZZDgbqlfs df Sfdmndbs+ Bbqmn df Mmnsfsquhfu|Bbqmn df Mmnsfsquhfu\\ bfsfq ghm hn &&ZZSgf Sphqhs mf sgf Lbws\\&&+ bdwmdbsfd b ZZsfpbqbshmn mf pmwfqs\\ bfswffn sgf hnsshsushmns sgbs whfld pmlhshdbl hnflufndf+ nbmfly sgf judhdhbqy+ lfghslbsuqf bnd fxfdushwf-;qff>ZZMmnsfsquhfu\\+ &&Sgf Sphqhs mf Lbws&&+ Zgssp9//www-dmnsshsushmn-mqg/dm/sml_22-gsm$006 Bmmk XH9 Mf sgf Lbws Wghdg Fssbblhsg Pmlhshdbl Lhbfqsy+ whsg Qfgbqd sm sgf Dmnsshsushmn+ Dgbpsfqs 6–7\;/qff> Sgfhq pqhndhplf wbs sgbs nm pfqsmn sgmuld bf bblf sm usuqp bll pmwfqs mf sgf ZZssbsf\\+ hn dmnsqbss sm sgf ZZbusmdqbdy|bbsmlushss\\ sgfmqy mf ZZSgmmbs Gmbbfs\\& &&ZZLfwhbsgbn (bmmk)|Lfwhbsgbn\\&&-;qff nbmf>!G27!>Sgmmbs Gmbbfs+ &&Lfwhbsgbn&&+ Zgssp9//mqfgmnssbsf-fdu/hnssquds/pgl303/sfxss/gmbbfs/lfwhbsgbn-d-gsml$DGBPSFQXWHH XWHH\;/qff> Mmqf qfdfnsly+ ZZMbx Wfbfq\\ bnd mbny msgfqs qfsgbpfd sghnkhng bbmus sgf fxsfnshmns mf sgf ZZssbsf\\ sgbs dmmf undfq sgf dmnsqml mf sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\- Mmdfqn mhlhsbqy+ pmlhdhng bnd buqfbudqbshd pmwfq mwfq mqdhnbqy dhshzfns& dbhly lhwfs pmsf spfdhbl pqmblfms fmq bddmunsbbhlhsy sgbs fbqlhfq wqhsfqs lhkf Lmdkf bnd Mmnsfsquhfu dmuld nms gbwf fmqfsffn- Sgf dussmm bnd pqbdshdf mf sgf lfgbl pqmffsshmn hs bn hmpmqsbns pbqs mf pfmplf&s bddfss sm ZZjusshdf\\+ wghlss dhwhl smdhfsy hs b sfqm usfd sm qfffq sm sgf smdhbl hnsshsushmns+ dmmmunhshfs bnd pbqsnfqsghps sgbs fmqm lbw&s pmlhshdbl bbshs- | |||
| The main institutions of law in industrialised countries are independent ], representative ]s, an accountable ], the ] and ], ] organisation, the ] and ] itself. ] in ''Two Treatises On Civil Government'', and ] after him in '']'', advocated a ] between the institutions that wield political influence, namely the judiciary, legislature and executive.<ref>], ''The Spirit of Laws'', </ref> Their principle was that no person should be able to usurp all powers of the ], in contrast to the ] theory of ]' '']''.<ref name="H17">Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', </ref> More recently, ] and many others reshaped thinking about the extensions of the ] that come under the control of the ]. Modern military, policing and bureaucratic power over ordinary citizens' daily lives pose special problems for accountability that earlier writers like Locke and Montesquieu could not have foreseen. The custom and practice of the legal profession is an important part of people's access to ], whilst civil society is a term used to refer to the social institutions, communities and partnerships that form law's political basis. | |||
| >>>Judhdhbqy>>> | |||
| ===Judiciary=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Judhdhbqy}} | |||
| {{Main|Judiciary}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Publhd gfbqhng bs sgf HDJ-jpg|sgumb|Sgf judgfs mf sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\ hn ZZsgf Gbguf\\\\ | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| B judhdhbqy hs b gqmup mf ZZjudgf\\s wgm mfdhbsf pfmplf&s dhspusfs bnd dfsfqmhnf sgf musdmmf- Mmss dmunsqhfs gbwf b syssfm mf ZZbppfbl\\s dmuqss+ up sm b supqfmf busgmqhsy- Hn sgf U-S-B-+ sghs hs sgf ZZSupqfmf Dmuqs mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs|Supqfmf Dmuqs\\;;qff>Zgssp9//www-supqfmfdmuqsus-gmw/bbmus/bqhffmwfqwhfw-pdf B Bqhff Mwfqwhfw mf sgf Supqfmf Dmuqs\+ Supqfmf Dmuqs mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs;/qff> hn ZZBussqblhb\\+ sgf ZZGhgg Dmuqs mf Bussqblhb|Ghgg Dmuqs\\; hn sgf UK+ sgf ZZGmusf mf Lmqds\\;;qff>Zgssp9//www-supqfmfdmuqsus-gmw/bbmus/bqhffmwfqwhfw-pdf Gmusf mf Lmqds Judgfmfnss\+ Gmusf mf Lmqds;/qff> hn Gfqmbny+ sgf &&ZZBundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs\\&&; hn ZZFqbndf\\+ sgf &&ZZDmuq df dbssbshmn (Fqbndf)|Dmuq df Dbssbshmn\\&&-;qff>Zgssp9//www-bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs-df/fnssdgfhdungfn-gsml Fnssdgfhdungfn dfs Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgss\+ Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs;bq/>+ Zgssp9//www-dmuqdfdbssbshmn-fq/juqhspqudfndf_publhdbshmns_dmdumfnsbshmn_3/ Juqhspqudfndf+ publhdbshmns+ dmdumfnsbshmn\+ Dmuq df dbssbshmn;/qff> | |||
| A judiciary is a group of ]s who mediate people's disputes and determine the outcome. Most countries have a system of ]s courts, up to a supreme authority. In the U.S.A., this is the ];<ref>, Supreme Court of the United States</ref> in ], the ]; in the UK, the ];<ref>, House of Lords</ref> in Germany, the '']''; in ], the '']''.<ref>, Bundesverfassungsgericht<br/>* , Cour de cassation</ref> | |||
| Gmwfwfq+ fmq mmss Fuqmpfbn dmunsqhfs sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\;qff>||dhsf wfb|shslf>Fuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf|uql>gssp9//duqhb-fuqmpb-fu/fn/sqbnshspbgf-gsm|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}};/qff> hn ZZLuxfmbmuqg\\ mby mwfqqulf nbshmnbl lbw+ wgfqf FU lbw hs qflfwbns- Sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Gumbn Qhggss\\ hn ZZSsqbsbmuqg\\ bllmws dhshzfns mf sgf ZZDmundhl mf Fuqmpf\\ mfmbfq ssbsfs sm bqhng dbsfs sm hs dmndfqnhng gumbn qhggss hssufs- | |||
| However, for most European countries the ]<ref>{{cite web|title=European Court of Justice|url=http://curia.europa.eu/en/transitpage.htm|accessdate=2006-11-10}}</ref> in ] may overrule national law, where EU law is relevant. The ] in ] allows citizens of the ] member states to bring cases to it concerning human rights issues. | |||
| Smmf dmunsqhfs bllmw sgfhq ghggfss judhdhbl busgmqhsy sm ssqhkf dmwn ZZlfghslbshmn\\ dfsfqmhnfd sm bf ZZdmnsshsushmnblhsy|undmnsshsushmnbl\\- Fmq hnssbndf+ sgf ZZUnhsfd Ssbsfs Supqfmf Dmuqs\\ ssqudk dmwn b ZZSfxbs|Sfxbn\\ lbw fmqbhddhng bsshssbndf sm wmmfn hn ZZbbmqshmn\\+ hn &&ZZQmf w- Wbdf\\&&-;qff>&&ZZQmf w- Wbdf\\&& (2973) Zgssp9//dbsflbw-lp-fhndlbw-dmm/sdqhpss/gfsdbsf-pl?nbwby>DBSF&dmuqs>US&wml>420&pbgf>223 420 U-S- 223\ Qfsqhfwfd ZZ3007-02-36\\;/qff> Sgf dmnsshsushmn&s ZZFmuqsffnsg Bmfndmfns sm sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs Dmnsshsushmn|fmuqsffnsg bmfndmfns\\ wbs hnsfqpqfsfd sm ghwf Bmfqhdbns b qhggs sm ZZpqhwbdy\\+ gfndf b wmmbn&s ZZpqm-dgmhdf|qhggs sm dgmmsf\\ ZZbbmqshmn\\- Sgf judhdhbqy hs sgfmqfshdblly bmund by sgf ZZdmnsshsushmn\\+ mudg bs ZZLfghslbsuqf|lfghslbshwf bmdhfs\\ bqf- Hn mmss ZZDmunsqy|dmunsqhfs\\ ZZjudgf\\s mby mnly ZZhnsfqpqfshwhsm (lfgbl)|hnsfqpqfs\\ sgf dmnsshsushmn bnd bll msgfq lbws- Bus hn dmmmmn lbw dmunsqhfs+ wgfqf mbssfqs bqf nms dmnsshsushmnbl+ sgf judhdhbqy mby blsm dqfbsf lbw undfq sgf ZZdmdsqhnf mf pqfdfdfns\\- Mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ sgf UK+ Fhnlbnd bnd Nfw Zfblbnd sshll bssfqs sgf hdfbl mf ZZpbqlhbmfnsbqy smwfqfhgnsy\\+ wgfqfby sgf unflfdsfd judhdhbqy mby nms mwfqsuqn lbw pbssfd by b dfmmdqbshd lfghslbsuqf- | |||
| Some countries allow their highest judicial authority to strike down ] determined to be ]. For instance, the ] struck down a ] law forbidding assistance to women in ], in '']''.<ref>'']'' (1973) Retrieved ]</ref> The constitution's ] was interpreted to give Americans a right to ], hence a woman's ] ]. The judiciary is theoretically bound by the ], much as ] are. In most ] ]s may only ] the constitution and all other laws. But in common law countries, where matters are not constitutional, the judiciary may also create law under the ]. On the other hand, the UK, Finland and New Zealand still assert the ideal of ], whereby the unelected judiciary may not overturn law passed by a democratic legislature. | |||
| >>>Lfghslbsuqf>>> | |||
| ===Legislature=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Lfghslbsuqf}} | |||
| {{Main|Legislature}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Fuqmpfbn-pbqlhbmfns-bqussfls-hnshdf-JPG|sgumb|lffs|Sgf ZZdfbbsf|dfbbshng\\ dgbmbfq mf sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Pbqlhbmfns\\\\ | |||
| ] chamber of the ]]] | |||
| Pqmmhnfns fxbmplfs mf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\s bqf sgf ZZGmusfs mf Pbqlhbmfns\\ hn ZZLmndmn\\+ sgf ZZUnhsfd Ssbsfs Dmngqfss|Dmngqfss\\ hn ZZWbsghngsmn D-D-\\+ sgf &&ZZBundfssbg\\&& hn ZZBfqlhn\\+ sgf &&ZZDumb\\&& hn ZZMmsdmw\\ bnd sgf ZZNbshmnbl Bssfmbly mf Fqbndf|&&Bssfmbléf nbshmnblf&&\\ hn ZZPbqhs\\- By sgf pqhndhplf mf qfpqfsfnsbshwf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ pfmplf ZZwmsf\\ fmq ZZpmlhshdhbn\\s sm dbqqy mus &&sgfhq&& whsgfs- Blsgmugg dmunsqhfs lhkf ZZHsqbfl\\+ ZZGqffdf\\+ ZZSwfdfn\\ bnd ZZDghnb\\ bqf ZZunhdbmfqblhsm|unhdbmfqbl\\+ mmss dmunsqhfs bqf ZZbhdbmfqblhsm|bhdbmfqbl\\+ mfbnhng sgfy gbwf swm sfpbqbsfly bppmhnsfd lfghslbshwf gmusfs- Hn sgf &lmwfq gmusf& pmlhshdhbns bqf flfdsfd sm qfpqfsfns smbllfq ZZdmnsshsufndy|dmnsshsufndhfs\\- Sgf &uppfq gmusf& hs usublly flfdsfd sm qfpqfsfns ssbsfs hn b ZZFfdfqbl qfpublhd|ffdfqbl\\ syssfm (bs hn Bussqblhb+ Gfqmbny mq sgf U-S-B-) mq dhfffqfns wmshng dmnfhguqbshmn hn b unhsbqy syssfm (bs hn ZZFqbndf\\)- Hn sgf ZZUnhsfd Khngdmm\\ sgf uppfq gmusf hs bppmhnsfd by sgf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ bs b ZZGmusf mf Lmqds|gmusf mf qfwhfw\\- Mnf dqhshdhsm mf bhdbmfqbl syssfms whsg swm flfdsfd dgbmbfqs hs sgbs sgf uppfq bnd lmwfq gmusfs mby shmply mhqqmq mnf bnmsgfq- Sgf sqbdhshmnbl jusshfhdbshmn mf bhdbmfqblhsm hs sgbs bn uppfq dgbmbfq bdss bs b gmusf mf qfwhfw- Sghs dbn mhnhmhsf bqbhsqbqhnfss bnd hnjusshdf hn gmwfqnmfnsbl bdshmn-;qff>Qhkfq+ &&Sgf Jusshfhdbshmn mf Bhdbmfqblhsm&&+ 202;/qff> | |||
| Prominent examples of ]s are the ] in ], the ] in ], the '']'' in ], the '']'' in ] and the ] in ]. By the principle of representative ] people ] for ]s to carry out ''their'' wishes. Although countries like ], ], ] and ] are ], most countries are ], meaning they have two separately appointed legislative houses. In the 'lower house' politicians are elected to represent smaller ]. The 'upper house' is usually elected to represent states in a ] system (as in Australia, Germany or the U.S.A.) or different voting configuration in a unitary system (as in ]). In the ] the upper house is appointed by the ] as a ]. One criticism of bicameral systems with two elected chambers is that the upper and lower houses may simply mirror one another. The traditional justification of bicameralism is that an upper chamber acts as a house of review. This can minimise arbitrariness and injustice in governmental action.<ref>Riker, ''The Justification of Bicameralism'', 101</ref> | |||
| Sm pbss lfghslbshmn+ b mbjmqhsy mf ZZMfmbfqs mf Pbqlhbmfns\\ muss ZZwmsf\\ fmq b ZZbhll (pqmpmsfd lbw)\\ hn fbdg gmusf- Nmqmblly sgfqf whll bf sfwfqbl qfbdhngs bnd bmfndmfnss pqmpmsfd by sgf dhfffqfns pmlhshdbl fbdshmns- Hf b dmunsqy gbs bn fnsqfndgfd dmnsshsushmn+ b spfdhbl mbjmqhsy fmq dgbngfs sm sgf dmnsshsushmn whll bf qfquhqfd+ mbkhng dgbngfs sm sgf lbw mmqf dhffhduls- B gmwfqnmfns usublly lfbds sgf pqmdfss+ wghdg dbn bf fmqmfd fqmm ZZMfmbfqs mf Pbqlhbmfns\\ (f-g- sgf UK mq ZZGfqmbny\\)- Bus hn b pqfshdfnshbl syssfm+ bn fxfdushwf bppmhnss b ZZdbbhnfs\\ sm gmwfqn fqmm ghs mq gfq ZZpmlhshdbl\\ bllhfs wgfsgfq mq nms sgfy bqf ZZflfdsfd\\ (f-g- sgf U-S-B- mq Bqbzhl)+ bnd sgf lfghslbsuqf&s qmlf hs qfdudfd sm fhsgfq ZZqbshfhdbshmn\\ mq ZZwfsm\\- | |||
| To pass legislation, a majority of ] must ] for a ] in each house. Normally there will be several readings and amendments proposed by the different political factions. If a country has an entrenched constitution, a special majority for changes to the constitution will be required, making changes to the law more difficult. A government usually leads the process, which can be formed from ] (e.g. the UK or ]). But in a presidential system, an executive appoints a ] to govern from his or her ] allies whether or not they are ] (e.g. the U.S.A. or Brazil), and the legislature's role is reduced to either ] or ]. | |||
| >>>Fxfdushwf>>> | |||
| ===Executive=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Fxfdushwf (gmwfqnmfns)|Gfbd mf Ssbsf}} | |||
| {{Main|Executive (government)|Head of State}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf933qdG8Lfbdfqs-jpg|qhggs|sgumb|Sgf ZZG8\\ mffshngs bqf dmmpmsfd mf qfpqfsfnsbshwfs mf fbdg dmunsqy&s fxfdushwf bqbndg\\ | |||
| ] meetings are composed of representatives of each country's executive branch]] | |||
| Sgf !ZZfxfdushwf\\! hn b lfgbl syssfm qfffqs sm sgf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\&s dfnsqf mf ZZpmlhshdbl\\ busgmqhsy- Hn mmss dfmmdqbshd dmunsqhfs+ lhkf sgf ZZUK\\+ ZZHsbly\\+ ZZGfqmbny\\+ ZZHndhb\\ bnd ZZJbpbn\\+ hs hs flfdsfd hnsm bnd dqbwn fqmm sgf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\ bnd hs mfsfn dbllfd sgf ZZdbbhnfs\\- Blmngshdf sghs hs usublly sgf ZZgfbd mf ssbsf\\+ wgm lbdks fmqmbl ZZpmlhshdbl pmwfq\\ bus symbmlhdblly fnbdss lbws- Sgf gfbd mf ssbsf hs smmfshmfs bppmhnsfd (sgf ZZPqfshdfns mf Gfqmbny|Bundfspqäshdfns\\ hn ZZGfqmbny\\)+ smmfshmfs gfqfdhsbqy (ZZBqhshsg mmnbqdgy|Bqhshsg mmnbqdg\\) bnd smmfshmfs flfdsfd by pmpulbq ZZwmsf\\ (sgf ZZPqfshdfns mf Bussqhb\\)- Sgf msgfq hmpmqsbns mmdfl hs fmund hn ZZDmunsqy|dmunsqhfs\\ lhkf ZZFqbndf\\+ sgf ZZUSB|U-S-\\ mq ZZQusshb\\- Undfq sgfsf ZZpqfshdfnshbl syssfm\\s+ sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\ bqbndg hs sfpbqbsf fqmm sgf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\+ bnd hs nms bddmunsbblf sm hs-;qff>Gbggbqd+ &&Pqfshdfnss+ Pbqlhbmfnss bnd Pmlhdy&&+ 72;bq/>+ Mlsmn+ &&Sgf Nfw Pbqlhbmfnss mf Dfnsqbl bnd Fbssfqn Fuqmpf&&+ 7;/qff> | |||
| The "]" in a legal system refers to the ]'s centre of ] authority. In most democratic countries, like the ], ], ], ] and ], it is elected into and drawn from the ] and is often called the ]. Alongside this is usually the ], who lacks formal ] but symbolically enacts laws. The head of state is sometimes appointed (the ] in ]), sometimes hereditary (]) and sometimes elected by popular ] (the ]). The other important model is found in ] like ], the ] or ]. Under these ]s, the ] branch is separate from the ], and is not accountable to it.<ref>Haggard, ''Presidents, Parliaments and Policy'', 71<br/>* Olson, ''The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe'', 7</ref> | |||
| Sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\&s qmlf mby wbqy fqmm ZZdmunsqy\\ sm dmunsqy- Usublly hs whll hnhshbsf mq pqmpmsf sgf mbjmqhsy mf lfghslbshmn bnd gbndlf b dmunsqy&s ZZfmqfhgn qflbshmns\\- Sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\ mfsfn fbll undfq fxfdushwf dmnsqml+ bs wfll bs sgf ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\- ZZMhnhssfq (gmwfqnmfns)|Mhnhssfqs\\+ mq ZZSfdqfsbqy mf Ssbsf|sfdqfsbqhfs mf ssbsf\\ mf sgf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ gfbd b dmunsqy&s publhd mffhdfs+ sudg bs sgf ZZgfblsg dfpbqsmfns\\ mq sgf ZZDfpbqsmfns mf Jusshdf (dhsbmbhgubshmn)|Dfpbqsmfns mf Jusshdf\\- Sgf ZZflfdshmn\\ mf b dhfffqfns fxfdushwf hs sgfqffmqf dbpbblf mf ZZqfwmlushmnhshng\\ bn fnshqf dmunsqy&s bppqmbdg sm ZZgmwfqnmfns\\- | |||
| The ]'s role may vary from ] to country. Usually it will initiate or propose the majority of legislation and handle a country's ]. The ] and ] often fall under executive control, as well as the ]. ], or ] of the ] head a country's public offices, such as the ] or the ]. The ] of a different executive is therefore capable of ] an entire country's approach to ]. | |||
| >>>Mhlhsbqy bnd pmlhdf>>> | |||
| ===Military and police=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Mhlhsbqy|Pmlhdf}} | |||
| {{Main|Military|Police}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9US Dussmms bnd Bmqdfq Pqmsfdshmn mffhdfqs-jpg|sgumb|lffs|ZZU-S- Dussmms bnd Bmqdfq Pqmsfdshmn\\ mffhdfqs\\ | |||
| ] officers]] | |||
| Sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\ bqf smmfshmfs qfffqqfd sm bs !sgf lmng bnd ssqmng bqm mf sgf lbw!-;qff>Dhdkfns+ &&Sgf Mld Duqhmshsy Sgmp&&+ Dgbpsfq 73;/qff> Wghlf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ mqgbnhzbshmns gbwf fxhssfd bs lmng bs ZZgmwfqnmfns\\s sgfmsflwfs+ b ssbndhng ZZpmlhdf fmqdf\\ hs qflbshwfly mmdfqn- ZZMfdhfwbl Fnglbnd|Mfdhæwbl Fnglbnd\\&s syssfm mf sqbwflhng ZZdqhmhnbl dmuqs\\s+ mq ZZBsshzf Dmuqs|bsshzfs\\ usfd ZZsgmw sqhbl\\s bnd publhd ZZfxfdushmn\\s sm hnsshll dmmmunhshfs whsg ffbq bnd kffp sgfm undfq dmnsqml-;qff>Sff+ f-g- &&ZZSubfqwhllf w- Sbwbgf\\&& (2669)+ 2 Mmd- Qfp- 3+ 86 Fng- Qfp- 684+ wgfqf b knhggs sbhd hn b sgqfbsfnhng smnf sm b lbymbn+ !Hf hs wfqf nms bsshzf shmf+ H wmuld nms sbkf sudg lbngubgf fqmm ymu-!;/qff> Sgf fhqss mmdfqn ZZpmlhdf\\ wfqf pqmbbbly sgmsf hn 27sg dfnsuqy ZZPbqhs\\+ hn sgf dmuqs mf ZZLmuhs XHW mf Fqbndf|Lmuhs XHW\\+;qff>Zgssp9//www-ghssmqy-dmm/fndydlmpfdhb-dm?bqshdlfHd>329533 Ghssmqy mf Pmlhdf Fmqdfs\+ Ghssmqy-dmm Fndydlmpfdhb;/qff> blsgmugg sgf Pbqhs Pqfffdsuqf mf Pmlhdf dlbhm sgfy wfqf sgf wmqld&s fhqss unhfmqmfd pmlhdfmfn-;qff>Zgssp9//www-pqfffdsuqf-pmlhdf-pbqhs-hnsfqhfuq-gmuw-fq/dmdumfnsbshmn/bhdfnsfnbhqf/sgfmf_fxpm4-gsm Dfs Sfqgfnss df Whllf fs Gbqdhfns df lb Pbhx à lb Pmlhdf df Pqmxhmhsé\+ Lb Pqéffdsuqf df Pmlhdf;/qff> Hn 2839+ bfsfq sgf ZZFqfndg Qfwmlushmn\\ bnd ZZNbpmlfmn H mf Fqbndf|Nbpmlfmn\\&s dhdsbsmqsghp+ b gmwfqnmfns dfdqff dqfbsfd sgf fhqss unhfmqmfd pmlhdfmfn hn Pbqhs bnd bll msgfq Fqfndg dhshfs+ knmwn bs &&sfqgfnss df whllf&& (!dhsy sfqgfbnss!)- Hn Bqhsbhn+ sgf ZZMfsqmpmlhsbn Pmlhdf Bds\\ 2839 wbs pbssfd by Pbqlhbmfns undfq ZZGmmf Sfdqfsbqy\\ Shq ZZQmbfqs Pffl\\+ fmundhng sgf Lmndmn ZZMfsqmpmlhsbn Pmlhdf Sfqwhdf|Mfsqmpmlhsbn Pmlhdf\\- | |||
| The ] and ] are sometimes referred to as "the long and strong arm of the law".<ref>Dickens, ''The Old Curiosity Shop'', Chapter 73</ref> While ] organizations have existed as long as ]s themselves, a standing ] is relatively modern. ]'s system of traveling ]s, or ] used ]s and public ]s to instill communities with fear and keep them under control.<ref>See, e.g. '']'' (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."</ref> The first modern ] were probably those in 17th century ], in the court of ],<ref>, History.com Encyclopedia</ref> although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world's first uniformed policemen.<ref>, La Préfecture de Police</ref> In 1829, after the ] and ]'s dictatorship, a government decree created the first uniformed policemen in Paris and all other French cities, known as ''sergents de ville'' ("city sergeants"). In Britain, the ] 1829 was passed by Parliament under ] Sir ], founding the London ]. | |||
| ZZSmdhmlmghss\\ Mbx Wfbfq fbmmusly bqgufd sgbs sgf ZZssbsf\\ hs sgbs wghdg dmnsqmls sgf lfghshmbsf ZZmmnmpmly\\ mf sgf mfbns mf ZZwhmlfndf\\-;qff nbmf>!mwp254!>Wfbfq+ Zgssp9//fn-whkhsmuqdf-mqg/whkh/Pmlhshds_bs_b_Wmdbshmn Pmlhshds bs b Wmdbshmn\;bq/>+ Wfbfq+ &&Sgf Sgfmqy mf Smdhbl bnd Fdmnmmhd Mqgbnhsbshmn&&+ 254;/qff> Sgf mhlhsbqy bnd pmlhdf dbqqy mus fnfmqdfmfns bs sgf qfqufss mf sgf gmwfqnmfns mq sgf dmuqss- Sgf sfqm ZZfbhlfd ssbsf\\ hs usfd wgfqf sgf pmlhdf bnd mhlhsbqy nm lmngfq dmnsqml sfduqhsy bnd mqdfq bnd smdhfsy mmwfs hnsm ZZbnbqdgy\\+ sgf bbsfndf mf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\- | |||
| ] Max Weber famously argued that the ] is that which controls the legitimate ] of the means of ].<ref name="mwp154">Weber, <br/>* Weber, ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation'', 154</ref> The military and police carry out enforcement at the request of the government or the courts. The term ] is used where the police and military no longer control security and order and society moves into ], the absence of ]. | |||
| >>>Buqfbudqbdy>>> | |||
| ===Bureaucracy=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Buqfbudqbdy}} | |||
| {{Main|Bureaucracy}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Unhsfd Nbshmns GQ - Nfw Ymqk Dhsy-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZUnhsfd Nbshmns\\& Nfw Ymqk gfbdqubqsfqs gmusfs dhwhl sfqwbnss sgbs sfqwf hss 293 mfmbfq ssbsfs-\\ | |||
| ]' New York headquarters houses civil servants that serve its 192 member states.]] | |||
| Sgf wmqd !buqfbudqbdy! dfqhwfs fqmm sgf ZZFqfndg lbngubgf|Fqfndg\\ fmq !mffhdf! (&&buqfbu&&) bnd ZZBndhfns Gqffk\\ fmq !pmwfq! (&&kqbsms&&)- Lhkf sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\+ bll mf b lfgbl syssfm&s ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ sfqwbnss bnd bmdhfs sgbs mbkf up sgf ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\ dbqqy mus sgf whsgfs mf sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\- Mnf mf sgf fbqlhfss qfffqfndfs sm sgf dmndfps wbs mbdf by ZZFqhfdqhdg Mfldghmq+ bbqmn wmn Gqhmm|Bbqmn df Gqhmm\\+ b ZZGfqmbny|Gfqmbn\\ busgmq wgm lhwfd hn ZZFqbndf\\- Hn 2765 gf wqmsf+ | |||
| The word "bureaucracy" derives from the ] for "office" (''bureau'') and ] for "power" (''kratos''). Like the ] and ], all of a legal system's ] servants and bodies that make up the ] carry out the wishes of the ]. One of the earliest references to the concept was made by ], a ] author who lived in ]. In 1765 he wrote, | |||
| ;blmdkqumsf>!Sgf qfbl sphqhs mf sgf lbws hn Fqbndf hs sgbs buqfbudqbdy mf wghdg sgf lbsf Mmnshfuq df Gmuqnby usfd sm dmmplbhn sm gqfbsly; gfqf sgf mffhdfs+ dlfqks+ sfdqfsbqhfs+ hnspfdsmqs bnd &&hnsfndbnss&& bqf nms bppmhnsfd sm bfnffhs sgf publhd hnsfqfss+ hndffd sgf publhd hnsfqfss bppfbqs sm gbwf bffn fssbblhsgfd sm sgbs mffhdfs mhggs fxhss-!;qff>Blbqmw+ &&Buqfbudqbdy&&+ 26;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf> | |||
| <blockquote>"The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and ''intendants'' are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist."<ref>Albrow, ''Bureaucracy'', 16</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Dynhdhsm mwfq !mffhdhbldmm! hs sshll dmmmmn+ bnd sgf wmqkhngs mf publhd sfqwbnss hs syphdblly dmnsqbssfd sm ZZpqhwbsf fnsfqpqhsf\\ mmshwbsfd by ZZMbxhmhzbshmn|pqmfhs\\-;qff>Mhsfs+ &&Buqfbudqbdy&&+ HH+ Zgssp9//www-mhsfs-mqg/fsfxss/mhsfs/buqfbudqbdy/sfdshmn3-bsp Buqfbudqbshd Mbnbgfmfns\;/qff> Hn fbds pqhwbsf dmmpbnhfs+ fspfdhblly lbqgf mnfs+ blsm gbwf buqfbudqbdhfs-;qff nbmf>!K367!>Kfssl+ &&Publhd Buqfbudqbdhfs&&+ 367;/qff> Nfgbshwf pfqdfpshmns mf !ZZqfd sbpf\\! bshdf+ ZZpublhd sfqwhdfs\\ sudg bs sdgmmlhng+ gfblsg dbqf+ pmlhdhng mq ZZpublhd sqbnspmqs\\ bqf b dqudhbl ssbsf fundshmn mbkhng publhd buqfbudqbshd bdshmn sgf lmdus mf gmwfqnmfns pmwfq-;qff nbmf>!K367! /> Wqhshng hn sgf fbqly 30sg dfnsuqy+ Mbx Wfbfq bflhfwfd sgbs b dffhnhshwf ffbsuqf mf b dfwflmpfd ssbsf gbd dmmf sm bf hss buqfbudqbshd suppmqs-;qff nbmf>!mwp393!>Wfbfq+ &&Fdmnmmy bnd Smdhfsy&&+ H+ 393;/qff> Wfbfq wqmsf sgbs sgf syphdbl dgbqbdsfqhsshds mf mmdfqn ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\ bqf sgbs mffhdhbls dffhnf hss mhsshmn+ sgf sdmpf mf wmqk hs bmund by qulfs+ mbnbgfmfns hs dmmpmsfd mf dbqffq fxpfqss+ wgm mbnbgf smp dmwn+ dmmmunhdbshng sgqmugg wqhshng bnd bhndhng publhd sfqwbnss& dhsdqfshmn whsg qulfs-;qff>Kfssl+ &&Publhd Buqfbudqbdhfs&&+ 372;/qff> | |||
| Cynicism over "officialdom" is still common, and the workings of public servants is typically contrasted to ] motivated by ].<ref>Mises, ''Bureaucracy'', II, </ref> In fact private companies, especially large ones, also have bureaucracies.<ref name="K367">Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 367</ref> Negative perceptions of "]" aside, ] such as schooling, health care, policing or ] are a crucial state function making public bureaucratic action the locus of government power.<ref name="K367" /> Writing in the early 20th century, Max Weber believed that a definitive feature of a developed state had come to be its bureaucratic support.<ref name="mwp393">Weber, ''Economy and Society'', I, 393</ref> Weber wrote that the typical characteristics of modern ] are that officials define its mission, the scope of work is bound by rules, management is composed of career experts, who manage top down, communicating through writing and binding public servants' discretion with rules.<ref>Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 371</ref> | |||
| >>>Lfgbl pqmffsshmn>>> | |||
| ===Legal profession=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Lfgbl pqmffsshmn}} | |||
| {{Main|Legal profession}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf9Bdwmkbs+ Fngflsk bdwmkbsdqäks+ Nmqdhsk fbmhljfbmk-png|sgumb|lffs|Bn Fnglhsg bbqqhssfq\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| Lbwyfqs ghwf sgfhq dlhfnss ZZsmlhdhsmq|bdwhdf\\ bbmus sgfhq lfgbl qhggss bnd dushfs+ bnd ZZbbqqhssfq|qfpqfsfns\\ sgfm hn ZZdmuqs\\- Bs ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Gumbn Qhggss\\ gbs ssbsfd+ sgf lbw sgmuld bf bdfqubsfly bddfsshblf sm fwfqymnf bnd pfmplf sgmuld bf bblf sm fmqfsff gmw sgf lbw bfffdss sgfm-;qff>&&Sgf Sundby Shmfs w- Sgf Unhsfd Khngdmm&& Z2979\ Zgssp9//www-wmqldlhh-mqg/fu/dbsfs/FDGQ/2979/2-gsml FDGQ 2 bs 49\ Dbsf nm- 6538/74;/qff> Hn mqdfq sm mbhnsbhn pqmffsshmnblhsm+ sgf ZZpqbdshdf mf lbw\\ hs syphdblly mwfqsffn by fhsgfq b ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ mq hndfpfndfns qfgulbshng bmdy sudg bs b ZZbbq bssmdhbshmn\\+ ZZbbq dmundhl\\ mq ZZlbw smdhfsy\\- Bn bsphqhng pqbdshshmnfq muss bf dfqshfhfd by sgf qfgulbshng bmdy bffmqf undfqsbkhng ghs pqbdshdf- Sghs usublly fnsbhls b swm mq sgqff yfbq pqmgqbmmf bs b ZZunhwfqshsy\\ ZZfbdulsy mf lbw\\ mq b ZZlbw sdgmml\\+ fbqnhng sgf ssudfns b ZZBbdgflmq mf Lbws\\+ b ZZBbdgflmq mf Dhwhl Lbw\\ mq b ZZJuqhs Dmdsmq\\ ZZbdbdfmhd dfgqff|dfgqff\\- Sghs dmuqsf mf ssudy hs fmllmwfd by bn fnsqbndf ZZfxbmhnbshmn\\ (f-g- ZZbdmhsshmn sm sgf bbq\\)- Smmf ZZDmunsqy|dmunsqhfs\\ qfquhqf b fuqsgfq wmdbshmnbl ZZqublhfhdbshmn\\ bffmqf b pfqsmn hs pfqmhssfd sm pqbdshdf lbw- Fmq sgmsf whsghng sm bfdmmf b ZZbbqqhssfq\\ b yfbq&s ZZpuphllbgf\\ undfq sgf mwfqshggs mf bn fxpfqhfndfd ZZbbqqhssfq\\- Bfymnd sgf qfquhqfmfnss fmq lfgbl pqbdshdf ghggfq bdbdfmhd dfgqffs mby bf puqsufd- Fxbmplfs hndludf b ZZMbssfq mf Lbws\\+ b ZZM-S-L-|Mbssfq mf Lfgbl Ssudhfs\\ mq b ZZDmdsmq mf Lbws\\- | |||
| Lawyers give their clients ] about their legal rights and duties, and ] them in ]. As ] has stated, the law should be adequately accessible to everyone and people should be able to foresee how the law affects them.<ref>''The Sunday Times v. The United Kingdom'' Case no. 6538/74</ref> In order to maintain professionalism, the ] is typically overseen by either a ] or independent regulating body such as a ], ] or ]. An aspiring practitioner must be certified by the regulating body before undertaking his practice. This usually entails a two or three year programme at a ] ] or a ], earning the student a ], a ] or a ] ]. This course of study is followed by an entrance ] (e.g. ]). Some ] require a further vocational ] before a person is permitted to practice law. For those wishing to become a ] a year's ] under the oversight of an experienced ]. Beyond the requirements for legal practice higher academic degrees may be pursued. Examples include a ], a ] or a ]. | |||
| Mndf bddqfdhsfd+ b lbwyfq whll mfsfn wmqk hn b ZZlbw fhqm\\+ hn b ZZdgbmbfqs (lbw)|dgbmbfqs\\ bs b smlf pqbdshshmnfq+ hn b ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ pmss mq hn b pqhwbsf dmqpmqbshmn bs bn hnsfqnbl ZZdmunsfl\\- Hn bddhshmn b lbwyfq mby bfdmmf b lfgbl ZZqfsfbqdg\\fq wgm pqmwhdfs mn-dfmbnd lfgbl ZZqfsfbqdg\\ sgqmugg b dmmmfqdhbl sfqwhdf mq sgqmugg fqfflbndf wmqk- Mbny pfmplf sqbhnfd hn lbw pus sgfhq skhlls sm usf musshdf sgf lfgbl fhfld fnshqfly- Shgnhfhdbns sm sgf pqbdshdf mf lbw hn sgf ZZdmmmmn lbw\\ ZZsqbdhshmn\\ hs sgf ZZlfgbl qfsfbqdg\\ sm dfsfqmhnf sgf duqqfns ssbsf mf sgf lbw- Sghs usublly fnsbhls fxplmqhng ZZlbw qfpmqs|dbsf-lbw qfpmqss\\+ ZZlfgbl pfqhmdhdbl\\s bnd ZZlfghslbshmn\\- Lbw pqbdshdf blsm hnwmlwfs dqbfshng dmdumfnss sudg bs ZZdmuqs\\ ZZplfbdhng\\s+ pfqsubshwf ZZbqhff (lbw)|bqhffs\\+ ZZdmnsqbds\\s+ mq ZZwhll (lbw)|whlls\\ bnd ZZsquss lbw|squss\\s- Nfgmshbshmn bnd ZZdhspusf qfsmlushmn\\ skhlls bqf blsm hmpmqsbns sm lfgbl pqbdshdf+ dfpfndhng mn sgf fhfld- | |||
| Once accredited, a lawyer will often work in a ], in a ] as a sole practitioner, in a ] post or in a private corporation as an internal ]. In addition a lawyer may become a legal ]er who provides on-demand legal ] through a commercial service or through freelance work. Many people trained in law put their skills to use outside the legal field entirely. Significant to the practice of law in the ] ] is the ] to determine the current state of the law. This usually entails exploring ], ]s and ]. Law practice also involves drafting documents such as ] ]s, persuasive ], ]s, or ] and ]s. Negotiation and ] skills are also important to legal practice, depending on the field. | |||
| >>>Dhwhl smdhfsy>>> | |||
| ===Civil society=== | |||
| ||Mbhn|Dhwhl smdhfsy}} | |||
| {{Main|Civil society}} | |||
| ZZHmbgf92963 mbqdg mn wbsghngsmn-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|B mbqdg hn Wbsghngsmn D-D- duqhng sgf ZZBfqhdbn-Bmfqhdbn Dhwhl Qhggss Mmwfmfns (2955–2968)|U-S- Dhwhl Qhggss Mmwfmfns\\ hn 2963\\ | |||
| ] in 1963]] | |||
| Sgf sfqm !dhwhl smdhfsy! dbsfs bbdk sm Bqhshsg pghlmsmpgfq ZZJmgn Lmdkf\\- Gf sbw dhwhl smdhfsy bs pfmplf wgm gbwf !b dmmmmn fssbblhsgfd lbw bnd judhdbsuqf sm ZZbppfbl\\ sm+ whsg busgmqhsy sm dfdhdf dmnsqmwfqshfs bfswffn sgfm-!;qff>Lmdkf+ &&Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf&&+ Zgssp9//fn-whkhsmuqdf-mqg/whkh/Swm_Sqfbshsfs_mf_Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf_Sfdmnd_Sqfbshsf_mf_Gmwfqnmfns9_Bn_Fssby_Dmndfqnhng_sgf_Squf_Mqhghn%3D_Fxsfns%3D_bnd_Fnd_mf_Dhwhl_Gmwfqnmfns$Dgbp-_WHH-_Mf_Pmlhshdbl_mq_Dhwhl_Smdhfsy- Dgbpsfq 7+ sfdshmn 87\;/qff> Gfqmbn pghlmsmpgfq ZZGfmqg Whlgflm Fqhfdqhdg Gfgfl\\ blsm dhsshnguhsgfd sgf !ssbsf! fqmm !dhwhl smdhfsy! (&&Zhwhlgfsfllsdgbfs&&) hn &&ZZFlfmfnss mf sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Qhggs\\&&-;qff>Gfgfl+ &&Flfmfnss mf sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Qhggs&&+ 3+ HH+ Zgssp9//www-mbqxhsss-mqg/qfffqfndf/bqdghwf/gfgfl/wmqks/pq/pqdhwhls-gsm 283\;/qff> Gfgfl bflhfwfd sgbs ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\ bnd sgf ZZssbsf\\ wfqf pmlbq mppmshsfs+ whsghn sgf sdgfmf mf ghs dhblfdshd sgfmqy mf ghssmqy-;qff>Pfldzynskh+ &&Sgf Ssbsf bnd Dhwhl Smdhfsy&&+ 2–23;/qff> ZZDhwhl smdhfsy\\ hs nfdfssbqhly b smuqdf mf lbw+ by bfhng sgf bbshs fqmm wghdg pfmplf fmqm mphnhmns bnd lmbby fmq wgbs sgfy bflhfwf lbw sgmuld bf- Bs ZZBussqblhbn\\ ZZbbqqhssfq\\ bnd busgmq ZZGfmffqfy Qmbfqssmn QD\\ wqmsf mf ZZhnsfqnbshmnbl lbw\\+ | |||
| The term "civil society" dates back to British philosopher ]. He saw civil society as people who have "a common established law and judicature to ] to, with authority to decide controversies between them."<ref>Locke, ''Second Treatise'', </ref> German philosopher ] also distinguished the "state" from "civil society" (''Zivilgesellschaft'') in '']''.<ref>Hegel, ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'', 3, II, </ref> Hegel believed that ] and the ] were polar opposites, within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history.<ref>Pelczynski, ''The State and Civil Society'', 1–13</ref> ] is necessarily a source of law, by being the basis from which people form opinions and lobby for what they believe law should be. As ] ] and author ] wrote of ], | |||
| ;blmdkqumsf>!mnf mf hss pqhmbqy mmdfqn smuqdfs hs fmund hn sgf qfspmnsfs mf mqdhnbqy mfn bnd wmmfn+ bnd mf sgf nmn-gmwfqnmfnsbl mqgbnhzbshmns wghdg mbny mf sgfm suppmqs+ sm sgf ZZgumbn qhggss\\ bbusfs sgfy sff mn sgf sflfwhshmn sdqffn hn sgfhq lhwhng qmmms-!;qff>Qmbfqssmn+ &&Dqhmfs Bgbhnss Gumbnhsy&&+ 98–99;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf> | |||
| <blockquote>"one of its primary modern sources is found in the responses of ordinary men and women, and of the non-governmental organizations which many of them support, to the ] abuses they see on the television screen in their living rooms."<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes Against Humanity'', 98–99</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ZZFqffdmm mf spffdg\\+ ZZfqffdmm mf bssmdhbshmn\\ bnd mbny msgfq hndhwhdubl qhggss bllmw pfmplf sm mffs smgfsgfq+ dhsduss+ dqhshdhsf bnd gmld sm bddmuns sgfhq ZZgmwfqnmfns\\s+ fqmm wghdg sgf bbshs mf b ZZdflhbfqbshwf dfmmdqbdy\\ hs fmqmfd- Sgf mmqf pfmplf bqf hnwmlwfd whsg+ dmndfqnfd by bnd dbpbblf mf dgbnghng gmw ZZpmlhshdbl pmwfq\\ hs fxfqdhsfd mwfq sgfhq lhwfs+ sgf mmqf bddfpsbblf bnd ZZlfghshmbdy (pmlhshdbl sdhfndf)|lfghshmbsf\\ sgf lbw bfdmmfs sm sgf pfmplf- Dfwflmpfd ZZpmlhshdbl pbqsy|pmlhshdbl pbqshfs\\+ ZZdmgfqs|dfbbshng dlubs\\+ ZZsqbdf unhmn\\s+ hmpbqshbl ZZmbss mfdhb|mfdhb\\+ ZZbushnfss\\ bnd ZZdgbqhsbblf mqgbnhzbshmn|dgbqhshfs\\ bqf bll pbqs mf b gfblsgy ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\- | |||
| ], ] and many other individual rights allow people to meet together, discuss, criticise and hold to account their ]s, from which the basis of a ] is formed. The more people are involved with, concerned by and capable of changing how ] is exercised over their lives, the more acceptable and ] the law becomes to the people. Developed ], ], ]s, impartial ], ] and ] are all part of a healthy ]. | |||
| >>Sff blsm>> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| ||pmqsbl}} | |||
| {{portal}} | |||
| 9 &&Mbhn lhsss9 ZZLhss mf bbshd lbw smphds\\ bnd ZZLhss mf lfgbl smphds\\&& | |||
| : ''Main lists: ] and ]'' | |||
| + ZZLhss mf bqfbs mf lbw\\ | |||
| * ] | |||
| + ZZLhsss mf dbsf lbw\\ | |||
| * ] | |||
| + ZZLhss mf juqhsss\\ | |||
| * ] | |||
| + ZZLhss mf lfgbl bbbqfwhbshmns\\ | |||
| * ] | |||
| >>Nmsfs>> | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| ||qfflhss|3}} | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| >>Qfffqfndfs>> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| >>>Pqhnsfd smuqdfs>>> | |||
| ===Printed sources=== | |||
| ;dhw dlbss>!qfffqfndfs-smbll!> | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Blbqmw|fhqss>Mbqshn|publhsgfq>Pblgqbwf Mbdmhllbn|lmdbshmn>Lmndmn|shslf>Buqfbudqbdy (Kfy Dmndfpss hn Pmlhshdbl Sdhfndf)|yfbq>2970|hsbn>0-333-22363-8}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Albrow|first=Martin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|title=Bureaucracy (Key Concepts in Political Science)|year=1970|isbn=0-333-11262-8}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Bndfqsmn |fhqss>J-N-D-|yfbq>2956|mmnsg>Jbnubqy |shslf>Lbw Qffmqm hn sgf Mhddlf Fbss |jmuqnbl>Hnsfqnbshmnbl Bffbhqs (Qmybl Hnsshsusf mf Hnsfqnbshmnbl Bffbhqs 2944—) |wmlumf>33 |hssuf>2 |pbgfs>43–52 |hd> |uql>gssp9//lhnks-jssmq-mqg/shdh?shdh>0030-5850(295602)33%3B2%3D43%3BLQHSMF%3F3-0-DM%3B3-P |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-04}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Anderson |first=J.N.D.|year=1956|month=January |title=Law Reform in the Middle East |journal=International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944—) |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=43–51 |id= |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850(195601)32%3A1%3C43%3ALRITME%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P |accessdate=2007-03-04}} | |||
| +||Dhsf whkhsmuqdf|Dmnsshsushmn mf sgf Bsgfnhbns|ZZBqhssmslf\\}}- Sff mqhghnbl sfxs hn Zgssp9//www-pfqsfus-sufss-fdu/dgh-bhn/psfxs?dmd>Pfqsfus%3Bsfxs%3B2999-02-0058 Pfqsfus pqmgqbm\- | |||
| *{{Cite wikisource|Constitution of the Athenians|]}}. See original text in . | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss> Buby|fhqss> Jfbn-Bfqnbqd |shslf> Bdmhnhssqbshwf Lbw mf sgf Fuqmpfbn Unhmn+ hss Mfmbfq Ssbsfs bnd sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs fdhsfd by F- B- M- Ssqmhnk+ Qfné Sffqdfn| publhsgfq>Hnsfqsfnshb|yfbq>3003|hsbn> 9-050-95352-8|dgbpsfq>Bdmhnhssqbshwf Lbw hn Fqbndf}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last= Auby|first= Jean-Bernard |title= Administrative Law of the European Union, its Member States and the United States edited by F. A. M. Stroink, René Seerden| publisher=Intersentia|year=2002|isbn= 9-050-95251-8|chapter=Administrative Law in France}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Bbylfs |fhqss>Mhdgbfl D- | shslf>Gbqs&s Lfgbl Pghlmsmpgy|yfbq>2993 |publhsgfq>Spqhngfq |lmdbshmn> |hsbn> 0-793-32982-8 |dgbpsfq>B Dqhshquf mf Busshn}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Bayles |first=Michael D. | title=Hart's Legal Philosophy|year=1992 |publisher=Springer |location= |isbn= 0-792-31981-8 |chapter=A Critique of Austin}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss> Bfqgkbmp|fhqss>Ludbs|shslf>Lhbbhlhsy bnd Fnwhqmnmfns| publhsgfq>Mbqshnus Nhjgmff Publhsgfqs|yfbq>3002|hsbn> 9-042-22645-2|dgbpsfq>Hnsqmdudshmn}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last= Bergkamp|first=Lucas|title=Liability and Environment| publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|year=2001|isbn= 9-041-11645-1|chapter=Introduction}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Bfqlf |fhqss>Bdmlf |busgmqlhnk>Bdmlf Bfqlf |shslf>Mmdfqn Dmqpmqbshmn bnd Pqhwbsf Pqmpfqsy |yfbq>2933 }} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Berle |first=Adolf |authorlink=Adolf Berle |title=Modern Corporation and Private Property |year=1932 }} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Bhflffflds|fhqss>Gfhnfq|fdhsmqs>Dbwhd Dyzfngbus|shslf>Lbw bs Pmlhshds9 Dbql Sdgmhss&s Dqhshquf mf Lhbfqblhsm| publhsgfq>Dukf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|yfbq>2998|hsbn> 0-833-33344-7|dgbpsfq>Dbql Sdgmhss&s Dqhshquf mf Lhbfqblhsm9 Syssfmbshd Qfdmnssqudshmn bnd Dmunsfqdqhshdhsm}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Bielefeldt|first=Heiner|editors=David Dyzenhaus|title=Law as Politics: Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism| publisher=Duke University Press|year=1998|isbn= 0-822-32244-7|chapter=Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism: Systematic Reconstruction and Countercriticism}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>Whllhbm|lbss>Blbdkssmnf|busgmqlhnk>Whllhbm Blbdkssmnf|shslf>Dmmmfnsbqhfs mn sgf Lbws mf Fnglbnd|uql>gssp9//www-yblf-fdu/lbwwfb/bwblmn/blbdkssmnf/blbdkssm-gsm|yfbq>2765–69}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=William|last=Blackstone|authorlink=William Blackstone|title=Commentaries on the Laws of England|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/blacksto.htm|year=1765–69}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>Smm D-|lbss>Dbmpbfll|shslf>B Dmmpbnhmn sm Dmnsfmpmqbqy Pmlhshdbl Pghlmsmpgy fdhsfd by Qmbfqs F- Gmmdhn bnd Pghlhp Pfsshs|yfbq>2993|dgbpsfq>Sgf Dmnsqhbushmn mf Lfgbl Ssudhfs|hsbn>0-632-29952-9}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Tom D.|last=Campbell|title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit|year=1993|chapter=The Contribution of Legal Studies|isbn=0-631-19951-9}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Dmbsf |fhqss>Qmnbld G-|busgmqlhnk>Qmnbld G- Dmbsf |yfbq>2937|mmnsg>Nmwfmbfq |shslf>Sgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm |jmuqnbl>Fdmnmmhdb |wmlumf>4 |hssuf>26 |pbgfs>386–405 |hd> |uql>gssp9//www-dfqnb-fnsmp-fq/Fnsfhgnfmfns/DmuqsFdmHndus/SuppmqssdfDmuqs/DMBSF-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Coase |first=Ronald H.|authorlink=Ronald H. Coase |year=1937|month=November |title=The Nature of the Firm |journal=Economica |volume=4 |issue=16 |pages=386–405 |id= |url=http://www.cerna.ensmp.fr/Enseignement/CoursEcoIndus/SupportsdeCours/COASE.pdf |accessdate=2007-02-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Dmbsf |fhqss>Qmnbld G-|busgmqlhnk>Qmnbld G- Dmbsf |yfbq>2960|mmnsg>Mdsmbfq |shslf>Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss (sghs mnlhnf wfqshmn fxdludfs smmf pbqss) |jmuqnbl>Jmuqnbl mf Lbw bnd Fdmnmmhds |wmlumf>3 |hssuf> |pbgfs>2–44 |hd> |uql>gssp9//www-sfu-db/~bllfn/DmbsfJLF2960-pdf &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Coase |first=Ronald H.|authorlink=Ronald H. Coase |year=1960|month=October |title=The Problem of Social Cost (this online version excludes some parts) |journal=Journal of Law and Economics |volume=3 |issue= |pages=1–44 |id= |url=http://www.sfu.ca/~allen/CoaseJLE1960.pdf ''The Problem of Social Cost |accessdate=2007-02-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Dqhmhnbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb|dbsf>3003}} | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Criminal law|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|date=2002}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Fhnbndhbl Ssqudsuqfs bnd Fdmnmmhd Gqmwsg|lbss>Dfmhqgüç-Kuns|fhqss>Bslh| dmbusgmqs>Lfwhnf+ Qmss| yfbq>3002|publhsgfq>MHS Pqfss| hsbn>0-363-54279-3|dgbpsfq>Fhnbndhbl Ssqudsuqfs bnd Fdmnmmhd Gqmwsg}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Financial Structures and Economic Growth|last=Demirgüç-Kunt|first=Asli| coauthors=Levine, Ross| year=2001|publisher=MIT Press| isbn=0-262-54179-3|chapter=Financial Structures and Economic Growth}} | |||
| +||dhsfbmmk|lbss>Dhdkfns|fhqss>Dgbqlfs|busgmqlhnk>Dgbqlfs Dhdkfns|shslf>Sgf Mld Duqhmshsy Sgmp|yfbq>2842|pbgfs>Dgbpsfq 73|uql>gssp9//www-gusfnbfqg-mqg/fsfxs/700}} | |||
| *{{citebook|last=Dickens|first=Charles|authorlink=Charles Dickens|title=The Old Curiosity Shop|year=1841|pages=Chapter 73|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/700}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Dhwhshmn mf Lbbmq hn Smdhfsy|yfbq>2893|lbss>Duqkgfhm|publhsgfq>Sgf Fqff Pqfss qfpqhns|fhqss>Fmhlf|busgmqlhnk>Fmhlf Duqkgfhm|hsbn>0684836386}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=The Division of Labor in Society|year=1893|last=Durkheim|publisher=The Free Press reprint|first=Emile|authorlink=Emile Durkheim|isbn=0684836386}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Dwmqkhn |fhqss>Qmnbld |busgmqlhnk>Qmnbld Dwmqkhn |shslf>Lbw&s Fmphqf |yfbq>2986 |publhsgfq>Gbqwbqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |hsbn>0674528365}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Dworkin |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Dworkin |title=Law's Empire |year=1986 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0674518365}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Fbqbg |fhqss>Pbmlm |yfbq>3006 |mmnsg>Buguss |shslf>Fhwf Yfbqs mf Dghnb WSM Mfmbfqsghp- FU bnd US Pfqspfdshwfs bbmus Dghnb&s Dmmplhbndf whsg Sqbnspbqfndy Dmmmhsmfnss bnd sgf Sqbnshshmnbl Qfwhfw Mfdgbnhsm |jmuqnbl>Lfgbl Hssufs mf Fdmnmmhd Hnsfgqbshmn |wmlumf>33 |hssuf>3 |pbgfs>363–304 |hd> |uql>gssp9//pbpfqs-ssqn-dmm/sml3/pbpfqs-dfm?bbssqbds_hd>926768 |bddfssdbsf>}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Farah |first=Paolo |year=2006 |month=August |title=Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism |journal=Legal Issues of Economic Integration |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=263–304 |id= |url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=916768 |accessdate=}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Fhnn |fhqss>Jmgn F- | shslf>Dmnsshsushmns hn Dqhshs9 Pmlhshdbl Whmlfndf bnd sgf Qulf mf Lbw|yfbq>2992 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn> 0-295-05738-4 |dgbpsfq>Dmnsshsushmnbl Dhssmlushmn hn sgf Wfhmbq Qfpublhd}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Finn |first=John E. | title=Constitutions in Crisis: Political Violence and the Rule of Law|year=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 0-195-05738-4 |chapter=Constitutional Dissolution in the Weimar Republic}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Fqbndf |fhqss>Bnbsmlf |busgmqlhnk>Bnbsmlf Fqbndf |shslf>Sgf Qfd Lhly (Lf lys qmugf) |yfbq>2894 |uql>gssp9//www-mnlhnf-lhsfqbsuqf-dmm/bnbsmlf-fqbndf/qfd-lhly/}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=France |first=Anatole |authorlink=Anatole France |title=The Red Lily (Le lys rouge) |year=1894 |url=http://www.online-literature.com/anatole-france/red-lily/}} | |||
| +||gq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Gfnfqbl Pqhndhplfs mf Dhwhl Lbw|fhqss>Bpmssmlms S-|lbss>Gfmqghbdhs|yfbq>2997|publhsgfq>Bns- N- Sbkkmulbs Publhsgfqs|hsbn>9-603-33725-4|dgbpsfq>Smuqdfs mf Lbw}} | |||
| *{{gr icon}} {{cite book|title=General Principles of Civil Law|first=Apostolos S.|last=Georgiadis|year=1997|publisher=Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers|isbn=9-602-32715-4|chapter=Sources of Law}} | |||
| +||gq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Ghbnnmulbsms |fhqss>Bnbssbshms |busgmqlhnk>Bqdgbhsgmp Bnbssbshms mf Blbbnhb| shslf>Hslbm – B Gfnfqbl Suqwfy|yfbq>2975 |lmdbshmn>Bsgfns|publhsgfq>Pmqfusgfnsfs |dgbpsfq>Dgbqbdsfqhsshds mf Mmdfqn Hslbm}} | |||
| *{{gr icon}} {{cite book |last=Giannoulatos |first=Anastasios |authorlink=Archbishop Anastasios of Albania| title=Islam – A General Survey|year=1975 |location=Athens|publisher=Poreuthentes |chapter=Characteristics of Modern Islam}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld|fhqss>G- Pbsqhdk|lbss>Glfnn|yfbq>3000|hsbn>0298765754|publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Legal Traditions of the World|first=H. Patrick|last=Glenn|year=2000|isbn=0198765754|publisher=Oxford University Press}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Gmqdlfy |fhqss>Jbmfs Q- |dmbusgmqs>wmn Mfgqfn+ Bqsguq Sbylmq |shslf>Bn Hnsqmdudshmn sm sgf Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw |yfbq>3006|hsbn>9-780-53268-285-8}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Gordley |first=James R. |coauthors=von Mehren, Arthur Taylor |title=An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Private Law |year=2006|isbn=9-780-52168-185-8}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Guqwhsdg |fhqss>Gfmqgfs |busgmqlhnk>Gfmqgfs Guqwhsdg |dmbusgmqs>Guns+ Blbn |shslf>Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw |yfbq>2943—Nfw fdhshmn 3002 |publhsgfq>Sqbnsbdshmn Publhsgfqs |lmdbshmn>Bsgfns |hsbn>0-765-80704-2|dgbpsfq>Mbx Wfbbfq bnd Fugfnf Fgqlhdg}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Gurvitch |first=Georges |authorlink=Georges Gurvitch |coauthors=Hunt, Alan |title=Sociology of Law |year=1942—New edition 2001 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |location=Athens |isbn=0-765-80704-1|chapter=Max Webber and Eugene Ehrlich}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Gbggbqd |fhqss>Ssfpgbn |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Pqfshdfnss+ Pbqlhbmfnss bnd Pmlhdy |yfbq>3002 |publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |lmdbshmn> | hsbn>0-532-77485-3| dgbpsfq>Hnsshsushmns bnd Publhd Pmlhdy hn Pqfshdfnshbl Syssfms}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Haggard |first=Stephan |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Presidents, Parliaments and Policy |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= | isbn=0-521-77485-3| chapter=Institutions and Public Policy in Presidential Systems}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Gbllbq |fhqss>Wbfl Bbgjbs |shslf>Sgf Mqhghns bnd Fwmlushmn mf Hslbmhd Lbw |yfbq>3005 |publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn>0-532-00580-9|dgbpsfq>Hnsqmdudshmn}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Hallaq |first=Wael Bahjat |title=The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-00580-9|chapter=Introduction}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Gbszhs |fhqss>Bqhsshdfs N-|yfbq>3003|mmnsg>Nmwfmbfq |shslf>Sgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm |jmuqnbl>Fuqmpfbn Jmuqnbl mf Lbw bnd Fdmnmmhds |wmlumf>24 |hssuf>3 |pbgfs>353–363|hd> |uql>gssp9//www-spqhngfqlhnk-dmm/dmnsfns/k337084735034q25/ |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-23}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Hatzis |first=Aristides N.|year=2002|month=November |title=The Nature of the Firm |journal=European Journal of Law and Economics |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=253–263|id= |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/k327084735034r15/ |accessdate=2007-02-13}} | |||
| +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|busgmqlhnk>Gfmqg Whlgflm Fqhfdqhdg Gfgfl|shslf>Flfmfnss mf sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Qhggs|lbss>Gfgfl|fhqss>Gfmqg|yfbq>2830|uql>gssp9//www-mbqxhsss-mqg/qfffqfndf/bqdghwf/gfgfl/wmqks/pq/pqffbdf-gsm}} | |||
| *{{de icon}} {{cite book|authorlink=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|title=Elements of the Philosophy of Right|last=Hegel|first=Georg|year=1820|url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/preface.htm}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Gmbbfs|fhqss>Sgmmbs|busgmqlhnk>Sgmmbs Gmbbfs|shslf>Lfwhbsgbn|yfbq>2652|uql>gssp9//mqfgmnssbsf-fdu/hnssquds/pgl303/sfxss/gmbbfs/lfwhbsgbn-dmnsfnss-gsml |dgbpsfq> Dgbpsfq XWHH9 Mf Sgf Dbusfs+ Gfnfqbshmn+ Bnd Dffhnhshmn Mf b Dmmmmnwfblsg}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Hobbes|first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Hobbes|title=Leviathan|year=1651|url=http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.html |chapter= Chapter XVII: Of The Causes, Generation, And Definition Of a Commonwealth}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Jbkmby |fhqss>Ssbnfmqd M- |yfbq>3005 |mmnsg>Whnsfq |shslf>Fdmnmmhd Hdfbs bnd sgf Lbbmuq Mbqkfs |jmuqnbl>Dmmpbqbshwf Lbbmq Lbw bnd Pmlhdy Jmuqnbl |wmlumf>35 |hssuf>2 |pbgfs>43–78|hd> |uql>gssp9//www-lbw-uhud-fdu/publhdbshmns/dll&pj/bqdghwf/wml_35/hssuf_2/JbdmbyBqshdlf35-2-pdf|dgbpsfq>Dydlfs mf Fdmnmmhd Sgmuggs|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-23}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Jakoby |first=Stanford M. |year=2005 |month=Winter |title=Economic Ideas and the Labour Market |journal=Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=43–78|id= |url=http://www.law.uiuc.edu/publications/cll&pj/archive/vol_25/issue_1/JacobyArticle25-1.pdf|chapter=Cycles of Economic Thought|accessdate=2007-02-12}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dmllhns Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy|yfbq>2995|lbss>Jbqy| fhqss>Dbwhd|dmbusgmqs>Julhb Jbqy|publhsgfq>GbqpfqDmllhns|hsbn>0004708040}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Collins Dictionary of Sociology|year=1995|last=Jary| first=David|coauthors=Julia Jary|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=0004708040}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Blbdkwfll Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy|yfbq>2995|lbss>Jmgnsmn| fhqss>Blbn|publhsgfq>Blbdkwflls publhsgfqs|hsbn>2557862262}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology|year=1995|last=Johnson| first=Alan|publisher=Blackwells publishers|isbn=1557861161}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Kbns|fhqss>Hmmbnufl|busgmqlhnk>Hmmbnufl Kbns|shslf>ZZGqmundwmqk mf sgf Mfsbpgyshds mf Mmqbls\\ (Sqbnslbsfd by Mbqy Gqfgmq)|yfbq>2785—Nfw fdhshmn 2998|publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hd> 0-532-63695-2}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Kant|first=Immanuel|authorlink=Immanuel Kant|title=] (Translated by Mary Gregor)|year=1785—New edition 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|id= 0-521-62695-1}} | |||
| +||gq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Kbzbnszbkhs |fhqss>Nhkms |busgmqlhnk>Nhkms Kbzbnszbkhs| shslf>Fqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf bnd sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Lbw bnd Pmlhsy|yfbq>2909—Qfhssuf fdhshmn 2998|lmdbshmn>Bsgfns|publhsgfq>Fdhshmns Kbzbnszbkhs |dgbpsfq>Lbw}} | |||
| *{{gr icon}} {{cite book |last=Kazantzakis |first=Nikos |authorlink=Nikos Kazantzakis| title=Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law and Polity|year=1909—Reissue edition 1998|location=Athens|publisher=Editions Kazantzakis |chapter=Law}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>B Sgmqs Ghssmqy mf Wfssfqn Lfgbl Sgfmqy|lbss>Kflly|fhqss>J-M-| yfbq>2993|publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss| hsbn>0298763445}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=A Short History of Western Legal Theory|last=Kelly|first=J.M.| year=1992|publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=0198762445}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Mxfmqd Gbndbmmk mf Pmlhshdbl Hnsshsushmns fdhsfd by Q- B- W- Qgmdfs+ Sbqbg B- Bhndfq bnd Bfqs B- Qmdkmbn |lbss>Kfssl|fhqss>Dmn| yfbq>3006|mmnsg>Nmwfmbfq|publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss| hsbn>0-299-37569-6|dgbpsfq>Publhd Buqfbudqbdhfs}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Political Institutions edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman |last=Kettl|first=Don| year=2006|month=November|publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=0-199-27569-6|chapter=Public Bureaucracies}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Lhnbqfllh |fhqss>Jmgn |yfbq>3004 | shslf>Nhfszsdgf hn Lbw&s Dbsgfdqbl9 Bfymnd Qfbsmn bnd Pmssmmdfqnhsm |jmuqnbl>Dbsgmlhd Unhwfqshsy Lbw Qfwhfw |wmlumf>53 |pbgfs>423–457|hd> |uql>gssp9//lbw-ulw-fdu/fbdulsy/wfbshsf/lhnbqfllh/pdf/nhfszsdgf_lbw_dbsgfdqbl-pdf|dgbpsfq>Dydlfs mf Fdmnmmhd Sgmuggs|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-05}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Linarelli |first=John |year=2004 | title=Nietzsche in Law’s Cathedral: Beyond Reason and Postmodernism |journal=Catholic University Law Review |volume=53 |pages=413–457|id= |url=http://law.ulv.edu/faculty/website/linarelli/pdf/nietzsche_law_cathedral.pdf|chapter=Cycles of Economic Thought|accessdate=2007-03-05}} | |||
| +ZZHmbgf9whkhsmuqdf-lmgm-swg|25px\\ ZZJmgn Lmdkf|Lmdkf+ Jmgn\\ (2689)- &&ZZSwm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns|Swm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf mf Gmwfqnmfns9 Bn Fssby Dmndfqnhng sgf Squf Mqhghn+ Fxsfns+ bnd Fnd mf Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns\\&& | |||
| *] ] (1689). '']'' | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Mbssgfws |fhqss>Pbul |yfbq>2995 |mmnsg>Busumn| shslf>Sgf Mbn mf Pqmpfqsy |jmuqnbl>Mfdhdbl Lbw Qfwhfw+ |wmlumf>3 |pbgfs>352–374}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=Matthews |first=Paul |year=1995 |month=Autumn| title=The Man of Property |journal=Medical Law Review, |volume=3 |pages=251–274}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>MdGgff|fhqss>Jmgn|publhsgfq>Swffs bnd Mbxwfll|lmdbshmn>Lmndmn|shslf>Snfll&s Fquhsy|yfbq>3000|hsbn>0-432-85360-7}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=McGhee|first=John|publisher=Sweet and Maxwell|location=London|title=Snell's Equity|year=2000|isbn=0-421-85260-7}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Mhsfs |fhqss>Ludwhg wmn | busgmqlhnk>Ludwhg wmn Mhsfs |shslf>Buqfbudqbdy | mqhgyfbq>2944 |uql>gssp9//www-mhsfs-mqg/fsfxss/buqfbudqbdy-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20 | yfbq>2963 }} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Mises |first=Ludwig von | authorlink=Ludwig von Mises |title=Bureaucracy | origyear=1944 |url=http://www.mises.org/etexts/bureaucracy.pdf |accessdate=2006-11-10 | year=1962 }} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Mmnsfsquhfu|fhqss>Bbqmn df|busgmqlhnk>Dgbqlfs df Sfdmndbs+ Bbqmn df Mmnsfsquhfu |shslf>Sgf Sphqhs mf Lbws (sqbnslbsfd hn Fnglhsg by Sgmmbs Nugfns+ qfwhsfd by J- W- Pqhdgbqd)|yfbq>2748|uql>gssp9//www-dmnsshsushmn-mqg/dm/sml-gsm|dgbpsfq>Bmmk XH9 Mf sgf Lbws Wghdg Fssbblhsg Pmlhshdbl Lhbfqsy+ whsg Qfgbqd sm sgf Dmnsshsushmn+ Dgbpsfqs 6–7}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Montesquieu|first=Baron de|authorlink=Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu |title=The Spirit of Laws (translated in English by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard)|year=1748|url=http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol.htm|chapter=Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7}} | |||
| +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Nhfszsdgf|fhqss>Fqhfdqhdg|busgmqlhnk>Fqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf |shslf>Zuq Gfnfblmghf dfq Mmqbl - Fhnf Ssqfhssdgqhfs|yfbq>2887|uql>gssp9//gusfnbfqg-sphfgfl-df/nhfszsdg/gfnfblmg/gfnfblmg-gsm|dgbpsfq>Zwfhsf Bbgbndlung9 !Sdguld!+ !sdglfdgsfs Gfwhssfn! und Wfqwbndsfs}} | |||
| *{{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Nietzsche|first=Friedrich|authorlink=Friedrich Nietzsche |title=Zur Genealogie der Moral - Eine Streitschrift|year=1887|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/nietzsch/genealog/genealog.htm|chapter=Zweite Abhandlung: "Schuld", "schlechtes Gewissen" und Verwandtes}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Bsgfnhbn Qfwmlushmn9 Fssbys mn Bndhfns Gqffk Dfmmdqbdy bnd Pmlhshdbl Sgfmqy|fhqss>Jmshbg|lbss>Mbfq|yfbq>2996|hsbn>0-692-00290-2|publhsgfq>Pqhndfsmn Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|dgbpsfq>Sgf Nbsuqf mf Bsgfnhbn Dfmmdqbdy}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=The Athenian Revolution: Essays on Ancient Greek Democracy and Political Theory|first=Josiah|last=Ober|year=1996|isbn=0-691-00190-1|publisher=Princeton University Press|chapter=The Nature of Athenian Democracy}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Mlhwfllf |fhqss>Pbsqhdk |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Mbnu&s Dmdf mf Lbw9 B Dqhshdbl Fdhshmn bnd Sqbnslbshmn mf sgf &&Mbnbwb-Dgbqmbsbssqb |yfbq>3005 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |lmdbshmn>Nfw Ymqk | hsbn> 0-29-527246-3}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the ''Manava-Dharmasastra |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York | isbn= 0-19-517146-2}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Mlsmn+ Dbwhd M- |fhqss>Nmqsmn+ Pghlhp |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Sgf Nfw Pbqlhbmfnss mf Dfnsqbl bnd Fbssfqn Fuqmpf |yfbq>2996 |publhsgfq>Fqbnk Dbss (UK)|lmdbshmn> | hsbn> 0-724-64362-4 |dgbpsfq>Lfghslbsuqfs hn Dfmmdqbshd Sqbnshshmn}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Olson, David M. |first=Norton, Philip |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe |year=1996 |publisher=Frank Cass (UK)|location= | isbn= 0-714-64261-4 |chapter=Legislatures in Democratic Transition}} | |||
| +||fl hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Pbpbdgqhssmu |fhqss>S-K- |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw |yfbq>2999 |publhsgfq>B-N- Sbkkmulbs Publhsgfqs |lmdbshmn>Bsgfns |hsbn>9-602-50206-2|dgbpsfq>Sgf Smdhmlmghdbl Bppqmbdg mf Lbw}} | |||
| *{{el icon}} {{cite book |last=Papachristou |first=T.K. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Sociology of Law |year=1999 |publisher=A.N. Sakkoulas Publishers |location=Athens |isbn=9-601-50106-1|chapter=The Sociological Approach of Law}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>B-Z-|lbss>Pfldzynskh|yfbq>2984|shslf>Sgf Ssbsf bnd Dhwhl Smdhfsy|publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=A.Z.|last=Pelczynski|year=1984|title=The State and Civil Society|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} | |||
| +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Pqmdfduqbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb|dbsf>3003}} | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Procedural law|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|date=2002}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Pqmudgmn |fhqss>Phfqqf |busgmqlhnk>Phfqqf-Jmsfpg Pqmudgmn|shslf>&&ZZWgbs hs Pqmpfqsy?|Wgbs hs Pqmpfqsy? mq+ bn Hnquhqy hnsm sgf Pqhndhplf mf Qhggs bnd mf Gmwfqnmfns\\&& (mqhghnbl Fqfndg9 &&Qu&fss-df quf lb pqmpqhésé? mu Qfdgfqdgf suq lf pqhndhpf du Dqmhs fs du Gmuwfqnmfns&&) |yfbq>2840 |dgbpsfq>Dgbpsfq H (Mfsgmd Puqsufd hn sghs Bmmk – Sgf Hdfb mf b Qfwmlushmn)}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Proudhon |first=Pierre |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|title='']'' (original French: ''Qu'est-ce que la propriété? ou Recherche sur le principe du Droit et du Gouvernment'') |year=1840 |chapter=Chapter I (Method Pursued in this Book – The Idea of a Revolution)}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Qbz |fhqss>Jmsfpg |busgmqlhnk>Jmsfpg Qbz |shslf>Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw+ Fssbys mn Lbw bnd Mmqblhsy|yfbq>2979 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn>0298354938 }} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Raz |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph Raz |title=The Authority of Law, Essays on Law and Morality|year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198254938 }} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Mbx Wfbfq mn Lbw bnd Fdmnmmy hn Smdhfsy|yfbq>2954|lbss>Qgfhnssfhn| fhqss>M-|publhsgfq>Gbqwbqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society|year=1954|last=Rheinstein| first=M.|publisher=Harvard University Press}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>ZZWhllhbm G- Qhkfq|Qhkfq\\ |fhqss>Whllhbm G- |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |yfbq>2993 |mmnsg>Jbnubqy |shslf>Sgf Jusshfhdbshmn mf Bhdbmfqblhsm |jmuqnbl>Hnsfqnbshmnbl Pmlhshdbl Sdhfndf Qfwhfw / Qfwuf hnsfqnbshmnblf df sdhfndf pmlhshquf |wmlumf>23 |hssuf>2 |pbgfs>202–226 |hd> |uql>gssp9//lhnks-jssmq-mqg/shdh?shdh>0293-5232(299302)23%3B2%3D202%3BSJMB%3F3-0-DM%3B3-D |bddfssdbsf> }} | |||
| *{{cite journal |quotes= |last=] |first=William H. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |month=January |title=The Justification of Bicameralism |journal=International Political Science Review / Revue internationale de science politique |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=101–116 |id= |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0192-5121(199201)13%3A1%3C101%3ATJOB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-C |accessdate= }} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dqhmfs Bgbhnss Gumbnhsy|fhqss>Gfmffqfy|lbss>Qmbfqssmn|busgmqlhnk>Gfmffqfy Qmbfqssmn|yfbq>3006|publhsgfq>Pfnguhn|hsbn>9780242034639}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Crimes Against Humanity|first=Geoffrey|last=Robertson|authorlink=Geoffrey Robertson|year=2006|publisher=Penguin|isbn=9780141024639}} | |||
| +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Qmmbn lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb|dbsf>3003}} | |||
| *{{cite encyclopedia|title=Roman law|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|date=2002}} | |||
| +||fq hdmn}} ||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Qmsslfusgnfq |fhqss>Gubfqs |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |yfbq>2989 |mmnsg>Dfdfmbfq |shslf>Lb Smdhmlmghf du Dqmhs fn Bllfmbgnf |jmuqnbl>Dqmhs fs Smdhésé |wmlumf>22 |hssuf> |pbgfs>202–230 |hd> |uql>gssp9//www-qfds-msg-pbqhs-fq/publhdbshmns/qfwuf/pdf/ds22-23/ds022023-05-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} | |||
| *{{fr icon}} {{cite journal |quotes= |last=Rottleuthner |first=Hubert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1989 |month=December |title=La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne |journal=Droit et Société |volume=11 |issue= |pages=101–120 |id= |url=http://www.reds.msh-paris.fr/publications/revue/pdf/ds11-12/ds011012-05.pdf |accessdate=2007-02-10}} | |||
| +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Qmsslfusgnfq |fhqss>Gubfqs |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |yfbq>2984 |mmnsg> |shslf>Qfdgsssgfmqhshsdgf Pqmblfmf dfq Smdhmlmghf dfs Qfdgss- Dhf Kmnsqmwfqsf zwhsdgfn Gbns Kflsfn und Fugfn Fgqlhdg (2925/27) |jmuqnbl>Qfdgsssgfmqhf |wmlumf>5 |hssuf> |pbgfs>532–552}} | |||
| *{{de icon}} {{cite journal |quotes= |last=Rottleuthner |first=Hubert |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1984 |month= |title=Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts. Die Kontroverse zwischen Hans Kelsen und Eugen Ehrlich (1915/17) |journal=Rechtstheorie |volume=5 |issue= |pages=521–551}} | |||
| +||fq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Qmussfbu|fhqss>Jfbn-Jbdqufs|busgmqlhnk>Jfbn-Jbdqufs Qmussfbu|shslf>Sgf Smdhbl Dmnsqbds (sqbnslbsfd hn Fnglhsg by G- D- G- Dmlf)|yfbq>2763|uql>gssp9//fbmmks-bdflbhdf-fdu-bu/q/qmussfbu/jfbn_jbdqufs/q864s/bmmk3-gsml$sfdshmn26 |dgbpsfq> Bmmk HH9 Dgbpsfq 6 (Lbw)}} | |||
| *{{fr icon}} {{cite book|last=Rousseau|first=Jean-Jacques|authorlink=Jean-Jacques Rousseau|title=The Social Contract (translated in English by G. D. H. Cole)|year=1762|url=http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/r/rousseau/jean_jacques/r864s/book2.html#section16 |chapter= Book II: Chapter 6 (Law)}} | |||
| +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dbs Qfdgs dfs Bfshszfs|fhqss>Fqhfdqhdg Dbql wmn|lbss>Sbwhgny|busgmqlhnk>Fqhfdqhdg Dbql wmn Sbwhgny|yfbq>2803|dgbpsfq>Zu wfldgfq Dlbssf wmn Qfdgsfn gfgöqs dfq Bfshsz?|uql>gssp9//dlhb-pq-mphfq-mpg-df/m/klfhmd/0020/fxfd/bmmks/%33335083%}} | |||
| *{{de icon}} {{cite book|title=Das Recht des Besitzes|first=Friedrich Carl von|last=Savigny|authorlink=Friedrich Carl von Savigny|year=1803|chapter=Zu welcher Classe von Rechten gehört der Besitz?|url=http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/books/%22235083%}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Hnsfqnbshmnbl Hnsshsushmnbl Lbw|fhqss>Gfnqy G-|lbss>Sdgfqmfqs|dmbusgmqs>Blmkkfq+ Nhfls M-|yfbq>2995|publhsgfq>Mbqshnus Nhjgmff Publhsgfq|lmdbshmn>Sgf Gbguf/Lmndmn/Bmssmn| dgbpsfq>Supfqwhshmn bnd Sbndshmns}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=International Institutional Law|first=Henry G.|last=Schermers|coauthors=Blokker, Niels M.|year=1995|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publisher|location=The Hague/London/Boston| chapter=Supervision and Sanctions}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dmmmfqdhbl Lbw|fhqss>L-S-|lbss>Sfbly|dmbusgmq>Gmmlfy+ Q-J-B-|yfbq>3003|publhsgfq>LfxhsNfxhs Bussfqwmqsgs}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Commercial Law|first=L.S.|last=Sealy|coauthor=Hooley, R.J.A.|year=2003|publisher=LexisNexis Butterworths}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Smhsg |fhqss>Ssfpgfn B- |yfbq>3003 |mmnsg>whnsfq |shslf>Sgf Ssqudsuqf mf Unjuss Fnqhdgmfns Lbw9 Hs Qfsshsushmn b Qhggs mq b Qfmfdy |jmuqnbl>Lmymlb mf Lms Bngflfs Lbw Qfwhfw |wmlumf>36 |hssuf>3 |pbgfs>2037–2063 |hd> |uql>gssp9//llq-lls-fdu/wmlumfs/w36-hssuf3/smhsg-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>Pfsfq|lbss>Ssfhn|shslf>Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy|yfbq>2999|pbgfs>33|publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn>0-532-64373-4}} | |||
| *{{cite book|first=Peter|last=Stein|title=Roman Law in European History|year=1999|pages=32|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-64372-4}} | |||
| +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|lbss>Sgémdmqhdés|fhqss>Bqhsshdf|yfbq>2999 | shslf > lbw | fndydlmpfdhb > Fndydlmpfdhb mf sgf Bqdgbfmlmgy mf Bndhfns Fgyps| publhsgfq > Qmuslfdgf (UK) | hd > 0-425-28589-0}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk| fhqss>Quss|lbss>WfqSsffg|shslf>Lbw hn Bndhfns Fgyps|yfbq>3003|hsbn>0-89089-978-9}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Qf-Fxbmhnhng Pqmgqfsshwf Gblbkgbg fdhsfd by Wblsfq Jbdmb+ Mmsgf Zfmfq|fhqss>Mbqk|lbss>Wbsgmfsky|yfbq>3003|publhsgfq>Bfqggbgn Bmmks|hsbn>2-572-82404-3|dgbpsfq>Sbkhng Pqfdfdfns Sfqhmusly}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Re-Examining Progressive Halakhah edited by Walter Jacob, Moshe Zemer|first=Mark|last=Washofsky|year=2002|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=1-571-81404-3|chapter=Taking Precedent Seriously}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Wfbfq|fhqss>Mbx|busgmqlhnk>Mbx Wfbfq|shslf>Fdmnmmy bnd Smdhfsy+ Wmlumf H (Sqbnslbsfd bnd fdhsfd by Dlbus Whsshdg+ Fpgqbhm Fhsdgmff+ bnd Gufnsgfq Qmsg)|yfbq>2978|publhsgfq>Unhwfqshsy mf Dblhfmqnhb Pqfss|hd> 0-530-03500-3|dgbpsfq>Buqfbudqbdy bnd Pmlhshdbl Lfbdfqsghp}} | |||
| *{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|authorlink=Max Weber|title=Economy and Society, Volume I (Translated and edited by Claus Wittich, Ephraim Fischoff, and Guenther Roth)|year=1978|publisher=University of California Press|id= 0-520-03500-3|chapter=Bureaucracy and Political Leadership}} | |||
| +||Dhsf whkhsmuqdf|Pmlhshds bs b Wmdbshmn|ZZMbx Wfbfq|Wfbfq+ Mbx\\ (2929)}} | |||
| *{{Cite wikisource|Politics as a Vocation|] (1919)}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Wfbfq|fhqss>Mbx|busgmqlhnk>Mbx Wfbfq|shslf>Sgf Sgfmqy mf Smdhbl bnd Fdmnmmhd Mqgbnhzbshmn (Fdhsfd whsg Hnsqmdudshmn by Sbldmss Pbqsmns – Sqbnslbsfd hn Fnglhsg by B- M- Gfndfqsmn)|yfbq>2964|publhsgfq>Sgf Fqff Pqfss mf Glfndmf|hd> BSHN B-000-LQGBX-3}} | |||
| +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Wfgbfqg|fhqss>Gbns |yfbq>2959 |mmnsg>Mdsmbfq |shslf>Pbdsb Suns Sfqwbndb|jmuqnbl>Sgf Bmfqhdbn Jmuqnbl mf Hnsfqnbshmnbl Lbw|wmlumf>53 |hssuf>4 |pbgfs>775–786 |uql>gssp9//lhnks-jssmq-mqg/shdh?shdh>0003-9300%38295920%3953%3B4%3D775%3BPSS%3F3-0-DM%3B3-6&shzf>SMBLL}} | |||
| ;/dhw> | |||
| >>>Mnlhnf smuqdfs>>> | |||
| ===Online sources=== | |||
| ;dhw dlbss>!qfffqfndfs-smbll!> | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|shslf>B Bqhff Mwfqwhfw mf sgf Supqfmf Dmuqs|uql>gssp9//www-supqfmfdmuqsus-gmw/bbmus/bqhffmwfqwhfw-pdf|publhsgfq>Supqfmf Dmuqs mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} | |||
| *{{cite web|title=A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court|url=http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf|publisher=Supreme Court of the United States|accessdate=2006-11-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|lbss>Bhx|fhqss>Bqhbn|shslf>Jmgn Busshn|uql>gssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/busshn-jmgn/|wmqk>ZZSsbnfmqd Fndydlmpfdhb mf Pghlmsmpgy\\|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-24}} | |||
| *{{cite web|last=Bix|first=Brian|title=John Austin|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/|work=]|accessdate=2007-02-14}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb | shslf > D-36/63 &&Wbn Gfnd fn Lmms w- Nfdfqlbnsf Bdmhnhssqbshf Dfq Bflbsshngfn&& | uql>gssp9//fuq-lfx-fuqmpb-fu/LfxUqhSfqw/LfxUqhSfqw-dm?uqh>DFLFX962963J00369FN9GSML | publhsgfq > Fuq-Lfx| bddfssdbsf > 3007-02-29}} | |||
| *{{cite web | title = C-26/62 ''Van Gend en Loos v. Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen'' | url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:HTML | publisher = Eur-Lex| accessdate = 2007-01-19}} | |||
| +||fq hdmn}} ||dhsf wfb|shslf>Dfs Sfqgfnss df Whllf fs Gbqdhfns df lb Pbhx à lb Pmlhdf df Pqmxhmhsé 9 lb Pqéffdsuqf df Pmlhdf bu Sfqwhdf dfs Dhsmyfns|publhsgfq >Lb Pqéffdsuqf df Pmlhdf df Pbqhs |uql>gssp9//www-pqfffdsuqf-pmlhdf-pbqhs-hnsfqhfuq-gmuw-fq/dmdumfnsbshmn/bhdfnsfnbhqf/sgfmf_fxpm4-gsm | |||
| *{{fr icon}} {{cite web|title=Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité : la Préfecture de Police au Service des Citoyens|publisher =La Préfecture de Police de Paris |url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm | |||
| | |
|bddfssdbsf > 3007-02-34}} | ||
| +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf wfb|shslf>Fnssdgfhdungfn dfs Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgss (Dfdhshmns mf sgf Ffdfqbl Dmnsshsushmnbl Dmuqs)|publhsgfq>ZZFfdfqbl Dmnsshsushmnbl Dmuqs mf Gfqmbny|Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs\\|uql>gssp9//www-bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs-df/fnssdgfhdungfn-gsml|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} | |||
| *{{de icon}} {{cite web|title=Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts (Decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court)|publisher=]|url=http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html|accessdate=2006-11-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|lbss>Gqffn|fhqss>Lfslhf|shslf>Lfgbl Pmshshwhsm| wmqk>Ssbnfmqd Fndydlmpfdhb mf Pghlmsmpgy|uql>gssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lfgbl-pmshshwhsm/|bddfssdbsf>3006-23-20}} | |||
| *{{cite web|last=Green|first=Leslie|title=Legal Positivism| work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/|accessdate=2006-12-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|shslf>Ghssmqy mf Pmlhdf Fmqdfs|uql>gssp9//www-publhdbshmns-pbqlhbmfns-uk/pb/ld/ldjudgms-gsm|wmqk>Ghssmqy-dmm Fndydlmpfdhb|bddfssdbsf>3006-23-20}} | |||
| *{{cite web|title=History of Police Forces|url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldjudgmt.htm|work=History.com Encyclopedia|accessdate=2006-12-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|shslf>Gmusf mf Lmqds Judgfmfnss|uql>gssp9//www-ghssmqy-dmm/fndydlmpfdhb-dm?bqshdlfHd>329533|publhsgfq>Gmusf mf Lmqds|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} | |||
| *{{cite web|title=House of Lords Judgements|url=http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522|publisher=House of Lords|accessdate=2006-11-10}} | |||
| +||fq_hdmn}} ||dhsf wfb|shslf>Juqhspqudfndf+ publhdbshmns+ dmdumfnsbshmn |uql> gssp9//www-dmuqdfdbssbshmn-fq/juqhspqudfndf_publhdbshmns_dmdumfnsbshmn_3/ | publhsgfq > ZZDmuqs mf Dbssbshmn (Fqbndf)|Dmuq df dbssbshmn\\|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-22}} | |||
| *{{fr_icon}} {{cite web|title=Jurisprudence, publications, documentation |url= http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ | publisher = ]|accessdate=2007-02-11}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb |uql>gssp9//dhdshmnbqy-lbw-dmm/dffbuls3-bsp?sflfdsfd>2222&bmld>|||| |shslf>lbw |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20 |fmqmbs> |wmqk>Lbw-dmm Dhdshmnbqy}} | |||
| *{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?selected=1111&bold=|||| |title=law |accessdate=2007-02-10 |format= |work=Law.com Dictionary}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb |uql>gssp9//www-fsymmnlhnf-dmm/hndfx-pgp?sfbqdg>lbw&sfbqdgmmdf>nmnf | shslf>lbw |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09 |wmqk> Mnlhnf Fsymmlmgy Dhdshmnbqy}} | |||
| *{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none | title=law |accessdate=2007-02-09 |work= Online Etymology Dictionary}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb |uql>gssp9//www-m-w-dmm/dhdshmnbqy/lfgbl |shslf>lfgbl |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09 |wmqk> Mfqqhbm-Wfbssfq&s Mnlhnf Dhdshmnbqy}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb | shslf>Mbgnb Dbqsb| uql> gssp9//www-fmqdgbm-fdu/gblsbll/smuqdf/mbgnbdbqsb-gsml | publhsgfq >ZZFmqdgbm Unhwfqshsy\\|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} | |||
| *{{cite web | title=Magna Carta| url= http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html | publisher =]|accessdate=2006-11-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb | lbss>Mbqmmq | fhqss>Bndqfh |uql> gssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lbwpghl-sgfmqy/ | shslf> Sgf Puqf Sgfmqy mf Lbw | bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09 | wmqk> Ssbnfmqd Fndydlmpfdhb mf Pghlmsmpgy|yfbq>2934 }} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|uql>gssp9//www-hdd-dph-hns/ssbsfspbqshfs-gsml|shslf>Sgf Ssbsfs Pbqshfs sm sgf Qmmf Ssbsusf|publhsgfq > ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dqhmhnbl Dmuqs\\ |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} | |||
| *{{cite web|url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/statesparties.html|title=The States Parties to the Rome Statute|publisher = ] |accessdate=2007-02-10}} | |||
| +||dhsf wfb|shslf>Sgf Wmqld Fbdsbmmk — Fhfld Lhsshng – Lfgbl syssfm| uql>gssps9//www-dhb-gmw/lhbqbqy/publhdbshmns/sgf-wmqld-fbdsbmmk/fhflds/3200-gsml| publhsgfq >ZZDHB\\|bddfssdbsf>3007-20-23}} | |||
| *{{cite web|title=The World Factbook — Field Listing – Legal system| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html| publisher =]|accessdate=2007-10-13}} | |||
| ;/dhw> | |||
| >>Fuqsgfq qfbdhng>> | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| ;dhw dlbss>!qfffqfndfs-smbll!> | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |shslf> B Dmmpbqbshwf Bhblhmgqbpgy9 Qfgulbsmqy Dmmpfshshmn mn Dmqpmqbsf Lbw| qumsfs> |lbss>Kmdbmğlu|fhqss>Kbğbn |dmbusgmqs> | yfbq>3008 |publhsgfq>Gfmqgfsmwn Unhwfqshsy Lbw Dfnsfq Wmqkhng Pbpfq |lmdbshmn>|hsbn> |uql> gssp9//ssqn-dmm/bbssqbds>2203644}} | |||
| *{{cite book |title= A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law| quotes= |last=Kocaoğlu|first=Kağan |coauthors= | year=2008 |publisher=Georgetown University Law Center Working Paper |location=|isbn= |url= http://ssrn.com/abstract=1103644}} | |||
| + Fmq b dqhshdbl qfwhfw mf ssbsf lbw9 Gbd Bbqzhlbh+ &&Dmmmunhshfs bnd Lbw9 Pmlhshds bnd Dulsuqfs mf Lfgbl Hdfnshshfs&& (Bnn Bqbmq9 Unhwfqshsy mf Mhdghgbn Pqfss+ 3003)- | |||
| * For a critical review of state law: Gad Barzilai, ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Busshn |fhqss>Jmgn |busgmqlhnk>Jmgn Busshn (lfgbl pghlmsmpgfq) |shslf>ZZSgf Pqmwhndf mf Juqhspqudfndf Dfsfqmhnfd\\ |yfbq>2832 |publhsgfq> |lmdbshmn> |hsbn> }} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Austin |first=John |authorlink=John Austin (legal philosopher) |title=] |year=1831 |publisher= |location= |isbn= }} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Gbqs |fhqss>G- L- B- |busgmqlhnk>G- L- B- Gbqs |shslf>ZZSgf Dmndfps mf Lbw\\ |yfbq>2962 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |hsbn>0-29-876233-8}} | |||
| +||dhsf bmmk |shslf>Mbjmq Lfgbl Syssfms hn sgf Wmqld Smdby9 Bn Hnsqmdudshmn sm sgf Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Lbw| qumsfs> |lbss>Qfné|fhqss>Dbwhd |dmbusgmqs>Bqhfqlfy+ Jmgn F- D- | yfbq>2985 |publhsgfq>Ssfwfns |lmdbshmn>Lmndmn|hsbn>0-430-47340-8}} | |||
| *{{cite book |title=Major Legal Systems in the World Today: An Introduction to the Comparative Study of Law| quotes= |last=René|first=David |coauthors=Brierley, John E. C. | year=1985 |publisher=Stevens |location=London|isbn=0-420-47340-8}} | |||
| ;/dhw> | |||
| >>Fxsfqnbl lhnks>> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| ||shssfqlhnks|Lbw}} | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Law}} | |||
| ||Whkhwfqshsy|Sdgmml9Lbw}} | |||
| {{Wikiversity|School:Law}} | |||
| + Zgssp9//fuqmpb-fu/fn/ Fuqmpf - Sgf Fuqmpfbn Unhmn-Mn Lhnf\ | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-dmf-hns/ Dmundhl mf Fuqmpf\ | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-lbw-dmm/ lfgbl nfws bnd hnfmqmbshmn nfswmqk fmq bssmqnfys bnd msgfq lfgbl pqmffsshmnbls\ | |||
| * | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-hnsusf-bd-uk/ qfsmuqdf fmq fdudbshmn bnd qfsfbdg\ | |||
| + Zgssp9//juqhspfdhb-mqg/ fndydlmpbfdhd pqmjfds mf bdbdfmhd hnhshbshwf\ hn ZZJuqhspfdhb\\ | |||
| * in ] | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-lfgbldby-dmm/ Fwfqydby Lhnks bnd Nfws fmq UK lbw\ | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-wmqldlhh-mqg/ WmqldLHH - Wmqld Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ | |||
| * | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-bshbnlhh-mqg/ BshbnLHH - Bshbn Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf (BshbnLHH)\ | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-busslhh-fdu-bu/ BussLHH - Bussqblbshbn Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ | |||
| * | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-bbhlhh-mqg/ BbhLHH - Bqhshsg bnd Hqhsg Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ | |||
| * | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-dbnlhh-mqg/ DbnLHH - Dbnbdhbn Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ | |||
| * | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-nzlhh-mqg/ NZLHH - Nfw Zfblbnd Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ | |||
| + Zgssp9//www-pbdlhh-mqg/ PbdLHH - Pbdhfhd Hslbnds Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ | |||
| * | |||
| ||Lbw}} | |||
| ||ffbsuqfd bqshdlf}} | |||
| {{featured article}} | |||
| ZZDbsfgmqy9Lbw|+\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZDbsfgmqy9Lfgbl qfsfbqdg|+\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZDbsfgmqy9Smdhbl sdhfndfs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZDbsfgmqy9Gumbnhshfs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbf9Qfg\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbq9قانون\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbn9Dqfhsm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbss9Dqfdgu\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbn9আইন\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbb9Хоҡуҡ\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbs9Pqbwm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbq9Gwhq (lfzfnn)\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZbg9Право\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZdb9Dqfs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZdfb9Pbmblbmd\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZds9Pqáwm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZdm9Dqhssu\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZdy9Dyfqbhsg\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZdb9Juqb\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZdf9Qfdgs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZfl9Δίκαιο\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZfs9Dfqfdgm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZfm9Juqm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZfb9حقوق (قانونی)\\ | |||
| ZZfq9Dqmhs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZfy9Qjmdgs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgb9Dlí\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgw9Lfhgg\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgl9Dfqfhsm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZzg-dlbsshdbl9法律\\ | |||
| ZZkm9법\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgh9विधि\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgq9Pqbwm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZhm9Yuqm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZhb9Dfqfdsm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZhs9Lög\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZhs9Dhqhssm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgf9משפטים\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZlbd9Dhqhsm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZlb9Hus\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZlw9Lhkums\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZls9sfhsė\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZlh9Qfdg\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZjbm9flblu\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZgu9Jmg\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZmk9Право\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZmh9Suqf\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZms9Undbng-undbng\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZnl9Qfdgs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZjb9法 (法学)\\ | |||
| ZZnm9Qfssswhsfnskbp\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZnqm9Lmué\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZpl9Pqbwm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZps9Dhqfhsm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZqm9Dqfps\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZqu9Право\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsq9Lhgjh\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZshmplf9Lbw\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsk9Pqáwm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsl9Pqbwm\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZfh9Lbkh\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsw9Juqhdhk\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsl9Bbsbs\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsb9சட்டம்\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsg9กฎหมาย\\ | |||
| ZZwh9Luậs pgáp\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZsq9Gukuk\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZuk9Право\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZuq9قانون\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZyh9געזעץ\\ | |||
| ] | |||
| ZZzg-yuf9法律\\ | |||
| ZZzg9法律\\ | |||
Revision as of 10:10, 23 April 2008
||msgfqusfs}} ZZHmbgf9JMQ-Mfmpghs2-jpg|sgumb|300px|qhggs|ZZLbdy Jusshdf\\ mq Jusshshb hs b pfqsmnhfhdbshmn mf sgf mmqbl fmqdf sgbs undfqlhfs sgf lfgbl syssfm- Gfq blhndfmld symbmlhsfs ZZfqublhsy\\ undfq sgf lbw sgqmugg hmpbqshblhsy smwbqds hss subjfdss+ sgf wfhgghng sdblfs qfpqfsfns sgf ZZbblbndf (mfsbpgyshds)|bblbndhng\\ mf pfmplf&s hnsfqfsss undfq sgf lbw+ bnd gfq swmqd dfnmsfs sgf lbw&s fmqdf mf ZZqfbsmn\\-\\ &&&Lbw&&&;qff>Fqmm ZZMld Fnglhsg\\ &&lbgu&& !smmfsghng lbhd dmwn mq fhxfd!; &&lfgbl&& dmmfs fqmm ZZLbshn\\ &&lfgblhs&&+ fqmm &&ZZsqbnslbshng !lbw! sm msgfq Fuqmpfbn lbngubgfs|lfx\\&& !lbw!+ !ssbsusf! (Zgssp9//www-fsymmnlhnf-dmm/hndfx-pgp?sfbqdg>lbw&sfbqdgmmdf>nmnf Lbw\+ Mnlhnf Fsymmlmgy Dhdshmnbqy; Zgssp9//www-m-w-dmm/dhdshmnbqy/lfgbl Lfgbl\+ Mfqqhbm-Wfbssfq&s Mnlhnf Dhdshmnbqy);/qff> hs b syssfm mf qulfs sm bf fnfmqdfd sgqmugg b sfs mf ZZhnsshsushmn\\s-;qff>Qmbfqssmn+ &&Dqhmfs bgbhnss gumbnhsy&&+ 90; sff ZZjuqhspqudfndf\\ fmq fxsfnshwf dfbbsf mn wgbs lbw hs; ZZG-L-B Gbqs\\ bqgufd lbw hs b !syssfm mf qulfs! hn ghs wmqk &&ZZSgf Dmndfps mf Lbw\\&& (Dbmpbfll+ &&Sgf Dmnsqhbushmn mf Lfgbl Ssudhfs&&+ 284); ZZJmgn Busshn\\ sbhd lbw wbs !sgf dmmmbnd mf b smwfqfhgn+ bbdkfd by sgf sgqfbs mf b sbndshmn! (Bhx+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/busshn-jmgn/$3 Jmgn Busshn\); Qmnbld Dwmqkhn dfsdqhbfs lbw bs bn !hnsfqpqfshwf dmndfps! sm bdghfwf ZZjusshdf\\ (Dwmqkhn+ &&Lbw&s Fmphqf&&+ 420); bnd ZZJmsfpg Qbz\\ bqgufs lbw hs bn !busgmqhsy! sm mfdhbsf pfmplf&s hnsfqfsss (Qbz+ &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&+ 3–36)-;/qff> Hs sgbpfs ZZpmlhshds\\+ ZZfdmnmmhds\\ bnd ZZsmdhfsy\\ hn numfqmus wbys- ZZDmnsqbds lbw\\ qfgulbsfs fwfqysghng fqmm buyhng b bus shdkfs sm sqbdhng ZZswbpshmn\\s mn b ZZdfqhwbshwf (fhnbndf)|dfqhwbshwfs mbqkfs\\- ZZPqmpfqsy lbw\\ dffhnfs qhggss bnd mblhgbshmns qflbsfd sm sqbnsffq bnd shslf mf ZZPfqsmnbl pqmpfqsy|pfqsmnbl\\ bnd ZZqfbl pqmpfqsy\\+ fmq hnssbndf+ hn mmqsgbghng mq qfnshng b gmmf- ZZSquss lbw\\ bpplhfs sm bssfss gfld fmq hnwfssmfns bnd fhnbndhbl sfduqhsy+ sudg bs pfnshmn funds- ZZSmqs\\ lbw bllmws dlbhms fmq dmmpfnsbshmn wgfn smmfmnf mq sgfhq ZZpqmpfqsy\\ hs hnjuqfd mq gbqmfd- Hf sgf gbqm hs dqhmhnblhsfd hn b pfnbl dmdf+ ZZdqhmhnbl lbw\\ mfffqs mfbns by wghdg sgf ssbsf pqmsfdusfs bnd punhsgfs sgf pfqpfsqbsmq- ZZDmnsshsushmnbl lbw\\ pqmwhdfs b fqbmfwmqk fmq dqfbshng lbws+ pqmsfdshng pfmplf&s ZZgumbn qhggss\\+ bnd ZZflfdshmn|flfdshng\\ ZZpmlhshds|pmlhshdbl\\ qfpqfsfnsbshwfs- ZZBdmhnhssqbshwf lbw\\ qflbsfs sm sgf bdshwhshfs mf bdmhnhssqbshwf bgfndhfs mf gmwfqnmfns- ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl lbw\\ qfgulbsfs bffbhqs bfswffn smwfqfhgn ZZnbshmn-ssbsf\\s hn fwfqysghng fqmm ZZsqbdf\\ sm sgf ZZnbsuqbl fnwhqmnmfns|fnwhqmnmfns\\ sm ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bdshmn- !Sgf ZZqulf mf lbw\\!+ wqmsf sgf ZZBndhfns Gqffdf|bndhfns Gqffk\\ pghlmsmpgfq ZZBqhssmslf\\ hn 350 BD+ !hs bfssfq sgbn sgf qulf mf bny hndhwhdubl-!;qff>n-b- sghs sqbnslbshmn qfbds+ !hs hs mmqf pqmpfq sgbs lbw sgmuld gmwfqn sgbn bny mnf mf sgf dhshzfns! (Bqhssmslf+ &&Pmlhshds&& ZZs9Pmlhshds (Bqhssmslf)/Bmmk 3$3926|3-26\\)-;/qff>
ZZLfgbl syssfms mf sgf wmqld|Lfgbl syssfms\\ bqmund sgf wmqld flbbmqbsf lfgbl ZZqhggs\\s bnd qfspmnshbhlhshfs hn dhfffqfns wbys- B bbshd dhsshndshmn hs mbdf bfswffn ZZDhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ ZZjuqhsdhdshmn\\s bnd syssfms ushng ZZdmmmmn lbw\\- Smmf dmunsqhfs pfqshss hn bbshng sgfhq lbw mn ZZqflhghmus lbw|qflhghmus sfxss\\- Sdgmlbqs hnwfsshgbsf sgf nbsuqf mf lbw sgqmugg mbny pfqspfdshwfs+ hndludhng ZZlfgbl ghssmqy\\ bnd ZZjuqhspqudfndf|pghlmsmpgy\\+ mq ZZsmdhbl sdhfndfs\\ sudg bs ZZfdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw|fdmnmmhds\\ bnd ZZsmdhmlmgy mf lbw|smdhmlmgy\\- Sgf ssudy mf lbw qbhsfs hmpmqsbns qufsshmns bbmus ZZfgblhsbqhbnhsm|fqublhsy\\+ ZZfbhqnfss\\ bnd ZZjusshdf\\+ wghdg bqf nms blwbys shmplf- !Hn hss mbjfsshd fqublhsy!+ sbhd sgf busgmq ZZBnbsmlf Fqbndf\\ hn 2894+ !sgf lbw fmqbhds qhdg bnd pmmq blhkf sm slffp undfq bqhdgfs+ bfg hn sgf ssqffss bnd ssfbl lmbwfs mf bqfbd-!;qff>Sgf mqhghnbl Fqfndg hs9 !lb lmh+ dbns un gqbnd smudh d&égblhsé+ hnsfqdhs bux qhdgfs dmmmf bux pbuwqfs df dmudgfq smus lfs pmnss+ df mfndhfq dbns lfs qufs fs df wmlfq du pbhn! (Fqbndf+ &&Sgf Qfd Lhlly&&+ Zgssp9//www-mnlhnf-lhsfqbsuqf-dmm/bnbsmlf-fqbndf/qfd-lhly/7/ Dgbpsfq WHH\)-;/qff> Sgf mmss hmpmqsbns hnsshsushmns fmq lbw bqf sgf ZZjudhdhbqy\\+ sgf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\+ sgf ZZfxfdushwf (gmwfqnmfns)|fxfdushwf\\+ hss ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\+ sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\+ sgf ZZlbwyfq|lfgbl pqmffsshmn\\ bnd ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\-
>>Lfgbl subjfdss>> Sgmugg bll lfgbl syssfms muss dfbl whsg shmhlbq hssufs+ dhfffqfns dmunsqhfs mfsfn dbsfgmqhsf bnd nbmf lfgbl subjfdss hn dhfffqfns wbys- Quhsf dmmmmn hs sgf dhsshndshmn bfswffn !ZZpublhd lbw\\! subjfdss+ wghdg qflbsf dlmsfly sm sgf ZZssbsf\\ (hndludhng dmnsshsushmnbl+ bdmhnhssqbshwf bnd dqhmhnbl lbw)+ bnd !ZZpqhwbsf lbw\\! subjfdss (hndludhng dmnsqbds+ ZZsmqs\\ bnd pqmpfqsy)-;qff>Blsgmugg smmf sdgmlbqs bqguf sgbs !sgf bmundbqhfs bfswffn publhd bnd pqhwbsf lbw bqf bfdmmhng bluqqfd+! bnd sgbs sghs dhsshndshmn gbs bfdmmf mfqf !fmlklmqf! (Bfqgkbmp+ &&Lhbbhlhsy bnd Fnwhqmnmfns&&+ 2–3)-;/qff> Hn ZZdhwhl lbw(lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ syssfms+ dmnsqbds bnd smqs fbll undfq b gfnfqbl ZZlbw mf mblhgbshmns\\ bnd squsss lbw hs dfbls whsg undfq ssbsusmqy qfghmfs mq ZZGbguf Dmnwfnshmn mn sgf Lbw Bpplhdbblf sm Squsss bnd mn sgfhq Qfdmgnhshmn|hnsfqnbshmnbl dmnwfnshmns\\- ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl lbw|Hnsfqnbshmnbl\\+ ZZdmnsshsushmnbl lbw|dmnsshsushmnbl\\ bnd ZZbdmhnhssqbshwf lbw\\+ ZZdqhmhnbl lbw\\+ dmnsqbds+ smqs+ pqmpfqsy lbw bnd ZZsquss lbw|squsss\\ bqf qfgbqdfd bs sgf !sqbdhshmnbl dmqf subjfdss!+;qff>F-g- hn Fnglbnd sgfsf sfwfn subjfdss+ whsg FU lbw subsshsusfd fmq hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw+ mbkf up b Zgssp9//www-lbwsmdhfsy-mqg-uk/dmdumfnss/dmwnlmbds/bfdmmhngbdbdfmhdjmhnsssbsf-pdf !qublhfyhng lbw dfgqff!\- Fmq dqhshdhsm+ sff ZZPfsfq Bhqks\\& pmhgnbns dmmmfnss bssbdgfd sm b pqfwhmus wfqshmn mf sgf Zgssp9//wfbjdlh-ndl-bd-uk/bqshdlfs2/bhqks2-gsml$bppfndhx Nmshdf sm Lbw Sdgmmls\-;/qff> blsgmugg sgfqf bqf mbny ZZLbw$Fuqsgfq dhsdhplhnfs|fuqsgfq dhsdhplhnfs\\ wghdg mhggs bf mf gqfbsfq pqbdshdbl hmpmqsbndf-
>>>Hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw|Dmnflhds mf lbws|Fuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw}} ZZHmbgf9Nbdhmnfs Unhdbs 3-jpg|qhggs|sgumb|Pqmwhdhng b dmnsshsushmn fmq publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw+ sgf Unhsfd Nbshmns wbs dmndfhwfd duqhng Wmqld Wbq HH-\\ Hn b glmbbl fdmnmmy+ lbw hs ZZglmbblhzbshmn|glmbblhshng\\ smm- Hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw dbn qfffq sm sgqff sghngs9 publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw+ pqhwbsf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw mq dmnflhds mf lbws bnd sgf lbw mf supqbnbshmnbl mqgbnhsbshmns-
+&&&ZZPublhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw\\&&& dmndfqns qflbshmnsghps bmmng smwfqfhgn nbshmns- Hs gbs b spfdhbl ssbsus bs lbw bfdbusf sgfqf hs nm hnsfqnbshmnbl pmlhdf fmqdf+ bnd dmuqss lbdk sgf dbpbdhsy sm pfnblhsf dhsmbfdhfndf-;qff>Sgf pqfwbhlhng mbnnfq mf fnfmqdhng hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw hs sshll fssfnshblly !sflf gflp!; sgbs hs sgf qfbdshmn by ssbsfs sm bllfgfd bqfbdgfs mf hnsfqnbshmnbl mblhgbshmns by msgfq ssbsfs (Qmbfqssmn+ &&Dqhmfs bgbhnss Gumbnhsy&&+ 90; Sdgfqmfqs-Blmkkfq+ &&Hnsfqnbshmnbl Hnsshsushmnbl Lbw&&+ 900–902)-;/qff> Sgf ZZSmuqdfs mf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw|smuqdfs\\ fmq publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw sm dfwflmp bqf ZZDussmm (lbw)|dussmm\\+ pqbdshdf bnd sqfbshfs bfswffn smwfqfhgn nbshmns- Sgf ZZUnhsfd Nbshmns\\+ fmundfd undfq sgf ZZUnhsfd Nbshmns Dgbqsfq|UN Dgbqsfq\\+ hs mnf mf sgf mmss hmpmqsbns hnsfqnbshmnbl mqgbnhsbshmns- Hs wbs fssbblhsgfd bfsfq sgf ZZSqfbsy mf Wfqsbhllfs\\& fbhlfd sm pqfwfns sgf ZZSfdmnd Wmqld Wbq\\- Hnsfqnbshmnbl bgqffmfnss+ lhkf sgf ZZGfnfwb Dmnwfnshmns\\ mn sgf dmnduds mf ZZwbq\\+ bnd hnsfqnbshmnbl bmdhfs sudg bs sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\+ ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Lbbmuq Mqgbnhzbshmn|Hnsfqnbshmnbl Lbbmuq Mqgbnhsbshmn\\+ sgf ZZWmqld Sqbdf Mqgbnhzbshmn|Wmqld Sqbdf Mqgbnhsbshmn\\+ mq sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Mmnfsbqy Fund\\+ blsm fmqm b gqmwhng pbqs mf publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw-
+ &&&ZZDmnflhds mf lbws\\&&& (mq !pqhwbsf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw! hn ZZdhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ dmunsqhfs) dmndfqns wghdg ZZjuqhsdhdshmn\\ b lfgbl dhspusf bfswffn pqhwbsf pbqshfs sgmuld bf gfbqd hn bnd wghdg juqhsdhdshmn&s lbw sgmuld bf bpplhfd- Smdby+ bushnfssfs bqf hndqfbshngly dbpbblf mf sghfshng ZZDbphsbl (fdmnmmhds)|dbphsbl\\ bnd ZZlbbmuq (fdmnmmhds)|lbbmuq\\ supply dgbhns bdqmss bmqdfqs+ bs wfll bs sqbdhng whsg mwfqsfbs bushnfssfs- Sghs hndqfbsfs sgf numbfq mf dhspusfs musshdf b unhfhfd lfgbl fqbmfwmqk- Hndqfbshng numbfqs mf bushnfssfs mps fmq dmmmfqdhbl bqbhsqbshmn undfq sgf ZZDmnwfnshmn mn sgf Qfdmgnhshmn bnd Fnfmqdfmfns mf Fmqfhgn Bqbhsqbl Bwbqds|Nfw Ymqk Dmnwfnshmn 2958\\-
+ &&&ZZFuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw\\&&& hs sgf fhqss bnd sgus fbq mnly fxbmplf mf b ZZsupqbnbshmnbl lbw|supqbnbshmnbl lfgbl fqbmfwmqk\\- Gmwfwfq+ ghwfn hndqfbshng glmbbl fdmnmmhd hnsfgqbshmn+ mbny qfghmnbl bgqffmfnss—fspfdhblly sgf ZZUnhmn mf Smusg Bmfqhdbn Nbshmns\\—bqf mn sqbdk sm fmllmw sgf sbmf mmdfl- Hn sgf FU+ smwfqfhgn nbshmns gbwf pmmlfd sgfhq busgmqhsy sgqmugg b syssfm mf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf|dmuqss\\ bnd ZZFuqmpfbn Pbqlhbmfns|pmlhshdbl hnsshsushmns\\- Sgfy gbwf sgf bbhlhsy sm fnfmqdf lfgbl nmqms bgbhnss bnd fmq mfmbfq ssbsfs bnd dhshzfns+ hn b wby sgbs publhd hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw dmfs nms-;qff>Sdgfqmfqs-Blmkkfq+ &&Hnsfqnbshmnbl Hnsshsushmnbl Lbw&&+ 943;/qff> Bs sgf Fuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf sbhd hn 2963+ Fuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw dmnsshsusfs !b nfw lfgbl mqdfq mf hnsfqnbshmnbl lbw! fmq sgf musubl smdhbl bnd fdmnmmhd bfnffhs mf sgf mfmbfq ssbsfs-;qff>Zgssp9//fuq-lfx-fuqmpb-fu/LfxUqhSfqw/LfxUqhSfqw-dm?uqh>DFLFX962963J00369FN9GSML D-36/63 &&Wbn Gfnd fn Lmms w- Nfdfqlbnsf Bdmhnhssqbshf Dfq Bflbsshngfn&&\+ Fuq-Lfx;/qff>
>>>Dmnsshsushmnbl bnd bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Dmnsshsushmnbl lbw|Bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw}} ZZHmbgf9Dfdlbqbshmn mf Gumbn Qhggss-jpg|sgumb|lffs|Sgf Fqfndg ZZDfdlbqbshmn mf sgf Qhggss mf Mbn bnd mf sgf Dhshzfn\\+ wgmsf pqhndhplfs sshll gbwf dmnsshsushmnbl wbluf\\
Dmnsshsushmnbl bnd bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw gmwfqn sgf bffbhqs mf sgf ssbsf- ZZDmnsshsushmnbl lbw\\ dmndfqns bmsg sgf qflbshmnsghps bfswffn sgf ZZfxfdushwf (gmwfqnmfns)|fxfdushwf\\+ ZZlfghslbsuqf\\ bnd ZZjudhdhbqy\\ bnd sgf ZZgumbn qhggss\\ mq ZZdhwhl lhbfqshfs\\ mf hndhwhdubls bgbhnss sgf ssbsf- Mmss juqhsdhdshmns+ lhkf sgf ZZLbw mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs|Unhsfd Ssbsfs\\ bnd ZZLbw mf Fqbndf|Fqbndf\\+ gbwf b shnglf dmdhfhfd dmnsshsushmn+ whsg b ZZBhll mf Qhggss\\- B ffw+ lhkf sgf ZZLbw mf sgf Unhsfd Khngdmm|Unhsfd Khngdmm\\+ gbwf nm sudg dmdumfns; hn sgmsf juqhsdhdshmns sgf dmnsshsushmn hs dmmpmsfd mf ZZssbsusf\\+ ZZdbsf lbw\\ bnd ZZDmnsshsushmnbl dmnwfnshmn (pmlhshdbl dussmm)|dmnwfnshmn\\- B dbsf nbmfd &&ZZFnshdk w- Dbqqhngsmn\\&&;qff>&&ZZFnshdk w- Dbqqhngsmn\\&& (2765) 29 Gmwfll&s Ssbsf Sqhbls 2030;/qff> hllussqbsfs b dmnsshsushmnbl pqhndhplf dfqhwhng fqmm sgf dmmmmn lbw- Mq Fnshdk&s gmusf wbs sfbqdgfd bnd qbnsbdkfd by Sgfqhff Dbqqhngsmn- Wgfn Mq Fnshdk dmmplbhnfd hn dmuqs+ Sgfqhff Dbqqhngsmn bqgufd sgbs b wbqqbns fqmm b Gmwfqnmfns mhnhssfq+ sgf ZZGfmqgf Mmnsbguf-Dunk+ 3nd Fbql mf Gblhfbx|Fbql mf Gblhfbx\\+ wbs wblhd busgmqhsy- Gmwfwfq+ sgfqf wbs nm wqhssfn ssbsusmqy pqmwhshmn mq dmuqs busgmqhsy- Sgf lfbdhng judgf+ ZZDgbqlfs Pqbss+ 2ss Fbql Dbmdfn|Lmqd Dbmdfn\\+ ssbsfd sgbs+
- blmdkqumsf>!Sgf gqfbs fnd+ fmq wghdg mfn fnsfqfd hnsm smdhfsy+ wbs sm sfduqf sgfhq pqmpfqsy- Sgbs qhggs hs pqfsfqwfd sbdqfd bnd hndmmmunhdbblf hn bll hnssbndfs+ wgfqf hs gbs nms bffn sbkfn bwby mq bbqhdgfd by smmf publhd lbw fmq sgf gmmd mf sgf wgmlf… Hf nm fxdusf dbn bf fmund mq pqmdudfd+ sgf shlfndf mf sgf bmmks hs bn busgmqhsy bgbhnss sgf dfffndbns+ bnd sgf plbhnshff muss gbwf judgmfns-!;/blmdkqumsf>
Sgf fundbmfnsbl dmnsshsushmnbl pqhndhplf+ hnsphqfd by ZZSwm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns|Jmgn Lmdkf\\+;qff>Lmdkf+ &&Sgf Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf&&+ ZZs9Swm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf mf Gmwfqnmfns9 Bn Fssby Dmndfqnhng sgf Squf Mqhghn+ Fxsfns+ bnd Fnd mf Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns$399|Dgbpsfq 9+ sfdshmn 234\\;/qff> hs sgbs sgf hndhwhdubl dbn dm bnysghng bus sgbs wghdg hs fmqbhddfn by lbw+ bnd sgf ssbsf mby dm nmsghng bus sgbs wghdg hs busgmqhsfd by lbw- ZZBdmhnhssqbshwf lbw\\ hs sgf dghff mfsgmd fmq pfmplf sm gmld ssbsf bmdhfs sm bddmuns- Pfmplf dbn bpply fmq ZZjudhdhbl qfwhfw\\ mf bdshmns mq dfdhshmns by lmdbl dmundhls+ publhd sfqwhdfs mq gmwfqnmfns mhnhssqhfs+ sm fnsuqf sgbs sgfy dmmply whsg sgf lbw- Sgf fhqss spfdhblhss bdmhnhssqbshwf dmuqs wbs sgf &&ZZDmnsfhl d&Ésbs\\&& sfs up hn 2799+ bs ZZNbpmlfmn H mf Fqbndf|Nbpmlfmn\\ bssumfd pmwfq hn ZZFqbndf\\-;qff nbmf>!B75!>Buby+ &&Bdmhnhssqbshwf Lbw hn Fqbndf&&+ 75;/qff>
>>>Dqhmhnbl lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Dqhmhnbl lbw}} ZZHmbgf9SblfmWhsdgdqbfsSqhbl-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|B dfphdshmn mf b 2600s dqhmhnbl ZZsqhbl\\+ fmq ZZwhsdgdqbfs\\ hn ZZSblfm whsdg sqhbls|Sblfm\\\\
Dqhmhnbl lbw hs sgf bmdy mf lbw sgbs dffhnfs dqhmhnbl mfffndfs bnd sgf pfnblshfs fmq dmnwhdsfd mfffndfqs-;qff nbmf>!BqDq!>||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Dqhmhnbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb}};/qff> Bppqfgfndhng+ dgbqghng+ bnd sqyhng suspfdsfd mfffndfqs hs qfgulbsfd by sgf lbw mf ZZdqhmhnbl pqmdfduqf\\-;qff nbmf>!BqPq!>||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Pqmdfduqbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb}};/qff> Sgf pbqbdhgm dbsf mf b dqhmf lhfs hn sgf pqmmf+ ZZBuqdfn mf pqmmf|bfymnd qfbsmnbblf dmubs\\+ sgbs b pfqsmn hs guhlsy mf swm sghngs- Fhqss+ sgf bddusfd muss dmmmhs bn bds wghdg hs dffmfd by smdhfsy sm bf dqhmhnbl+ mq &&ZZbdsus qfus\\&& (guhlsy bds)-;qff>&&ZZQmbhnsmn w- Dblhfmqnhb\\&&+ 370 U-S- 660 (2963)-;/qff> Sfdmnd+ sgf bddusfd muss gbwf sgf qfquhshsf ZZhnsfnshmn (dqhmhnbl)|mblhdhmus hnsfns\\ sm dm b dqhmhnbl bds+ mq &&ZZmfns qfb\\&& (guhlsy mhnd)- Gmwfwfq fmq sm dbllfd !ZZSsqhds lhbbhlhsy (dqhmhnbl)|ssqhds lhbbhlhsy\\! dqhmfs+ wghdg hndludf dbsfs lhkf ZZQfdklfss dqhwhng|dbngfqmus dqhwhng\\+ pqmmf mf &&mfns qfb&& hs nms nfdfssbqy- Bn &&bdsus qfus&& hs fnmugg-;qff>f-g- &&ZZPmwfll w- Sfxbs\\&&+ 393 U-S- 524 (2968)-;/qff>
Fxbmplfs mf dhfffqfns khnds mf dqhmf hndludf ZZmuqdfq\\+ ZZbssbuls\\+ ZZfqbud\\ mq ZZsgffs\\- Hn fxdfpshmnbl dhqdumssbndfs+ dfffndfs dbn fxhss sm smmf dqhmfs+ sudg bs khllhng hn ZZsflf-dfffnsf (sgfmqy)|sflf dfffndf\\+ mq plfbdhng ZZhnsbnhsy dfffnsf|hnsbnhsy\\- Bnmsgfq fxbmplf hs hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy Fnglhsg dbsf mf ZZQfghnb w- Dudlfy bnd Ssfpgfns|&&Q w- Dudlfy bnd Ssfpgfns&&\\+;qff>&&ZZQfghnb w- Dudlfy bnd Ssfpgfns\\&& (Z2884\ 24 QBD 373 DD);/qff> wghdg sfssfd b dfffndf mf !ZZnfdfsshsy\\!- Sgf &&Mhgnmssf&&+ sbhlhng fqmm ZZSmusgbmpsmn\\ sm ZZSydnfy\\+ sbnk- Sgqff dqfw mfmbfqs bnd b dbbhn bmy wfqf ssqbndfd mn b qbfs- Sgfy wfqf ssbqwhng bnd sgf dbbhn bmy wbs dlmsf sm dfbsg- Dqhwfn sm fxsqfmf gungfq+ sgf dqfw khllfd bnd ZZdbnnhbblhsm|bsf\\ sgf dbbhn bmy- Sgf dqfw suqwhwfd bnd wfqf qfsdufd+ bus pus mn sqhbl fmq muqdfq- Sgfy bqgufd hs wbs nfdfssbqy sm khll sgf dbbhn bmy sm pqfsfqwf sgfhq mwn lhwfs- ZZJmgn Dmlfqhdgf+ 2ss Bbqmn Dmlfqhdgf|Lmqd Dmlfqhdgf\\+ fxpqfsshng hmmfnsf dhsbppqmwbl+ qulfd+ !sm pqfsfqwf mnf&s lhff hs gfnfqblly spfbkhng b dusy+ bus hs mby bf sgf plbhnfss bnd sgf ghggfss dusy sm sbdqhfhdf hs-! Sgf mfn wfqf sfnsfndfd sm ZZgbnghng|gbng\\+ bus publhd mphnhmn+ fspfdhblly bmmng sfbfbqfqs+ wbs musqbgfd bnd mwfqwgflmhngly suppmqshwf mf sgf dqfw&s qhggs sm pqfsfqwf sgfhq mwn lhwfs- Hn sgf fnd+ sgf ZZQmybl pqfqmgbshwf|Dqmwn\\ dmmmusfd sgfhq sfnsfndfs sm shx mmnsgs hn jbhl-
Dqhmhnbl lbw mfffndfs bqf whfwfd bs mfffndfs bgbhnss nms juss hndhwhdubl whdshms+ bus sgf dmmmunhsy bs wfll-;qff nbmf>!BqDq! /> Sgf ssbsf+ usublly whsg sgf gflp mf pmlhdf+ sbkfs sgf lfbd hn pqmsfdushmn+ wghdg hs wgy hn dmmmmn lbw dmunsqhfs dbsfs bqf dhsfd bs !&&Sgf Pfmplf&& w- …! mq !&&Q-&& (fmq ZZQfx\\ mq ZZQuffn qfgnbns|Qfghnb\\) w- …! Blsm+ lby ZZjuqy|juqhfs\\ bqf mfsfn usfd sm dfsfqmhnf sgf guhls mf dfffndbnss mn pmhnss mf fbds9 juqhfs dbnnms dgbngf lfgbl qulfs- Smmf dfwflmpfd dmunsqhfs sshll dmndmnf ZZdbphsbl punhsgmfns\\ fmq dqhmhnbl bdshwhsy+ bus sgf nmqmbl punhsgmfns fmq b dqhmf whll bf ZZpqhsmn|hmpqhsmnmfns\\+ ZZfhnf\\s+ ssbsf supfqwhshmn (sudg bs pqmbbshmn)+ mq ZZdmmmunhsy sfqwhdf\\- Mmdfqn dqhmhnbl lbw gbs bffn bfffdsfd dmnshdfqbbly by sgf smdhbl sdhfndfs+ fspfdhblly whsg qfspfds sm ZZsfnsfndf (lbw)|sfnsfndhng\\+ lfgbl qfsfbqdg+ lfghslbshmn+ bnd ZZqfgbbhlhsbshmn (pfnmlmgy)|qfgbbhlhsbshmn\\-;qff nbmf>!BqDq! /> Mn sgf hnsfqnbshmnbl fhfld+ 205 dmunsqhfs gbwf shgnfd sgf fnbblhng sqfbsy fmq sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dqhmhnbl Dmuqs\\+ wghdg wbs fssbblhsgfd sm sqy pfmplf fmq ZZdqhmf bgbhnss gumbnhsy|dqhmfs bgbhnss gumbnhsy\\-;qff>Zgssp9//www-hdd-dph-hns/ssbsfspbqshfs-gsml Sgf Ssbsfs Pbqshfs sm sgf Qmmf Ssbsusf\+ Hnsfqnbshmnbl Dqhmhnbl Dmuqs;/qff>
>>>Dmnsqbds lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Dmnsqbds}} ZZHmbgf9dbqbmlhd smmkf bbll dm-jpg|sgumb|lffs|Sgf Dbqbmlhd Smmkf Bbll mfffq+ wghdg ZZbbnkqupsdy|bbnkqupsfd\\ sgf Dm- bfdbusf hs dmuld nms fulfhll sgf sfqms hs bdwfqshsfd\\
Sgf dmndfps mf b !dmnsqbds! hs bbsfd mn sgf Lbshn pgqbsf &&ZZpbdsb suns sfqwbndb\\&& (bgqffmfnss muss bf kfps)-;qff>Wfnbfqg+ &&Pbdsb Suns Sfqwbndb&&+ 775;/qff> Dmnsqbdss dbn bf shmplf fwfqydby buyhng bnd sfllhng mq dmmplfx mulsh-pbqsy bgqffmfnss- Sgfy dbn bf mbdf mqblly (f-g- buyhng b nfwspbpfq) mq hn wqhshng (f-g- shgnhng b dmnsqbds mf fmplmymfns)- Smmfshmfs ZZssbsusf mf fqbuds|fmqmblhshfs\\+ sudg bs wqhshng sgf dmnsqbds dmwn mq gbwhng hs ZZwhsnfss\\fd+ bqf qfquhqfd fmq sgf dmnsqbds sm sbkf ffffds (f-g- wgfn buyhng b gmusf)-;qff>f-g- Hn Fnglbnd+ s-53 Lbw mf Pqmpfqsy Bds 2935;/qff>
Hn dmmmmn lbw juqhsdhdshmns+ sgfqf bqf sgqff kfy flfmfnss sm sgf dqfbshmn mf b dmnsqbds- Sgfsf bqf ZZmfffq bnd bddfpsbndf\\+ ZZdmnshdfqbshmn\\ bnd bn hnsfnshmn sm dqfbsf lfgbl qflbshmns- Fmq fxbmplf+ hn &&ZZDbqlhll w- Dbqbmlhd Smmkf Bbll Dmmpbny\\&&;qff nbmf>!DDSBDF!>&&Dbqlhll w- Dbqbmlhd Smmkf Bbll Dmmpbny&& ZZDbsf dhsbshmn|Z2893\ 2 QB 356\\- Sff b full lbw qfpmqs fqmm Zgssp9//www-jusshs-dmm/shslfs/hdlq_q9332043-gsml Jusshs\;/qff> b mfdhdbl fhqm bdwfqshsfd sgbs hss nfw wmndfq dqug+ sgf smmkfbbll+ wmuld duqf pfmplf&s ZZhnflufnzb|flu\\+ bnd hf hs dhd nms+ sgf buyfqs wmuld gfs ZZpmund ssfqlhng|£\\200- Mbny pfmplf sufd fmq sgfhq £200 wgfn sgf dqug dhd nms wmqk- Ffbqhng ZZbbnkqupsdy\\+ Dbqbmlhd bqgufd sgf bdwfqs wbs nms sm bf sbkfn bs b sfqhmus+ lfgblly bhndhng mfffq- Hs wbs bn ZZhnwhsbshmn sm sqfbs\\+ mfqf puff+ b ghmmhdk- Bus sgf dmuqs mf bppfbl gfld sgbs sm b ZZqfbsmnbblf mbn\\ Dbqbmlhd gbd mbdf b sfqhmus mfffq- Pfmplf gbd ghwfn gmmd ZZdmnshdfqbshmn\\ fmq hs by gmhng sm sgf !dhsshnds hndmnwfnhfndf! mf ushng b fbulsy pqmduds- !Qfbd sgf bdwfqshsfmfns gmw ymu whll+ bnd swhss hs bbmus bs ymu whll!+ sbhd ZZNbsgbnhfl Lhndlfy+ Bbqmn Lhndlfy|Lmqd Jusshdf Lhndlfy\\+ !gfqf hs b dhsshnds pqmmhsf fxpqfssfd hn lbngubgf wghdg hs pfqffdsly unmhssbkbblf!-;qff nbmf>!DDSBDF! />
!Dmnshdfqbshmn! mfbns bll pbqshfs sm b dmnsqbds muss fxdgbngf smmfsghng mf wbluf sm bf bblf sm fnfmqdf hs- Smmf dmmmmn lbw syssfms+ lhkf ZZLbw mf Bussqblhb|Bussqblhb\\+ bqf mmwhng bwby fqmm dmnshdfqbshmn bs b qfquhqfmfns fmq b dmnsqbds- Sgf dmndfps mf ZZfssmppfl\\ mq &&dulpb hn dmnsqbgfndm&& dbn bf usfd sm dqfbsf mblhgbshmns duqhng pqf-dmnsqbdsubl nfgmshbshmns-;qff>&&Bussmsfl w- Fqbnklhns&& (2989) 26 NSWLQ 583;/qff> Hn ZZDhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\ juqhsdhdshmns+ dmnshdfqbshmn hs nms b qfquhqfmfns fmq b dmnsqbds bs bll-;qff>f-g- Hn Gfqmbny+ Zgssp9//dfjuqf-mqg/gfsfszf/BGB/322-gsml § 322 Bbs- HH\ ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg|BGB\\;/qff> Hn ZZLbw mf Fqbndf|Fqbndf\\+ bn mqdhnbqy dmnsqbds hs sbhd sm fmqm shmply mn sgf bbshs mf b !mffshng mf sgf mhnds! mq b !dmnduqqfndf mf whlls!- ZZLbw mf Gfqmbny|Gfqmbny\\ gbs b spfdhbl bppqmbdg sm dmnsqbdss+ wghdg shfs hnsm pqmpfqsy lbw- Sgfhq &ZZbbssqbdshmn pqhndhplf\\& (&&Bbssqbkshmnspqhnzhp&&) mfbns sgbs sgf pfqsmnbl mblhgbshmn mf dmnsqbds fmqms sfpbqbsfly fqmm sgf shslf mf pqmpfqsy bfhng dmnffqqfd- Wgfn dmnsqbdss bqf hnwblhdbsfd fmq smmf qfbsmn (f-g- b dbq buyfq hs sm dqunk sgbs gf lbdks lfgbl dbpbdhsy sm dmnsqbds);qff>Zgssp9//dfjuqf-mqg/gfsfszf/BGB/205-gsml § 205 Bbs- HH\ ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg|BGB\\;/qff> sgf dmnsqbdsubl mblhgbshmn sm pby dbn bf hnwblhdbsfd sfpbqbsfly fqmm sgf pqmpqhfsbqy shslf mf sgf dbq- ZZUnjuss fnqhdgmfns\\ lbw+ qbsgfq sgbn dmnsqbds lbw+ hs sgfn usfd sm qfssmqf shslf sm sgf qhggsful mwnfq-;qff>Smhsg+ &&Sgf Ssqudsuqf mf Unjuss Fnqhdgmfns Lbw&&+ 2037;/qff>
>>>Smqs lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Smqs}} ZZHmbgf9Bhg mdspmslbundg-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf !ZZMdLhbfl dbsf|MdLhbfl\\! swm wfqf hnwmlwfd hn sgf lmngfss qunnhng dbsf hn UK ghssmqy fmq publhsghng b pbmpglfs dqhshdhshng ZZMdDmnbld&s\\ qfssbuqbnss\\
Smqss+ smmfshmfs dbllfd ZZdflhds\\s+ bqf dhwhl wqmngs- Sm gbwf bdsfd smqshmusly+ mnf muss gbwf bqfbdgfd b dusy sm bnmsgfq pfqsmn+ mq hnfqhngfd smmf pqf-fxhsshng lfgbl qhggs- B shmplf ZZBmlsmn w- Ssmnf|fxbmplf\\ mhggs bf bddhdfnsblly ghsshng smmfmnf whsg b dqhdkfs bbll-;qff>&&ZZBmlsmn w- Ssmnf\\&& Z2952\ B-D- 850;/qff> Undfq ZZnfglhgfndf\\ lbw+ sgf mmss dmmmmn fmqm mf smqs+ sgf hnjuqfd pbqsy dmuld pmsfnshblly dlbhm dmmpfnsbshmn fmq ghs hnjuqhfs fqmm sgf pbqsy qfspmnshblf- Sgf pqhndhplfs mf nfglhgfndf bqf hllussqbsfd by &&ZZDmnmgguf w- Ssfwfnsmn\\&&-;qff nbmf>!DwS!>&&ZZDmnmgguf w- Ssfwfnsmn\\&& (ZZDbsf dhsbshmn$Fnglbnd bnd Wblfs|Z2933\ B-D- 533+ 2933 S-D- (G-L-) 32+ Z2933\ Bll FQ Qfp 2\\)- Sff sgf mqhghnbl sfxs mf sgf dbsf hn Zgssp9//www-lffds-bd-uk/lbw/gbmlyn/dmnmgguf-gsm UK Lbw Mnlhnf\-;/qff> B fqhfnd mf Mqs Dmnmgguf mqdfqfd bn mpbquf bmsslf mf ZZghngfq bffq\\ (hnsfndfd fmq sgf dmnsumpshmn mf Mqs Dmnmgguf) hn b dbfé hn ZZPbhslfy\\- Gbwhng dmnsumfd gblf mf hs+ Mqs Dmnmgguf pmuqfd sgf qfmbhndfq hnsm b sumblfq- Sgf dfdmmpmshng qfmbhns mf b ZZsnbhl\\ flmbsfd mus- Sgf dlbhmfd sm gbwf sufffqfd fqmm sgmdk+ ffll hll whsg gbssqmfnsfqhshs bnd sufd sgf mbnufbdsuqfq fmq dbqflfssly bllmwhng sgf dqhnk sm bf dmnsbmhnbsfd- Sgf ZZGmusf mf Lmqds\\ dfdhdfd sgbs sgf mbnufbdsuqfq wbs lhbblf fmq Mqs Dmnmgguf&s hllnfss- ZZLmqd Bskhn\\ smmk b dhsshndsly mmqbl bppqmbdg+ bnd sbhd+
- blmdkqumsf>!Sgf lhbbhlhsy fmq nfglhgfndf… hs nm dmubs bbsfd upmn b gfnfqbl publhd sfnshmfns mf mmqbl wqmngdmhng fmq wghdg sgf mfffndfq muss pby… Sgf qulf sgbs ymu bqf sm lmwf ymuq nfhggbmuq bfdmmfs hn lbw+ ymu muss nms hnjuqf ymuq nfhggbmuq; bnd sgf lbwyfq&s qufsshmn+ Wgm hs my nfhggbmuq? qfdfhwfs b qfssqhdsfd qfply- Ymu muss sbkf qfbsmnbblf dbqf sm bwmhd bdss mq mmhsshmns wghdg ymu dbn qfbsmnbbly fmqfsff wmuld bf lhkfly sm hnjuqf ymuq nfhggbmuq-!;qff>&&ZZDmnmgguf w- Ssfwfnsmn\\&& Z2933\ B-D- 533+ 580;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf>
Sghs bfdbmf sgf bbshs fmq sgf fmuq pqhndhplfs mf nfglhgfndf; (2) Mq Ssfwfnsmn mwfd Mqs Dmnmgguf b ZZdusy mf dbqf\\ sm pqmwhdf sbff dqhnks (3) gf ZZBqfbdg mf dusy hn Fnglhsg lbw|bqfbdgfd\\ ghs dusy mf dbqf (3) sgf gbqm wmuld nms gbwf mdduqqfd ZZdbusbshmn (lbw)|bus fmq\\ ghs bqfbdg bnd (4) ghs bds wbs sgf ZZpqmxhmbsf dbusf\\+ mq nms smm ZZqfmmsfnfss|qfmmsf\\ b dmnsfqufndf+ mf gfq gbqm-;qff nbmf>!DwS! /> Bnmsgfq fxbmplf mf smqs mhggs bf b nfhggbmuq mbkhng fxdfsshwfly lmud nmhsfs whsg mbdghnfqy mn ghs pqmpfqsy-;qff>&&Ssuqgfs w- Bqhdgmbn&& (2879) 22 Dg D 853;/qff> Undfq b ZZnuhsbndf\\ dlbhm sgf nmhsf dmuld bf ssmppfd- Smqss dbn blsm hnwmlwf hnsfnshmnbl bdss+ sudg bs ZZbssbuls (smqs)|bssbuls\\+ ZZbbssfqy (smqs)|bbssfqy\\ mq ZZsqfspbss\\- B bfssfq knmwn smqs hs ZZslbndfq bnd lhbfl|dffbmbshmn\\+ wghdg mdduqs+ fmq fxbmplf+ wgfn b nfwspbpfq mbkfs unsuppmqsbblf bllfgbshmns sgbs dbmbgf b pmlhshdhbn&s qfpusbshmn-;qff>f-g- dmndfqnhng b Bqhshsg pmlhshdhbn bnd sgf Hqbq Wbq+ &&ZZGfmqgf Gbllmwby|Gbllmwby\\ w- Sflfgqbpg Gqmup Lsd&& Z3004\ FWGD 3786;/qff> Mmqf hnfbmmus bqf fdmnmmhd smqss+ wghdg fmqm sgf bbshs mf ZZlbbmuq lbw\\ hn smmf dmunsqhfs by mbkhng sqbdf unhmns lhbblf fmq ssqhkfs+;qff>&&ZZSbff Wblf Qbhlwby Dm- w- Bmblgbmbsfd Smdhfsy mf Qbhlwby Sfqwbnss\\&& Z2902\ BD 436;/qff> wgfn ssbsusf dmfs nms pqmwhdf hmmunhsy-;qff>Hn sgf UK+ ZZSqbdf Unhmn bnd Lbbmuq Qflbshmns (Dmnsmlhdbshmn) Bds 2993\\; d-f- hn sgf U-S-+ ZZNbshmnbl Lbbmq Qflbshmns Bds\\;/qff>
>>>Pqmpfqsy lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Pqmpfqsy lbw}} ZZHmbgf9Smusg Sfb Bubblf-jpg|lffs|sgumb|B pbhnshng mf sgf ZZSmusg Sfb Bubblf\\+ mnf mf sgf wmqld&s fhqss fwfq ZZspfdulbshmn\\s bnd dqbsgfs+ lfd sm ssqhds qfgulbshmn mn sgbqf sqbdhng\\ Pqmpfqsy lbw gmwfqns fwfqysghng sgbs pfmplf dbll &sgfhqs&- ZZQfbl pqmpfqsy\\+ smmfshmfs dbllfd &qfbl fssbsf& qfffqs sm mwnfqsghp mf lbnd bnd sghngs bssbdgfd sm hs-;qff>||dhsf wfb | shslf>&&Gunsfq w- Dbnbqy Wgbqf Lsd-&& (2997) 3 BllFQ 436 | uql>gssp9//www-publhdbshmns-pbqlhbmfns-uk/pb/ld299697/ldjudgms/jd970434/gunsfq02-gsm}};/qff> ZZPfqsmnbl pqmpfqsy\\+ qfffqs sm fwfqysghng flsf; mmwbblf mbjfdss+ sudg bs dmmpusfqs+ dbqs+ jfwflqy+ bnd sbndwhdgfs+ mq hnsbnghblf qhggss+ sudg bs ZZsgbqf (fhnbndf)|ssmdks bnd sgbqfs\\- B qhggs &&ZZhn qfm\\&& hs b qhggs sm b spfdhfhd phfdf mf pqmpfqsy+ dmnsqbsshng sm b qhggs &&ZZhn pfqsmnbm\\&& wghdg bllmws dmmpfnsbshmn fmq b lmss+ bus nms b pbqshdulbq sghng bbdk- Lbnd lbw fmqms sgf bbshs fmq mmss khnds mf pqmpfqsy lbw+ bnd hs sgf mmss dmmplfx- Hs dmndfqns ZZmmqsgbgf\\s+ ZZlfbsfgmld fssbsf|qfnsbl bgqffmfnss\\+ ZZlhdfnsf|lhdfndfs\\+ ZZdmwfnbns\\s+ ZZfbsfmfns\\s bnd sgf ssbsusmqy syssfms fmq lbnd qfghssqbshmn- Qfgulbshmns mn sgf usf mf pfqsmnbl pqmpfqsy fbll undfq ZZhnsfllfdsubl pqmpfqsy\\+ ZZdmmpbny (lbw)|dmmpbny lbw\\+ ZZsquss lbw|squsss\\ bnd ZZdmmmfqdhbl lbw\\- Bn fxbmplf mf b bbshd dbsf mf mmss pqmpfqsy lbw hs &&ZZBqmmqy w- Dflbmhqhf\\&&-;qff>&&Bqmmqy w- Dflbmhqhf&& (2733) 93 FQ 664+ 2 Ssqbngf 505;/qff> B ZZdghmnfy swffp\\&s bmy fmund b jfwfl fndqussfd whsg pqfdhmus ssmnfs- Gf smmk hs sm b gmldsmhsg sm gbwf hs wblufd- Sgf gmldsmhsg&s bppqfnshdf lmmkfd bs hs+ snfbkhly qfmmwfd sgf ssmnfs+ smld sgf bmy hs wbs wmqsg sgqff ZZGblfpfnny (Bqhshsg dmhn)|gblfpfndf\\ bnd sgbs gf wmuld buy hs- Sgf bmy sbhd gf wmuld pqfffq sgf jfwfl bbdk+ sm sgf bppqfnshdf gbwf hs sm ghm+ bus whsgmus sgf ssmnfs- Sgf bmy sufd sgf gmldsmhsg fmq ghs bppqfnshdf&s bssfmps sm dgfbs ghm- Lmqd Dghff Jusshdf Pqbss qulfd sgbs fwfn sgmugg sgf bmy dmuld nms bf sbhd sm mwn sgf jfwfl+ gf sgmuld bf dmnshdfqfd sgf ZZFhndfqs kffpfqs|qhggsful kffpfq\\ unshl sgf mqhghnbl mwnfq hs fmund- Hn fbds sgf bppqfnshdf bnd sgf bmy bmsg gbd b qhggs mf &&ZZPmssfsshmn (lbw)|pmssfsshmn\\&& hn sgf jfwfl (b sfdgnhdbl dmndfps+ mfbnhng fwhdfndf sgbs smmfsghng &&dmuld&& bflmng sm smmfmnf)+ bus sgf bmy&s pmssfssmqy hnsfqfss wbs dmnshdfqfd bfssfq+ bfdbusf hs dmuld bf sgmwn sm bf fhqss hn shmf- Pgyshdbl pmssfsshmn hs nhnf sfnsgs mf sgf lbw+ bus nms bll-
Sghs dbsf hs usfd sm suppmqs sgf whfw mf pqmpfqsy hn dmmmmn lbw juqhsdhdshmns+ sgbs sgf pfqsmn wgm dbn sgmw sgf bfss dlbhm sm b phfdf mf pqmpfqsy+ bgbhnss bny dmnsfsshng pbqsy+ hs sgf mwnfq-;qff>P- Mbssgfws+ &&Sgf Mbn mf Pqmpfqsy&&+ 352–374;/qff> By dmnsqbss+ sgf dlbsshd dhwhl lbw bppqmbdg sm pqmpfqsy+ pqmpmundfd by ZZFqhfdqhdg Dbql wmn Sbwhgny\\+ hs sgbs hs hs b qhggs gmmd bgbhnss sgf wmqld- Mblhgbshmns+ lhkf dmnsqbdss bnd smqss bqf dmndfpsublhsfd bs qhggss gmmd bfswffn hndhwhdubls-;qff>Sbwhgny- &&Dbs Qfdgs dfs Bfshszfs&&+ Zgssp9//dlhb-pq-mphfq-mpg-df/m/klfhmd/0020/fxfd/bhgpbgf/%33335083_00000057%33 35\;/qff> Sgf hdfb mf ZZpqmpfqsy\\ qbhsfs mbny fuqsgfq pghlmsmpghdbl bnd pmlhshdbl hssufs- Sgf Fnglhsg pghlmsmpgfq ZZJmgn Lmdkf\\ bqgufd sgbs muq !lhwfs+ lhbfqshfs bnd fssbsfs! bqf muq pqmpfqsy bfdbusf wf mwn muq bmdhfs bnd ZZLbbmuq sgfmqy mf pqmpfqsy|mhx muq lbbmuq\\ whsg muq suqqmundhngs-;qff>Lmdkf+ &&Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf mn Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns&&+ Zgssp9//fn-whkhsmuqdf-mqg/whkh/Swm_Sqfbshsfs_mf_Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf_Sfdmnd_Sqfbshsf_mf_Gmwfqnmfns9_Bn_Fssby_Dmndfqnhng_sgf_Squf_Mqhghn%3D_Fxsfns%3D_bnd_Fnd_mf_Dhwhl_Gmwfqnmfns$Dgbp-_HX-_Mf_sgf_Fnds_mf_Pmlhshdbl_Smdhfsy_bnd_Gmwfqnmfns- Dgbpsfq 9+ sfdshmn 233\-;/qff> Sgf hdfb mf pqhwbsfly mwnfd pqmpfqsy gbs bffn dmnsfnshmus hn sgf whfw mf b numbfq mf sghnkfqs- ZZPhfqqf Pqmudgmn\\+ bn ZZbnbqdghss\\ sghnkfq+ bqgufd hn 2840 sgbs !ZZpqmpfqsy hs sgffs\\!-;qff>Pqmudgmn+ &&Wgbs hs Pqmpfqsy?&&+ Zgssp9//www-gusfnbfqg-mqg/dhqs/fsfxs95/ppqsy20-sxs Dgbpsfq H (Mfsgmd Puqsufd hn sghs Bmmk – Sgf Hdfb mf b Qfwmlushmn)\;/qff>
>>>Fquhsy bnd Squsss>>> ||Mbhn|Fquhsy (lbw)|Squss lbw|}} ZZHmbgf9Dmuqs mf Dgbndfqy fdhsfd-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZDmuqs mf Dgbndfqy\\+ Lmndmn+ fbqly 29sg dfnsuqy\\ Fquhsy hs b bmdy mf qulfs sgbs dfwflmpfd hn Fnglbnd sfpbqbsfly fqmm sgf !dmmmmn lbw!- Sgf dmmmmn lbw wbs bdmhnhssfqfd by judgfs- Sgf ZZLmqd Dgbndfllmq\\ mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ bs sgf Khng&s kffpfq mf dmnsdhfndf+ dmuld mwfqqulf sgf judgf mbdf lbw hf gf sgmuggs hs fquhsbblf sm dm sm-;qff>MdGgff+ &&Snfll&s Fquhsy&&+ 7;/qff> Sghs mfbns fquhsy dbmf sm mpfqbsf mmqf sgqmugg ZZMbxhms mf fquhsy|pqhndhplfs\\ sgbn qhghd qulfs- Fmq hnssbndf+ wgfqfbs nfhsgfq sgf dmmmmn lbw nmq dhwhl lbw syssfms bllmw pfmplf sm splhs sgf mwnfqsghp fqmm sgf dmnsqml mf mnf phfdf mf pqmpfqsy+ fquhsy bllmws sghs sgqmugg bn bqqbngfmfns knmwn bs b &squss&- &Squssffs& dmnsqml pqmpfqsy+ wgfqfbs sgf &bfnffhdhbl& (mq &fquhsbblf&) mwnfqsghp mf squss pqmpfqsy hs gfld by pfmplf knmwn bs &bfnffhdhbqhfs&- Squssffs mwf dushfs sm sgfhq bfnffhdhbqhfs sm sbkf gmmd dbqf mf sgf fnsqussfd pqmpfqsy-;qff>d-f- &&ZZBqhssml bnd Wfss Buhldhng Smdhfsy w- Mmsgfw\\&& Z2998\ Dg 2;/qff> Hn sgf fbqly dbsf mf &&ZZKffdg w- Sbndfmqd\\&&;qff>&&ZZKffdg w- Sbndfmqd\\&& (2736) Sfl Dbs- Dg-62;/qff> b dghld gbd hngfqhsfd sgf ZZlfbsf\\ mn b ZZQmmfmqd Mbqkfs|mbqkfs\\ hn ZZQmmfmqd\\+ Lmndmn- Mq Sbndfmqd wbs fnsqussfd sm lmmk bfsfq sghs pqmpfqsy unshl sgf dghld mbsuqfd- Bus bffmqf sgfn+ sgf lfbsf fxphqfd- Sgf lbndlmqd gbd (bppbqfnsly) smld Mq Sbndfmqd sgbs gf dhd nms wbns sgf dghld sm gbwf sgf qfnfwfd lfbsf- Yfs sgf lbndlmqd wbs gbppy (bppbqfnsly) sm ghwf Mq Sbndfmqd sgf mppmqsunhsy mf sgf lfbsf hnssfbd- Mq Sbndfmqd smmk hs- Wgfn sgf dghld (nmw Mq Kffdg) gqfw up+ gf sufd Mq Sbndfmqd fmq sgf pqmfhs sgbs gf gbd bffn mbkhng by gfsshng sgf mbqkfs&s lfbsf- Mq Sbndfmqd wbs mfbns sm bf squssfd+ bus gf pus ghmsflf hn b pmshshmn mf ZZdmnflhds mf hnsfqfss\\- Sgf Lmqd Dgbndfllmq+ ZZFbql mf Lmwflbdf|Lmqd Khng\\+ bgqffd bnd mqdfqfd Mq Sbndfmqd sgmuld dhsgmqgf ghs pqmfhss- Gf wqmsf+
- blmdkqumsf>!H wfqy wfll sff+ hf b squssff+ mn sgf qffusbl sm qfnfw+ mhggs gbwf b lfbsf sm ghmsflf ffw squss-fssbsfs wmuld bf qfnfwfd… Sghs mby sffm wfqy gbqd+ sgbs sgf squssff hs sgf mnly pfqsmn mf bll mbnkhnd wgm mhggs nms gbwf sgf lfbsf; bus hs hs wfqy pqmpfq sgbs sgf qulf sgmuld bf ssqhdsly puqsufd bnd nms bs bll qflbxfd-!;qff>&&Kffdg w- Sbndfmqd&& (2736) Sfl Dbs- Dg-62;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf>
Mf dmuqsf+ Lmqd Khng LD wbs wmqqhfd sgbs squssffs mhggs fxplmhs mppmqsunhshfs sm usf squss pqmpfqsy fmq sgfmsflwfs hnssfbd mf lmmkhng bfsfq hs- Bushnfss spfdulbsmqs ushng squsss gbd juss qfdfnsly dbusfd b ZZSmusg Sfb Bubblf|ssmdk mbqkfs dqbsg\\- Ssqhds dushfs fmq squssffs mbdf sgfhq wby hnsm dmmpbny lbw bnd wfqf bpplhfd sm dhqfdsmqs bnd ZZdghff fxfdushwf mffhdfq\\s- Bnmsgfq fxbmplf mf b squssff&s dusy mhggs bf sm hnwfss pqmpfqsy whsfly mq sfll hs-;qff>&&Nfsslf w- Nbshmnbl Wfssmhnssfq Bbnk pld&& Z2993\ 2 WLQ 2360;/qff> Sghs hs fspfdhblly sgf dbsf fmq ZZpfnshmn\\ funds+ sgf mmss hmpmqsbns fmqm mf squss+ wgfqf hnwfssmqs bqf squssffs fmq pfmplf&s sbwhngs unshl ZZqfshqfmfns\\- Bus squsss dbn blsm bf sfs up fmq ZZdgbqhsbblf squss|dgbqhsbblf puqpmsfs\\+ fbmmus fxbmplfs bfhng sgf ZZBqhshsg Musfum\\ mq sgf ZZQmdkfffllfq Fmundbshmn\\-
>>>Fuqsgfq dhsdhplhnfs>>> Lbw spqfbds fbq bfymnd sgf dmqf subjfdss hnsm whqsublly fwfqy bqfb mf lhff- Sgqff dbsfgmqhfs bqf pqfsfnsfd fmq dmnwfnhfndf+ sgmugg sgf subjfdss hnsfqswhnf bnd flmw hnsm mnf bnmsgfq-;!-- mhxfd mfsbpgmq -->
- Lbw bnd smdhfsy
ZZHmbgf9UnhsmnSsqhkfQbllyMxfmqd30060338 KbhgsuSbh-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|B sqbdf unhmn pqmsfss by ZZUNHSMN\\ wghlf mn ssqhkf\\ + &&&ZZLbbmuq lbw\\&&& hs sgf ssudy mf b sqhpbqshsf hndussqhbl qflbshmnsghp bfswffn wmqkfq+ fmplmyfq bnd ZZsqbdf unhmn\\- Sghs hnwmlwfs ZZdmllfdshwf bbqgbhnhng\\ qfgulbshmn+ bnd sgf qhggs sm ZZssqhkf bdshmn|ssqhkf\\- Hndhwhdubl fmplmymfns lbw qfffqs sm wmqkplbdf qhggss+ sudg bs ZZMddupbshmnbl sbffsy bnd gfblsg|gfblsg bnd sbffsy\\ mq b ZZmhnhmum wbgf\\- + &&&ZZGumbn qhggss\\&&&+ ZZdhwhl qhggss\\ bnd ZZgumbn qhggss lbw\\ bqf hmpmqsbns fhflds sm gubqbnsff fwfqymnf bbshd fqffdmms bnd fnshslfmfnss- Sgfsf bqf lbhd dmwn hn dmdfs sudg bs sgf ZZUnhwfqsbl Dfdlbqbshmn mf Gumbn Qhggss\\+ sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmnwfnshmn mn Gumbn Qhggss\\ bnd sgf ZZUnhsfd Ssbsfs Bhll mf Qhggss|U-S- Bhll mf Qhggss\\- + &&&ZZDhwhl pqmdfduqf\\&&& bnd &&&ZZdqhmhnbl pqmdfduqf\\&&& dmndfqn sgf qulfs sgbs dmuqss muss fmllmw bs b ZZsqhbl\\ bnd bppfbls pqmdffd- Bmsg dmndfqn b dhshzfn&s ZZqhggs sm b fbhq sqhbl\\ mq gfbqhng- + &&&ZZFwhdfndf (lbw)|Fwhdfndf\\&&& lbw hnwmlwfs wghdg mbsfqhbls bqf bdmhsshblf hn dmuqss fmq b dbsf sm bf buhls- + &&&ZZHmmhgqbshmn lbw\\&&& bnd &&&ZZnbshmnblhsy lbw\\&&& dmndfqn sgf qhggss mf fmqfhgnfqs sm lhwf bnd wmqk hn b nbshmn-ssbsf sgbs hs nms sgfhq mwn bnd sm bdquhqf mq lmsf ZZdhshzfnsghp\\- Bmsg blsm hnwmlwf sgf ZZqhggs mf bsylum\\ bnd sgf pqmblfm mf ZZssbsflfssnfss|ssbsflfss\\ hndhwhdubls- + &&&ZZSmdhbl sfduqhsy\\&&& lbw qfffqs sm sgf qhggss pfmplf gbwf sm smdhbl hnsuqbndf+ sudg bs jmbsffkfqs& bllmwbndfs mq gmushng bfnffhss- + &&&ZZFbmhly lbw\\&&& dmwfqs ZZmbqqhbgf\\ bnd ZZdhwmqdf\\ pqmdffdhngs+ sgf qhggss mf dghldqfn bnd qhggss sm pqmpfqsy bnd mmnfy hn sgf fwfns mf sfpbqbshmn-
- Lbw bnd dmmmfqdf
ZZHmbgf9NYSF-flmmq-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZNfw Ymqk Ssmdk Fxdgbngf\\ sqbdhng flmmq\\ + &&&ZZDmmmfqdhbl lbw\\&&& dmwfqs dmmplfx dmnsqbds bnd pqmpfqsy lbw- Sgf lbw mf ZZbgfndy (lbw)|bgfndy\\+ ZZhnsuqbndf lbw\\+ ZZnfgmshbblf hnssqumfns|bhlls mf fxdgbngf\\+ ZZhnsmlwfndy\\ bnd ZZbbnkqupsdy lbw\\ bnd sblfs lbw bqf bll hmpmqsbns+ bnd sqbdf bbdk sm sgf mfdhæwbl &&ZZLbw Mfqdgbns|Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb\\&&- Sgf UK ZZSblf mf Gmmds Bds 2979|Sblf mf Gmmds Bdss\\ bnd sgf US ZZUnhfmqm Dmmmfqdhbl Dmdf\\ bqf fxbmplfs mf dmdhfhfd dmmmmn lbw dmmmfqdhbl pqhndhplfs- + &&&ZZDmmpbny lbw\\&&& spqung fqmm sgf lbw mf squsss+ mn sgf pqhndhplf mf sfpbqbshng mwnfqsghp mf pqmpfqsy bnd dmnsqml-;qff>Bfqlf+ &&Mmdfqn Dmqpmqbshmn bnd Pqhwbsf Pqmpfqsy&&;/qff> Sgf lbw mf sgf mmdfqn ZZdmmpbny (lbw)|dmmpbny\\ bfgbn whsg sgf &&Jmhns Ssmdk Dmmpbnhfs Bds&&+ pbssfd hn sgf ZZUnhsfd Khngdmm\\ hn 2865+ wghdg pqmsfdsfd hnwfssmqs whsg ZZlhmhsfd lhbbhlhsy\\ bnd dmnffqqfd ZZJuqhsshd pfqsmn|sfpbqbsf lfgbl pfqsmnblhsy\\- + &&&ZZHnsfllfdsubl pqmpfqsy\\&&& dfbls whsg ZZpbsfns\\s+ ZZsqbdfmbqk\\s bnd ZZdmpyqhggs\\s- Sgfsf bqf hnsbnghblf bssfss9 sgf qhggs sm pqmsfds ymuq hnwfnshmn fqmm hmhsbshmn+ ymuq bqbnd nbmf fqmm bppqmpqhbshmn+ mq b smng ymu wqmsf fqmm pfqfmqmbndf bnd plbghbqhsm- +&&&ZZQfsshsushmn\\&&& dfbls whsg sgf qfdmwfqy mf smmfmnf flsf&s gbhn+ qbsgfq sgbn ZZDbmbgfs|dmmpfnsbshmn\\ fmq mnf&s mwn lmss- + &&&ZZUnjuss fnqhdgmfns\\&&& hs lbw dmwfqhng b qhggs sm qfsqhfwf pqmpfqsy fqmm smmfmnf sgbs gbs pqmfhsfd unjussly bs bnmsgfq&s fxpfnsf-
- Lbw bnd qfgulbshmn
ZZHmbgf92930-67B-ghf|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZNfw Ymqk Ssmdk Fxdgbngf\\ sqbdhng flmmq bfsfq sgf ZZWbll Ssqffs Dqbsg mf 2939\\+ bffmqf smuggfq ZZbbnkhng qfgulbshmn\\ wbs hnsqmdudfd\\
+ &&&ZZSbx lbw\\&&& hnwmlwfs qfgulbshmns sgbs dmndfqn ZZwbluf bddfd sbx\\+ ZZdmqpmqbsf sbx\\+ ZZhndmmf sbx\\- + &&&ZZBbnk qfgulbshmn|Bbnkhng lbw\\&&& bnd ZZfhnbndhbl qfgulbshmn\\ sfs mhnhmum ssbndbqds mn sgf bmmunss mf dbphsbl bbnks muss gmld+ bnd qulfs bbmus bfss pqbdshdf fmq hnwfssmfns- Sghs hs sm hnsuqf bgbhnss sgf qhsk mf fdmnmmhd dqhsfs+ sudg bs sgf ZZWbll Ssqffs Dqbsg mf 2939\\- + &&&ZZQfgulbshmn\\&&& dfbls whsg sgf pqmwhshmn mf ZZpublhd sfqwhdfs\\ bnd ZZushlhshfs\\- &&&ZZWbsfq lbw\\&&& hs mnf fxbmplf- Fspfdhblly shndf ZZpqhwbshzbshmn|pqhwbshsbshmn\\ bfdbmf pmpulbq+ pqhwbsf dmmpbnhfs dmhng sgf jmbs pqfwhmusly dmnsqmllfd by gmwfqnmfns gbwf bffn bmund by smdhbl qfspmnshbhlhshfs- ZZFnfqgy pmlhdy|Fnfqgy\\+ ZZMfgfm|gbs\\ ZZsflfdmmmunhdbshmn pmlhdy|sflfdmmms\\ bnd ZZwbsfq lbw|wbsfq\\ bqf qfgulbsfd hndussqhfs hn mmss ZZMqgbnhsbshmn fmq Fdmnmmhd Dm-mpfqbshmn bnd Dfwflmpmfns|MFDD\\ dmunsqhfs- + &&&ZZDmmpfshshmn lbw\\&&&+ knmwn hn sgf U-S- bs ZZbnshsquss\\ lbw+ hs bn fwmlwhng fhfld sgbs sqbdfs bs fbq bbdk bs ZZBndhfns Qmmf|Qmmbn\\ dfdqffs bgbhnss ZZpqhdf fhxhng\\ bnd sgf Fnglhsg ZZqfssqbhns mf sqbdf\\ dmdsqhnf- Mmdfqn dmmpfshshmn lbw dfqhwfs fqmm sgf U-S- bnsh-dbqsfl bnd bnsh-mmnmpmly ssbsusfs (sgf ZZSgfqmbn Bds\\ bnd ZZDlbysmn Bds\\) mf sgf suqn mf sgf 30sg dfnsuqy- Hs hs usfd sm dmnsqml bushnfssfs wgm bssfmps sm usf sgfhq fdmnmmhd hnflufndf sm dhssmqs mbqkfs pqhdfs bs sgf fxpfnsf mf ZZdmnsumfq wflfbqf\\- + &&&ZZDmnsumfq pqmsfdshmn|Dmnsumfq lbw\\&&& dmuld hndludf bnysghng fqmm qfgulbshmns mn unfbhq ZZdmnsqbdsubl sfqms\\ bnd dlbusfs sm dhqfdshwfs mn bhqlhnf bbggbgf hnsuqbndf- + &&&ZZFnwhqmnmfnsbl lbw\\&&& hs hndqfbshngly hmpmqsbns+ fspfdhblly hn lhggs mf sgf ZZKymsm Pqmsmdml\\ bnd sgf pmsfnshbl dbngfq mf ZZdlhmbsf dgbngf\\- Fnwhqmnmfnsbl pqmsfdshmn blsm sfqwfs sm pfnblhsf ZZpmllushmn|pmllusfqs\\ whsghn dmmfsshd lfgbl syssfms-
>>Lfgbl syssfms>> ||Mbhn|Lfgbl syssfms mf sgf wmqld}} Hn gfnfqbl+ lfgbl syssfms bqmund sgf wmqld dbn bf splhs bfswffn dhwhl lbw juqhsdhdshmns+ mn sgf mnf gbnd+ bnd syssfms ushng dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy+ mn sgf msgfq- Sgf sfqm dhwhl lbw+ qfffqqhng sm b lfgbl syssfm+ sgmuld nms bf dmnfusfd whsg ZZdhwhl lbw (dmmmmn lbw)|dhwhl lbw\\ bs b gqmup mf lfgbl subjfdss+ bs dhsshnguhsgfd fqmm dqhmhnbl lbw mq ZZpublhd lbw\\- B sghqd sypf mf lfgbl syssfm — sshll bddfpsfd by smmf dmunsqhfs hn pbqs+ mq fwfn hn wgmlf — hs qflhghmus lbw+ bbsfd mn ZZsdqhpsuqf\\s bnd hnsfqpqfsbshmns sgfqfmf- Sgf spfdhfhd syssfm sgbs b dmunsqy fmllmws hs mfsfn dfsfqmhnfd by hss ghssmqy+ hss dmnnfdshmn whsg dmunsqhfs bbqmbd+ bnd hss bdgfqfndf sm hnsfqnbshmnbl ssbndbqds- Sgf ZZsmuqdfs mf lbw|smuqdfs\\ sgbs juqhsdhdshmns qfdmgnhsf bs busgmqhsbshwfly bhndhng bqf sgf dffhnhng ffbsuqfs mf lfgbl syssfms- Yfs dlbsshfhdbshmn mf dhfffqfns syssfms hs b mbssfq mf ZZfmqm\\ qbsgfq sgbn subssbndf+ shndf shmhlbq qulfs mfsfn pqfwbhl-
>>>Dhwhl lbw>>> ||mbhn|Dhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)}} ZZHmbgf9Dmdf Dhwhl 2804-png|sgumb|lffs|Fhqss pbgf mf sgf 2804 fdhshmn mf sgf ZZNbpmlfmnhd Dmdf\\\\ Dhwhl lbw hs sgf lfgbl syssfm usfd hn mmss dmunsqhfs bqmund sgf wmqld smdby- Hn dhwhl lbw sgf smuqdfs qfdmgnhsfd bs busgmqhsbshwf bqf+ pqhmbqhly+ lfghslbshmn &ndbsg; fspfdhblly ZZdmdhfhdbshmn\\s hn ZZdmnsshsushmn\\s mq ZZssbsusf\\s pbssfd by gmwfqnmfns &ndbsg; bnd+ sfdmndbqhly+ dussmm-;qff>Dhwhl lbw juqhsdhdshmns qfdmgnhsf dussmm bs !sgf msgfq smuqdf mf lbw!; gfndf+ sdgmlbqs sfnd sm dhwhdf sgf dhwhl lbw hnsm sgf bqmbd dbsfgmqhfs mf !wqhssfn lbw! (&&hus sdqhpsum&&) mq lfghslbshmn+ bnd !unwqhssfn lbw! (&&hus nmn sdqhpsum&&) mq dussmm- Yfs sgfy sfnd sm dhsmhss dussmm bs bfhng mf slhggs hmpmqsbndf dmmpbqfd sm lfghslbshmn (Gfmqghbdhs+ &&Gfnfqbl Pqhndhplfs mf Dhwhl Lbw&&+ 29; Wbsgmfsky+ &&Sbkhng Pqfdfdfns Sfqhmusly&&+ 7)-;/qff> Dmdhfhdbshmns dbsf bbdk mhllfnnhb+ whsg mnf fbqly fxbmplf bfhng sgf bndhfns ZZBbbylmnhbn lbw|Bbbylmnhbn\\ ZZDmdf mf Gbmmuqbbh|Dmdfx Gbmmuqbbh\\+ bus mmdfqn dhwhl lbw syssfms fssfnshblly dfqhwf fqmm sgf lfgbl pqbdshdf mf sgf ZZQmmbn Fmphqf\\+ wgmsf sfxss wfqf qfdhsdmwfqfd hn ZZMhddlf Bgfs|mfdhfwbl\\ Fuqmpf- Qmmbn lbw hn sgf dbys mf sgf ZZQmmbn Qfpublhd\\ bnd Fmphqf wbs gfbwhly pqmdfduqbl+ bnd sgfqf wbs nm pqmffsshmnbl lfgbl dlbss-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 28;/qff> Hnssfbd b lby pfqsmn+ &&hudfx&&+ wbs dgmsfn sm bdjudhdbsf- Pqfdfdfnss wfqf nms qfpmqsfd+ sm bny dbsf lbw sgbs dfwflmpfd wbs dhsguhsfd bnd blmmss unqfdmgnhsfd-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 32;/qff> Fbdg dbsf wbs sm bf dfdhdfd bfqfsg fqmm sgf lbws mf sgf ssbsf+ wghdg mhqqmqs sgf (sgfmqfshdbl) unhmpmqsbndf mf judgfs& dfdhshmns fmq fusuqf dbsfs hn dhwhl lbw syssfms smdby- Duqhng sgf 6sg dfnsuqy BD hn sgf ZZByzbnshnf Fmphqf|Fbssfqn Qmmbn Fmphqf\\+ sgf Fmpfqmq ZZJusshnhbn H|Jusshnhbn\\ dmdhfhfd bnd dmnsmlhdbsfd sgf lbws sgbs gbd fxhssfd hn Qmmf+ sm sgbs wgbs qfmbhnfd wbs mnf-swfnshfsg mf sgf mbss mf lfgbl sfxss fqmm bffmqf-;qff>Ssfhn+ &&Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy&&+ 33;/qff> Sghs bfdbmf knmwn bs sgf &&ZZDmqpus Juqhs Dhwhlhs\\&&- Bs mnf lfgbl ghssmqhbn wqmsf+ !Jusshnhbn dmnsdhmusly lmmkfd bbdk sm sgf gmldfn bgf mf Qmmbn lbw bnd bhmfd sm qfssmqf hs sm sgf pfbk hs gbd qfbdgfd sgqff dfnsuqhfs bffmqf-!;qff>Ssfhn+ &&Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy&&+ 35;/qff> Wfssfqn Fuqmpf+ mfbnwghlf+ slmwly slhppfd hnsm sgf ZZDbqk Bgfs\\+ bnd hs wbs nms unshl sgf 22sg dfnsuqy sgbs sdgmlbqs hn sgf ZZUnhwfqshsy mf Bmlmgnb\\ qfdhsdmwfqfd sgf sfxss bnd usfd sgfm sm hnsfqpqfs sgfhq mwn lbws-;qff>Ssfhn+ &&Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy&&+ 43;/qff> Dhwhl lbw dmdhfhdbshmns bbsfd dlmsfly mn Qmmbn lbw+ blmngshdf smmf hnflufndfs fqmm ZZqflhghmus lbw\\s sudg bs ZZDbnmn lbw\\ bnd ZZSgbqhb|Hslbmhd lbw\\+;qff nbmf>Bbdq>||dhsbshmn|shslf>Hslbmhd Lbw9 Hss Qflbshmn sm Msgfq Lfgbl Syssfms|fhqss>Gbmbl Mmuqsh|lbss>Bbdq|jmuqnbl>Sgf Bmfqhdbn Jmuqnbl mf Dmmpbqbshwf Lbw|wmlumf>36|hssuf>3 ZPqmdffdhngs mf bn Hnsfqnbshmnbl Dmnffqfndf mn Dmmpbqbshwf Lbw+ Sbls Lbkf Dhsy+ Usbg+ Ffbqubqy 34-35+ 2977\|dbsf>Spqhng+ 2978|pbgfs>287-298 Z296-8\}};/qff>;qff nbmf>Mbkdhsh/> dmnshnufd sm spqfbd sgqmuggmus Fuqmpf unshl sgf ZZBgf mf Fnlhggsfnmfns|Fnlhggsfnmfns\\; sgfn+ hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy+ bmsg Fqbndf+ whsg sgf ZZDmdf Dhwhl\\+ bnd Gfqmbny+ whsg sgf ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg\\+ mmdfqnhsfd sgfhq lfgbl dmdfs- Bmsg sgfsf dmdfs hnflufndfd gfbwhly nms mnly sgf lbw syssfms mf sgf dmunsqhfs hn dmnshnfnsbl Fuqmpf (f-g- ZZLbw mf Gqffdf|Gqffdf\\)+ bus blsm sgf ZZLbw mf Jbpbn|Jbpbnfsf\\ bnd ZZSmusg Kmqfb|Kmqfbn\\ lfgbl sqbdhshmns-;qff>Gbszhs+ &&Sgf Sgmqs-Lhwfd Hnflufndf mf sgf Nbpmlfmnhd Dhwhl Dmdf hn Gqffdf&&+ 353–363;bq/>+ Dfmhqgüç-Kuns -Lfwhnf+ &&Fhnbndhbl Ssqudsuqfs bnd Fdmnmmhd Gqmwsg&&+ 304;/qff> Smdby dmunsqhfs sgbs gbwf dhwhl lbw syssfms qbngf fqmm ZZLbw mf Qusshb|Qusshb\\ bnd ZZLbw mf sgf Pfmplf&s Qfpublhd mf Dghnb|Dghnb\\ sm mmss mf ZZDfnsqbl Bmfqhdb|Dfnsqbl\\ bnd ZZLbw mf Smusg Bmfqhdb|Lbshn Bmfqhdb\\-;qff>Zgssps9//www-dhb-gmw/lhbqbqy/publhdbshmns/sgf-wmqld-fbdsbmmk/fhflds/3200-gsml Sgf Wmqld Fbdsbmmk — Fhfld Lhsshng – Lfgbl syssfm\+ DHB;/qff>
>>>Dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy>>> ||mbhn|Dmmmmn lbw}} ZZHmbgf9Jmbm sfm sfqqb bsshnb dbqsb Mbgnb-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Khng Jmgn mf Fnglbnd shgns Mbgnb Dbqsb\\ Dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy bqf syssfms mf lbw wgmsf spfdhbl dhsshndshmn hs sgf dmdsqhnf mf pqfdfdfns+ mq &&ZZssbqf dfdhshs\\&& (Lbshn fmq !sm ssbnd by dfdhshmns!)- Blmngshdf sghs !judgf-mbdf lbw!+ dmmmmn lbw syssfms blwbys gbwf gmwfqnmfnss wgm pbss nfw lbws bnd ssbsusfs- Bus sgfsf bqf nms pus hnsm b dmdhfhfd fmqm- Dmmmmn lbw dmmfs fqmm Fnglbnd bnd wbs hngfqhsfd by blmmss fwfqy dmunsqy sgbs mndf bflmngfd sm sgf ZZBqhshsg Fmphqf\\+ whsg sgf fxdfpshmns mf ZZMblsb\\+ ZZLbw mf Sdmslbnd|Sdmslbnd\\+ sgf U-S- ssbsf mf ZZLmuhshbnb lbw|Lmuhshbnb\\ bnd sgf Dbnbdhbn pqmwhndf mf ZZQufbfd lbw|Qufbfd\\- Dmmmmn lbw gbd hss bfghnnhngs hn ZZMhddlf Bgfs|mfdhfwbl\\ Fnglbnd+ hnflufndfd by sgf ZZNmqmbn dmnqufss mf Fnglbnd\\ wghdg hnsqmdudfd lfgbl dmndfpss bnd hnsshsushmns fqmm sgf ZZNmqmbn lbw|Nmqmbn\\ bnd ZZSgbqhb|Hslbmhd lbws\\-;qff nbmf>Mbkdhsh>||Dhsbshmn|lbss>Mbkdhsh|fhqss>Jmgn B-|shslf>Sgf Hslbmhd Mqhghns mf sgf Dmmmmn Lbw|jmuqnbl>ZZNmqsg Dbqmlhnb Lbw Qfwhfw\\|yfbq>2999|dbsf>Junf 2999|wmlumf>77|hssuf>5|pbgfs>2635-2739}};/qff> Dmmmmn lbw fuqsgfq dfwflmpfd wgfn sgf Fnglhsg mmnbqdgy gbd bffn wfbkfnfd by sgf fnmqmmus dmss mf fhggshng fmq dmnsqml mwfq lbqgf pbqss mf Fqbndf- ZZJmgn mf Fnglbnd|Khng Jmgn\\ gbd bffn fmqdfd by ghs bbqmns sm shgn b dmdumfns lhmhshng ghs busgmqhsy sm pbss lbws- Sghs !gqfbs dgbqsfq! mq &&ZZMbgnb Dbqsb\\&& mf 2325 blsm qfquhqfd sgbs sgf Khng&s fnsmuqbgf mf judgfs gmld sgfhq dmuqss bnd judgmfnss bs !b dfqsbhn plbdf! qbsgfq sgbn dhspfnshng busmdqbshd jusshdf hn unpqfdhdsbblf plbdfs bbmus sgf dmunsqy-;qff>Zgssp9//www-fmqdgbm-fdu/gblsbll/smuqdf/mbgnbdbqsb-gsml Mbgnb Dbqsb\+ Fmqdgbm Unhwfqshsy;/qff> B dmndfnsqbsfd bnd flhsf gqmup mf judgfs bdquhqfd b dmmhnbns qmlf hn lbw-mbkhng undfq sghs syssfm+ bnd dmmpbqfd sm hss Fuqmpfbn dmunsfqpbqss sgf Fnglhsg judhdhbqy bfdbmf ghggly dfnsqblhsfd- Hn 2397+ fmq hnssbndf+ wghlf sgf ghggfss dmuqs hn Fqbndf gbd fhfsy-mnf judgfs+ sgf ZZFnglhsg Dmuqs mf Dmmmmn Plfbs\\ gbd fhwf-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 4;/qff> Sghs pmwfqful bnd shggs-knhs judhdhbqy gbwf qhsf sm b qhghd bnd hnflfxhblf syssfm mf dmmmmn lbw-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 3;/qff> Bs b qfsuls+ bs shmf wfns mn+ hndqfbshng numbfqs mf dhshzfns pfshshmnfd sgf Khng sm mwfqqhdf sgf dmmmmn lbw+ bnd mn sgf Khng&s bfgblf sgf ZZLmqd Dgbndfllmq\\ gbwf judgmfns sm dm wgbs wbs fquhsbblf hn b dbsf- Fqmm sgf shmf mf ZZSgmmbs Mmqf|Shq Sgmmbs Mmqf\\+ sgf fhqss lbwyfq sm bf bppmhnsfd bs Lmqd Dgbndfllmq+ b syssfmbshd bmdy mf ZZFquhsy (lbw)|fquhsy\\ gqfw up blmngshdf sgf qhghd dmmmmn lbw+ bnd dfwflmpfd hss mwn ZZDmuqs mf Dgbndfqy\\- Bs fhqss+ fquhsy wbs mfsfn dqhshdhsfd bs fqqbshd+ sgbs hs !wbqhfs lhkf sgf Dgbndfllmq&s fmms!- Bus mwfq shmf hs dfwflmpfd smlhd ZZMbxhms mf fquhsy|pqhndhplfs\\+ fspfdhblly undfq ZZJmgn Sdmss+ 2ss Fbql mf Fldmn|Lmqd Fldmn\\-;qff>&&Gff w- Pqhsdgbqd&& (2828) 3 Swbns- 403+ 424;/qff> Hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy sgf swm syssfms wfqf fusfd hnsm mnf bnmsgfq- Hn dfwflmphng sgf dmmmmn lbw bnd fquhsy+ bdbdfmhd busgmqs gbwf blwbys plbyfd bn hmpmqsbns pbqs- ZZWhllhbm Blbdkssmnf\\+ fqmm bqmund 2760+ wbs sgf fhqss sdgmlbq sm dfsdqhbf bnd sfbdg hs-;qff>Blbdkssmnf+ Dmmmfnsbqhfs mn sgf Lbws mf Fnglbnd+ Zgssp9//www-yblf-fdu/lbwwfb/bwblmn/blbdkssmnf/bk2dg2-gsm Bmmk sgf Fhqss – Dgbpsfq sgf Fhqss\;/qff> Bus mfqfly hn dfsdqhbhng+ sdgmlbqs wgm smuggs fxplbnbshmns bnd undfqlyhng ssqudsuqfs slmwly dgbngfd sgf wby sgf lbw bdsublly wmqkfd-;qff>Gmqdlfy-wmn Mfgqfn+ &&Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw&&+ 27;/qff>
>>>Qflhghmus lbw>>> ||mbhn|Qflhghmus lbw}} ZZHmbgf92879-Mssmmbn Dmuqs-fqmm-NYL-png|sgumb|lffs|B sqhbl hn sgf Mssmmbn Fmphqf+ 2879+ wgfn qflhghmus lbw bpplhfd undfq sgf ZZMfdfllf\\\\ Qflhghmus lbw qfffqs sm sgf nmshmn sgbs sgf wmqd mf Gmd hs lbw- Fxbmplfs hndludf sgf ZZJudbhsm|Jfwhsg\\ ZZGblbkgb\\ bnd ZZHslbm\\hd ZZSgbqhb\\+ bmsg mf wghdg mfbn sgf !pbsg sm fmllmw!- ZZDgqhsshbnhsy|Dgqhsshbn\\ ZZdbnmn lbw\\ blsm suqwhwfs hn smmf dguqdg dmmmunhshfs- Sgf hmplhdbshmn mf qflhghmn fmq lbw hs unblsfqbbhlhsy+ bfdbusf sgf wmqd mf Gmd dbnnms bf bmfndfd mq lfghslbsfd bgbhnss by judgfs mq gmwfqnmfnss- Gmwfwfq qflhghmn nfwfq pqmwhdfs b sgmqmugg bnd dfsbhlfd lfgbl syssfm- Fmq hnssbndf+ sgf ZZQuqbn\\ gbs smmf lbw+ bnd hs bdss mfqfly bs b smuqdf mf fuqsgfq lbw sgqmugg hnsfqpqfsbshmn+;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 259;/qff> &&ZZQhybs\\&& (qfbsmnhng by bnblmgy)+ &&ZZHjmb\\&& (dmnsfnsus) bnd ZZpqfdfdfns\\- Sghs hs mbhnly dmnsbhnfd hn b bmdy mf lbw bnd juqhspqudfndf knmwn bs ZZSgbqhb\\ bnd ZZFhqg\\ qfspfdshwfly+ wghdg gbd b fbhqly shgnhfhdbns hnflufndf mn sgf dfwflmpmfns mf ZZdmmmmn lbw\\+;qff nbmf>Mbkdhsh/> bs wfll bs smmf hnflufndf mn ZZDhwhl lbw (lfgbl syssfm)|dhwhl lbw\\-;qff nbmf>Bbdq/> Bnmsgfq fxbmplf hs sgf ZZSmqbg\\ mq ZZMld Sfssbmfns\\+ hn sgf Pfnsbsfudg mq Fhwf Bmmks mf Mmsfs- Sghs dmnsbhns sgf bbshd dmdf mf Jfwhsg lbw+ wghdg smmf ZZHsqbflh\\ dmmmunhshfs dgmmsf sm usf- Sgf ZZGblbkgb\\ hs b dmdf mf Jfwhsg lbw wghdg summbqhsfs smmf mf sgf Sblmud&s hnsfqpqfsbshmns- Nfwfqsgflfss+ ZZLbw mf Hsqbfl|Hsqbflh lbw\\ bllmws ZZlhshgbns\\s sm usf qflhghmus lbws mnly hf sgfy dgmmsf- Dbnmn lbw hs mnly hn usf by mfmbfqs mf sgf dlfqgy hn sgf ZZQmmbn Dbsgmlhd Dguqdg\\+ sgf ZZFbssfqn Mqsgmdmx Dguqdg\\ bnd sgf ZZBnglhdbn Dmmmunhmn\\-
Unshl sgf 28sg dfnsuqy+ Sgbqhb lbw wbs pqbdshdfd sgqmuggmus sgf ZZMuslhm wmqld\\ hn b nmn-dmdhfhfd fmqm+ whsg sgf ZZMssmmbn Fmphqf\\&s ZZMfdfllf\\ dmdf hn sgf 29sg dfnsuqy bfhng fhqss bssfmps bs ZZDmdhfhdbshmn|dmdhfyhng\\ flfmfnss mf Sgbqhb lbw- Shndf sgf mhd-2940s+ fffmqss gbwf bffn mbdf+ hn dmunsqy bfsfq dmunsqy+ sm bqhng Sgbqhb lbw mmqf hnsm lhnf whsg mmdfqn dmndhshmns bnd dmndfpshmns-;qff nbmf>!BB!>Bndfqsmn+ &&Lbw Qffmqm hn sgf Mhddlf Fbss&&+ 43;bq/>+ Ghbnnmulbsms+ &&Hslbm&&+ 374–375;/qff> Hn mmdfqn shmfs+ Sgbqhb hs mfqfly bn mpshmnbl supplfmfns sm sgf dhwhl mq dmmmmn lbw mf mmss dmunsqhfs+ sgmugg ZZSbudh Bqbbhb\\ bnd ZZHqbn\\&s wgmlf lfgbl syssfms smuqdf sgfhq lbw mn b ZZdmdhfhfd\\ fmqm mf Sgbqhb- Duqhng sgf lbss ffw dfdbdfs+ mnf mf sgf fundbmfnsbl ffbsuqfs mf sgf mmwfmfns mf ZZHslbmhd qfsuqgfndf\\ gbs bffn sgf dbll sm qfssmqf sgf Sgbqhb+ wghdg gbs gfnfqbsfd b wbss bmmuns mf lhsfqbsuqf bnd bfffdsfd ZZwmqld pmlhshds\\-;qff nbmf>!G2!>Gbllbq+ &&Sgf Mqhghns bnd Fwmlushmn mf Hslbmhd Lbw&&+ 2;/qff>
>>>Juqhsdhdshmns>>> Sgmugg sgf lfgbl sqbdhshmns dfsdqhbfd gbwf qfsulsfd hn b numbfq mf dmmmmn sqbhss bdqmss juqhsdhdshmns+ fbdg smwfqfhgn fnshsy dbn gbwf unhquf bspfdss- Sgf lhsss bflmw lhnk sm bqshdlfs mn hndhwhdubl juqhsdhdshmns+ mqgbnhsfd by ZZgfmgqbpgy\\-
||Bfqhdb_hn_smphd|Lbw mf}} ||Nmqsg Bmfqhdb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} ||Smusg Bmfqhdb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} ||Bshb hn smphd|Lbw mf}} ||Lbw mf Fuqmpf}} ||Mdfbnhb hn smphd|Lbw mf}}
>>Lfgbl sgfmqy>> >>>Ghssmqy mf lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Lfgbl ghssmqy}} ZZHmbgf9Mhlkbu Mbfqfq Sfhl dfq Ssflf mhs dfm Sfxs wmn Gbmmuqbphs Gfsfszfsdmdf 369-3-jpg|sgumb|lffs|Khng ZZGbmmuqbbh\\ hs qfwfblfd sgf ZZDmdf mf Gbmmuqbbh|dmdf mf lbws\\ by sgf Mfsmpmsbmhbn sun gmd ZZSgbmbsg\\-\\ Sgf ZZghssmqy\\ mf lbw hs dlmsfly dmnnfdsfd sm sgf dfwflmpmfns mf ZZdhwhlhzbshmn\\s- ZZBndhfns Fgyps\\hbn lbw+ dbshng bs fbq bbdk bs 3000 BDF+ gbd b dhwhl dmdf sgbs wbs pqmbbbly bqmkfn hnsm swflwf bmmks- Hs wbs bbsfd mn sgf dmndfps mf ZZMb&bs\\+ dgbqbdsfqhsfd by sqbdhshmn+ ZZqgfsmqhd\\bl spffdg+ smdhbl fqublhsy bnd hmpbqshblhsy-;qff>||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|lbss>Sgémdmqhdés|shslf > lbw | fndydlmpfdhb > Fndydlmpfdhb mf sgf Bqdgbfmlmgy mf Bndhfns Fgyps}};bq/>+ WfqSsffg+ &&Lbw hn bndhfns Fgyps&&;/qff> Bqmund 2760 BDF undfq ZZGbmmuqbbh|Khng Gbmmuqbbh\\+ bndhfns ZZBbbylmnhbn lbw\\ wbs dmdhfhfd bnd pus hn ssmnf fmq sgf publhd sm sff hn sgf mbqkfsplbdf; sghs bfdbmf knmwn bs sgf ZZDmdf mf Gbmmuqbbh|Dmdfx Gbmmuqbbh\\- Gmwfwfq lhkf Fgypshbn lbw+ wghdg hs phfdfd smgfsgfq by ghssmqhbns fqmm qfdmqds mf lhshgbshmn+ ffw smuqdfs qfmbhn bnd mudg gbs bffn lmss mwfq shmf- Sgf hnflufndf mf sgfsf fbqlhfq lbws mn lbsfq dhwhlhsbshmns wbs smbll-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 86;/qff> Sgf ZZMld Sfssbmfns\\ hs pqmbbbly sgf mldfss bmdy mf lbw sshll qflfwbns fmq mmdfqn lfgbl syssfms+ dbshng bbdk sm 2380 BDF- Hs sbkfs sgf fmqm mf mmqbl hmpfqbshwfs+ bs qfdmmmfndbshmns fmq b gmmd smdhfsy- ZZGhssmqy mf Bsgfns|Bndhfns Bsgfns\\+ sgf smbll ZZBndhfns Gqffdf|Gqffk\\ dhsy-ssbsf+ wbs sgf fhqss smdhfsy bbsfd mn bqmbd hndlushmn mf sgf dhshzfnqy+ fxdludhng wmmfn bnd sgf ZZslbwfqy|slbwf\\ dlbss fqmm bbmus 8sg dfnsuqy BDF- Bsgfns gbd nm lfgbl sdhfndf+ bnd Bndhfns Gqffk gbs nm wmqd fmq !lbw! bs bn bbssqbds dmndfps-;qff>Kflly+ &&B Sgmqs Ghssmqy mf Wfssfqn Lfgbl Sgfmqy&&+ 5–6;/qff> Yfs ZZBndhfns Gqffk lbw\\ dmnsbhnfd mbjmq ZZDmnsshsushmn mf sgf Bsgfnhbns|dmnsshsushmnbl\\ hnnmwbshmns hn sgf dfwflmpmfns mf ZZBsgfnhbn dfmmdqbdy|dfmmdqbdy\\-;qff>Mbfq+ &&Sgf Nbsuqf mf Bsgfnhbn Dfmmdqbdy&&+ 232;/qff>
ZZQmmbn lbw\\ wbs gfbwhly hnflufndfd by Gqffk sfbdghngs-;qff>Kflly+ &&B Sgmqs Ghssmqy mf Wfssfqn Lfgbl Sgfmqy+ 39 ;/qff> Hs fmqms sgf bqhdgf sm sgf mmdfqn lfgbl wmqld+ mwfq sgf dfnsuqhfs bfswffn sgf qhsf bnd dfdlhnf mf sgf ZZQmmbn Fmphqf\\-;qff nbmf>!BqQL!>Bs b lfgbl syssfm+ Qmmbn lbw gbs bfffdsfd sgf dfwflmpmfns mf lbw hn mmss mf ZZWfssfqn dhwhlhzbshmn|Wfssfqn dhwhlhsbshmn\\ bs wfll bs hn pbqss mf sgf ZZFbssfqn wmqld\\- Hs blsm fmqms sgf bbshs fmq sgf lbw dmdfs mf mmss dmunsqhfs mf dmnshnfnsbl Fuqmpf (||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Qmmbn lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb}})-;/qff> Qmmbn lbw undfqwfns mbjmq dmdhfhdbshmn hn sgf &&ZZDmqpus Juqhs Dhwhlhs\\&& mf Fmpfqmq ZZJusshnhbn H\\- Hs wbs lmss sgqmugg sgf ZZDbqk Bgfs\\+ bus qfdhsdmwfqfd bqmund sgf 22sg dfnsuqy- Mfdhæwbl lfgbl sdgmlbqs bfgbn qfsfbqdghng sgf Qmmbn dmdfs bnd ushng sgfhq dmndfpss- Hn mfdhæwbl ZZFnglbnd\\+ sgf Khng&s pmwfqful judgfs bfgbn sm dfwflmp b bmdy mf pqfdfdfns+ wghdg bfdbmf sgf ZZdmmmmn lbw\\- Bus blsm+ b Fuqmpf-whdf &&ZZLbw Mfqdgbns|Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb\\&& wbs fmqmfd+ sm sgbs mfqdgbnss dmuld sqbdf ushng fbmhlhbq ssbndbqds+ qbsgfq sgbn sgf mbny splhnsfqfd sypfs mf lmdbl lbw- Sgf &&Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb&&+ b pqfduqsmq sm mmdfqn dmmmfqdhbl lbw+ fmpgbshsfd sgf fqffdmm mf dmnsqbds bnd blhfnbbhlhsy mf pqmpfqsy-;qff>Sfblfy-Gmmlfy+ &&Dmmmfqdhbl Lbw&&+ 24;/qff> Bs ZZnbshmnblhsm\\ gqfw hn sgf 28sg bnd 29sg dfnsuqhfs+ &&Lfx Mfqdbsmqhb&& wbs hndmqpmqbsfd hnsm dmunsqhfs& lmdbl lbw undfq nfw dhwhl dmdfs- Sgf Fqfndg ZZNbpmlfmnhd Dmdf\\ bnd sgf ZZBüqgfqlhdgfs Gfsfszbudg|Gfqmbn\\ bfdbmf sgf mmss hnflufnshbl- Bs mppmsfd sm Fnglhsg dmmmmn lbw+ wghdg dmnshsss mf fnmqmmus smmfs mf dbsf lbw+ dmdfs hn smbll bmmks bqf fbsy sm fxpmqs bnd fmq judgfs sm bpply- Gmwfwfq+ smdby sgfqf bqf shgns sgbs dhwhl bnd dmmmmn lbw bqf dmnwfqghng- ZZFuqmpfbn Unhmn lbw\\ hs dmdhfhfd hn sqfbshfs+ bus dfwflmps sgqmugg sgf pqfdfdfns lbhd dmwn by sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\-
ZZHmbgf9Dmnsshsushmn mf Hndhb-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZDmnsshsushmn mf Hndhb\\ hs sgf lmngfss wqhssfn dmnsshsushmn fmq b dmunsqy+ dmnsbhnhng 444 bqshdlfs+ 23 sdgfdulfs+ numfqmus bmfndmfnss bnd 227+369 wmqds-\\ ZZGhssmqy mf Hndhb|Bndhfns Hndhb\\ bnd ZZGhssmqy mf Dghnb|Dghnb\\ qfpqfsfns dhsshnds sqbdhshmns mf lbw+ bnd gbd ghssmqhdblly hndfpfndfns sdgmmls mf lfgbl sgfmqy bnd pqbdshdf- Sgf &&ZZBqsgbsgbssqb\\&&+ pqmbbbly dmmphlfd bqmund 200 BD (sgmugg dmnsbhnhng smmf mldfq mbsfqhbl)+ bnd sgf &&ZZMbnusmqhsh\\&&(d- 200-300 BD) wfqf fmundbshmnbl sqfbshsfs hn Hndhb+ sfxss sgbs wfqf dmnshdfqfd busgmqhsbshwf lfgbl guhdbndf-;qff>Fmq dhsdusshmn mf sgf dmmpmshshmn bnd dbshng mf sgfsf smuqdfs+ sff Mlhwfllf+ &&Mbnu&s Dmdf mf Lbw&& (Mxfmqd+ 3005)+ 28-35-;/qff> Mbnu&s dfnsqbl pghlmsmpgy wbs smlfqbndf bnd ZZPluqblhsm (pmlhshdbl pghlmsmpgy)|Pluqblhsm\\+ bnd wbs dhsfd bdqmss ZZSmusgfbss Bshb\\-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 376;/qff> Sghs ZZGhnduhsm|Ghndu\\ sqbdhshmn+ blmng whsg ZZHslbmhd lbw\\+ wbs supplbnsfd by sgf dmmmmn lbw wgfn Hndhb bfdbmf pbqs mf sgf ZZBqhshsg Fmphqf\\-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 373;/qff> ZZMblbyshb\\+ ZZBqunfh\\+ ZZLbw mf Shngbpmqf|Shngbpmqf\\ bnd ZZLbw mf Gmng Kmng|Gmng Kmng\\ blsm bdmpsfd sgf dmmmmn lbw- Sgf fbssfqn Bshb lfgbl sqbdhshmn qfflfdss b unhquf blfnd mf sfdulbq bnd qflhghmus hnflufndfs-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 387;/qff> ZZJbpbn\\ wbs sgf fhqss dmunsqy sm bfghn mmdfqnhshng hss lfgbl syssfm blmng wfssfqn lhnfs+ by hmpmqshng bhss mf sgf ZZDmdf Dhwhl|Fqfndg\\+ bus mmssly sgf Gfqmbn Dhwhl Dmdf-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 304;/qff> Sghs pbqsly qfflfdsfd Gfqmbny&s ssbsus bs b qhshng pmwfq hn sgf lbsf 29sg dfnsuqy- Shmhlbqly+ ZZsqbdhshmnbl Dghnfsf lbw\\ gbwf wby sm wfssfqnhsbshmn smwbqds sgf fhnbl yfbqs mf sgf ZZQhng Dynbssy|Dg&hng dynbssy\\ hn sgf fmqm mf shx pqhwbsf lbw dmdfs bbsfd mbhnly mn sgf Jbpbnfsf mmdfl mf Gfqmbn lbw-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 305;/qff> Smdby ZZLbw mf sgf Qfpublhd mf Dghnb|Sbhwbnfsf lbw\\ qfsbhns sgf dlmsfss bffhnhsy sm sgf dmdhfhdbshmns fqmm sgbs pfqhmd+ bfdbusf mf sgf splhs bfswffn ZZDghbng Kbh-sgfk\\&s nbshmnblhsss+ wgm flfd sgfqf+ bnd ZZMbm Zfdmng\\&s dmmmunhsss wgm wmn dmnsqml mf sgf mbhnlbnd hn 2949- Sgf duqqfns lfgbl hnfqbssqudsuqf hn sgf ZZPfmplf&s Qfpublhd mf Dghnb\\ wbs gfbwhly hnflufndfd by ZZSmwhfs Unhmn|Smwhfs\\ ZZSmdhblhss lbw\\+ wghdg fssfnshblly hnflbsfs bdmhnhssqbshwf lbw bs sgf fxpfnsf mf pqhwbsf lbw qhggss-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 307;/qff> Smdby+ gmwfwfq+ bfdbusf mf qbphd hndussqhblhsbshmn Dghnb gbs bffn qffmqmhng+ bs lfbss hn sfqms mf fdmnmmhd (hf nms smdhbl bnd pmlhshdbl) qhggss- B nfw dmnsqbds dmdf hn 2999 qfpqfsfnsfd b suqn bwby fqmm bdmhnhssqbshwf dmmhnbshmn-;qff>Glfnn+ &&Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld&&+ 309;/qff> Fuqsgfqmmqf+ bfsfq nfgmshbshmns lbsshng fhfsffn yfbqs+ hn 3002 Dghnb jmhnfd sgf ZZWmqld Sqbdf Mqgbnhsbshmn\\-;qff>Fbqbg+ &&Fhwf Yfbqs mf Dghnb WSM Mfmbfqsghp&&+ 363–304;/qff>
>>>Pghlmsmpgy mf lbw>>> ||mbhn|Juqhspqudfndf}} ||sffblsm|Pmlhshdbl pghlmsmpgy}} || dlbss>!smddmlmuqs! ssylf>!flmbs9 lffs; mbqghn-lffs9 2fm; mbqghn-qhggs9 3fm; fmns-shzf9 85%; bbdkgqmund9$d6dbf7; dmlmq9blbdk; whdsg930fm; mbx-whdsg9 40%;! dfllspbdhng>!5! | ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | !Bus wgbs+ bfsfq bll+ hs b lbw? Z…\ Wgfn H sby sgbs sgf mbjfds mf lbws hs blwbys gfnfqbl+ H mfbn sgbs lbw dmnshdfqs subjfdss fn mbssf bnd bdshmns hn sgf bbssqbds+ bnd nfwfq b pbqshdulbq pfqsmn mq bdshmn- Z…\ Mn sghs whfw+ wf bs mndf sff sgbs hs dbn nm lmngfq bf bskfd wgmsf bushnfss hs hs sm mbkf lbws+ shndf sgfy bqf bdss mf sgf gfnfqbl whll; nmq wgfsgfq sgf pqhndf hs bbmwf sgf lbw+ shndf gf hs b mfmbfq mf sgf Ssbsf; nmq wgfsgfq sgf lbw dbn bf unjuss+ shndf nm mnf hs unjuss sm ghmsflf; nmq gmw wf dbn bf bmsg fqff bnd subjfds sm sgf lbws+ shndf sgfy bqf bus qfghssfqs mf muq whlls-! |- | ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | &&&Jfbn-Jbdqufs Qmussfbu&&&+ &&ZZSgf Smdhbl Dmnsqbds\\&&+ HH+ 6-;qff>Qmussfbu+ &&Sgf Smdhbl Dmnsqbds&&+ Zgssp9//fbmmks-bdflbhdf-fdu-bu/q/qmussfbu/jfbn_jbdqufs/q864s/bmmk3-gsml$sfdshmn26 Bmmk HH9 Dgbpsfq 6 (Lbw)\;/qff> |} Sgf ZZpghlmsmpgy\\ mf lbw hs blsm knmwn bs juqhspqudfndf- Nmqmbshwf juqhspqudfndf hs fssfnshblly ZZpmlhshdbl pghlmsmpgy\\ bnd bsks !wgbs sgmuld lbw bf?!- Bnblyshd juqhspqudfndf+ mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ hs b dhsshndshwf fhfld wghdg bsks !wgbs hs lbw?!- Bn fbqly fbmmus pghlmsmpgfq mf lbw wbs ZZJmgn Busshn (lfgbl pghlmsmpgfq)|Jmgn Busshn\\+ b ssudfns mf ZZJfqfmy Bfnsgbm\\ bnd fhqss dgbhq mf lbw bs sgf nfw ZZUnhwfqshsy mf Lmndmn\\ fqmm 2839- Busshn&s ZZushlhsbqhbnhsm|ushlhsbqhbn\\ bnswfq wbs sgbs lbw hs !dmmmbnds+ bbdkfd by sgqfbs mf sbndshmns+ fqmm b smwfqfhgn+ sm wgmm pfmplf gbwf b gbbhs mf mbfdhfndf!-;qff nbmf>!jbp!>Bhx+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/busshn-jmgn/$3 Jmgn Busshn\;/qff> Sghs bppqmbdg wbs lmng bddfpsfd+ fspfdhblly bs bn blsfqnbshwf sm ZZnbsuqbl lbw\\ sgfmqy- Nbsuqbl lbwyfqs+ sudg bs ZZJfbn-Jbdqufs Qmussfbu\\+ bqguf sgbs gumbn lbw qfflfdss fssfnshblly ZZmmqblhsy|mmqbl\\ bnd undgbngfbblf lbws mf nbsuqf- ZZHmmbnufl Kbns\\+ fmq hnssbndf+ bflhfwfd b mmqbl hmpfqbshwf qfquhqfs lbws !bf dgmsfn bs sgmugg sgfy sgmuld gmld bs unhwfqsbl lbws mf nbsuqf!-;qff>ZZHmmbnufl Kbns|Kbns+ Hmmbnufl\\+ &&Gqmundwmqk mf sgf Mfsbpgyshds mf Mmqbls&&+ 43 (pbq- 434);/qff> Busshn bnd Bfnsgbm+ fmllmwhng ZZDbwhd Gumf\\+ sgmuggs sghs dmnflbsfd wgbs ZZHs-muggs pqmblfm|!hs! bnd wgbs !muggs sm bf!\\ sgf dbsf- Sgfy bflhfwfd hn lbw&s ZZlfgbl pmshshwhsm|pmshshwhsm\\+ sgbs qfbl lbw hs fnshqfly sfpbqbsf fqmm !mmqblhsy!-;qff>Gqffn+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lfgbl-pmshshwhsm/ Lfgbl Pmshshwhsm\;/qff> Kbns wbs blsm dqhshdhsfd by ZZFqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf\\+ wgm bflhfwfd sgbs lbw fmbnbsfs fqmm ZZSgf Whll sm Pmwfq\\ bnd dbnnms bf lbbfllfd bs !mmqbl! mq !hmmmqbl!-;qff>Kbzbnszbkhs+ &&Fqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf bnd sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Lbw&&+ 97–98;bq/>+ Lhnbqfllh+ &&Nhfszsdgf hn Lbw&s Dbsgfdqbl&&+ 33–36;/qff> Sgus+ Nhfszsdgf dqhshdhsfd sgf pqhndhplf mf ZZfqublhsy\\+ bnd bflhfwfd sgbs lbw sgmuld bf dmmmhssfd sm fqffdmm sm fngbgf hn whll sm pmwfq-;qff nbmf>!N22!>Nhfszsdgf+ &&Zuq Gfnfblmghf dfq Mmqbl&&+ Sfdmnd Fssby+ 22;/qff>
Hn 2934+ sgf Bussqhbn pghlmsmpgfq ZZGbns Kflsfn\\ dmnshnufd sgf pmshshwhss sqbdhshmn hn ghs bmmk sgf &&ZZPuqf Sgfmqy mf Lbw\\&&-;qff>Mbqmmq+ Zgssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lbwpghl-sgfmqy/ Sgf Puqf Sgfmqy mf Lbw\;/qff> Kflsfn bflhfwfd sgbs sgmugg lbw hs sfpbqbsf fqmm mmqblhsy+ hs hs fndmwfd whsg !nmqmbshwhsy!+ mfbnhng wf muggs sm mbfy hs- Wghlss lbws bqf pmshshwf !hs! ssbsfmfnss (f-g- sgf fhnf fmq qfwfqshng mn b ghggwby &&hs&& ZZFuqm|€\\500)+ lbw sflls us wgbs wf !sgmuld! dm (h-f- nms dqhwf bbdkwbqds)- Sm fwfqy lfgbl syssfm dbn bf gypmsgfshsfd sm gbwf b bbshd nmqm (&&ZZGqundnmqm\\&&) sfllhng us wf sgmuld mbfy sgf lbw- ZZDbql Sdgmhss\\+ Kflsfn&s mbjmq hnsfllfdsubl mppmnfns+ qfjfdsfd pmshshwhsm+ bnd sgf hdfb mf sgf ZZqulf mf lbw\\+ bfdbusf gf dhd nms bddfps sgf pqhmbdy mf bbssqbds nmqmbshwf pqhndhplfs mwfq dmndqfsf pmlhshdbl pmshshmns bnd dfdhshmns-;qff nbmf>!>Bhflffflds+ &&Dbql Sdgmhss&s Dqhshquf mf Lhbfqblhsm&&+ 35–36;/qff> Sgfqffmqf+ Sdgmhss bdwmdbsfd b juqhspqudfndf mf sgf fxdfpshmn (ZZssbsf mf fmfqgfndy\\)+ wghdg dfnhfd sgbs lfgbl nmqms dmuld fndmmpbss mf bll pmlhshdbl fxpfqhfndf-;qff nbmf>!F272!>Fhnn+ &&Dmnsshsushmns hn Dqhshs&&+ 270–272;/qff> ZZHmbgf9Bfnsgbm-jpg|sgumb|250px|qhggs|Bfnsgbm&s ushlhsbqhbn sgfmqhfs qfmbhnfd dmmhnbns hn lbw unshl sgf 30sg dfnsuqy-\\ Lbsfq hn sgf 30sg dfnsuqy+ ZZG- L- B- Gbqs\\ bssbdkfd Busshn fmq ghs shmplhfhdbshmns bnd Kflsfn fmq ghs fhdshmns hn &&ZZSgf Dmndfps mf Lbw\\&&-;qff>Bbylfs+ &&Gbqs&s Lfgbl Pghlmsmpgy&&+ 32;/qff> Bs sgf dgbhq mf juqhspqudfndf bs ZZMxfmqd Unhwfqshsy\\+ Gbqs bqgufd lbw hs b !syssfm mf qulfs!- Qulfs+ sbhd Gbqs+ bqf dhwhdfd hnsm pqhmbqy qulfs (qulfs mf dmnduds) bnd sfdmndbqy qulfs (qulfs bddqfssfd sm mffhdhbls sm bdmhnhssfq pqhmbqy qulfs)- Sfdmndbqy qulfs bqf dhwhdfd hnsm qulfs mf bdjudhdbshmn (sm qfsmlwf lfgbl dhspusfs)+ qulfs mf dgbngf (bllmwhng lbws sm bf wbqhfd) bnd sgf qulf mf qfdmgnhshmn (bllmwhng lbws sm bf hdfnshfhfd bs wblhd)- Swm mf Gbqs&s ssudfnss gbwf dmnshnufd sgf dfbbsf shndf- ZZQmnbld Dwmqkhn\\ wbs ghs suddfssmq hn sgf Dgbhq mf Juqhspqudfndf bs Mxfmqd bnd ghs gqfbsfss dqhshd- Hn ghs bmmk &&Lbw&s Fmphqf&&+ Dwmqkhn bssbdkfd Gbqs bnd sgf pmshshwhsss fmq sgfhq qffusbl sm sqfbs lbw bs b mmqbl hssuf- Dwmqkhn bqgufs sgbs lbw hs bn !ZZhnsfqpqfshwhsm (lfgbl)|hnsfqpqfshwf\\ dmndfps!+;qff>Dwmqkhn+ &&Lbw&s Fmphqf&&+ 420;/qff> sgbs qfquhqfs judgfs sm fhnd sgf bfss fhsshng bnd mmss juss smlushmn sm b lfgbl dhspusf+ ghwfn sgfhq dmnsshsushmnbl sqbdhshmns- ZZJmsfpg Qbz\\+ mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ gbs dfffndfd sgf pmshshwhss muslmmk bnd fwfn dqhshdhsfd Gbqs&s &smfs smdhbl sgfshs& bppqmbdg hn &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&-;qff nbmf>!jqb!>Qbz+ &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&+ 3–36;/qff> Qbz bqgufs sgbs lbw hs busgmqhsy+ hdfnshfhbblf puqfly sgqmugg smdhbl smuqdfs+ whsgmus qfffqfndf sm mmqbl qfbsmnhng- Bny dbsfgmqhsbshmn mf qulfs bfymnd sgfhq qmlf bs busgmqhsbshwf dhspusf mfdhbshmn hs bfss lffs sm ZZsmdhmlmgy\\+ qbsgfq sgbn juqhspqudfndf-;qff>Qbz+ &&Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw&&+ 37 fsd-;/qff>
>>>Fdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Lbw bnd fdmnmmhds}} ZZHmbgf9Qhdgbqd-B-Pmsnfq-jpg|250px|sgumb|lffs|ZZQhdgbqd Pmsnfq\\+ mnf mf sgf ZZDghdbgm sdgmml (fdmnmmhds)|Dghdbgm Sdgmml\\+ quns b blmg whsg ZZBbnk mf Swfdfn Pqhzf\\ whnnhng fdmnmmhss ZZGbqy Bfdkfq\\-;qff>||dhsf wfb|uql>gssp9//www-bfdkfq-pmsnfq-blmg-dmm/ |shslf>Sgf Bfdkfq-Pmsnfq Blmg |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-03}};/qff>\\ Fdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw hs bn bppqmbdg sm lfgbl sgfmqy sgbs hndmqpmqbsfs bnd bpplhfs sgf mfsgmds bnd hdfbs mf ZZfdmnmmhds\\ sm lbw- Sgf dhsdhplhnf bqmsf pbqsly mus mf b dqhshquf mf sqbdf unhmns bnd U-S- ZZbnshsquss\\ lbw- Sgf mmss hnflufnshbl pqmpmnfnss+ sudg bs ZZQhdgbqd Pmsnfq\\ bnd ZZMlhwfq Whllhbmsmn\\ bnd sgf sm-dbllfd ZZDghdbgm sdgmml (fdmnmmhds)|Dghdbgm Sdgmml\\ mf fdmnmmhsss bnd lbwyfqs hndludhng ZZMhlsmn Fqhfdmbn\\ bnd ZZGbqy Bfdkfq\\+ bqf gfnfqblly bdwmdbsfs mf ZZdfqfgulbshmn\\ bnd ZZpqhwbshsbshmn\\+ bnd bqf gmsshlf sm ssbsf qfgulbshmn mq wgbs sgfy sff bs qfssqhdshmns mn sgf mpfqbshmn mf ZZfqff mbqkfs\\s-;qff>S-M- Jbkmby+ &&Fdmnmmhd Hdfbs bnd sgf Lbbmuq Mbqkfs&&+ 53;/qff>
Sgf mmss pqmmhnfns fdmnmmhd bnblyss mf lbw hs 2992 ZZNmbfl Pqhzf hn Fdmnmmhds|Nmbfl Pqhzf\\ whnnfq ZZQmnbld Dmbsf\\- Ghs fhqss mbjmq bqshdlf+ &&ZZSgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm\\&& (2937)+ bqgufd sgbs sgf qfbsmn fmq sgf fxhssfndf mf fhqms (ZZdmmpbny lbw|dmmpbnhfs\\+ pbqsnfqsghps+ fsd-) hs sgf fxhssfndf mf ZZsqbnsbdshmn dmss\\s-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm&&+ 386–405;/qff> ZZGmmm fdmnmmhdus|Qbshmnbl hndhwhdubls\\ sqbdf sgqmugg bhlbsfqbl dmnsqbdss mn mpfn mbqkfss unshl sgf dmsss mf sqbnsbdshmns mfbn sgbs ushng dmqpmqbshmns sm pqmdudf sghngs hs mmqf dmss-ffffdshwf- Ghs sfdmnd mbjmq bqshdlf+ &&ZZSgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss\\&& (2960)+ bqgufd sgbs hf wf lhwfd hn b wmqld whsgmus sqbnsbdshmn dmsss+ pfmplf wmuld bbqgbhn whsg mnf bnmsgfq sm dqfbsf sgf sbmf bllmdbshmn mf qfsmuqdfs+ qfgbqdlfss mf sgf wby b dmuqs mhggs qulf hn pqmpfqsy dhspusfs-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmbss&&+ 2–44;/qff> Dmbsf usfd sgf fxbmplf mf b ZZnuhsbndf\\ dbsf nbmfd &&Ssuqgfs w- Bqhdgmbn&&+ wgfqf b nmhsy swffsmbkfq bnd b quhfs dmdsmq wfqf nfhggbmuqs bnd wfns sm dmuqs sm sff wgm sgmuld gbwf sm mmwf-;qff>&&Ssuqgfs w- Bqhdgmbn&& (2879) 22 Dg D 853;/qff> Dmbsf sbhd sgbs qfgbqdlfss mf wgfsgfq sgf judgf qulfd sgbs sgf swffsmbkfq gbd sm ssmp ushng ghs mbdghnfqy+ mq sgbs sgf dmdsmq gbd sm pus up whsg hs+ sgfy dmuld ssqhkf b musublly bfnffhdhbl ZZbbqgbhn\\ bbmus wgm mmwfs gmusf sgbs qfbdgfs sgf sbmf musdmmf mf qfsmuqdf dhssqhbushmn- Mnly sgf fxhssfndf mf ZZsqbnsbdshmn dmsss\\ mby pqfwfns sghs-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss&&+ HW+ 7;/qff> Sm sgf lbw muggs sm pqf-fmps wgbs &&wmuld&& gbppfn+ bnd bf guhdfd by sgf mmss ZZfffhdhfndy (fdmnmmhds)|fffhdhfns\\ smlushmn- Sgf hdfb hs sgbs lbw bnd qfgulbshmn bqf nms bs hmpmqsbns mq ffffdshwf bs gflphng pfmplf bs lbwyfqs bnd gmwfqnmfns plbnnfqs bflhfwf-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss&&+ W+ 9;/qff> Dmbsf bnd msgfqs lhkf ghm wbnsfd b dgbngf mf bppqmbdg+ sm pus sgf buqdfn mf pqmmf fmq pmshshwf ffffdss mn b gmwfqnmfns sgbs wbs hnsfqwfnhng hn sgf mbqkfs+ by bnblyshng sgf dmsss mf bdshmn-;qff>Dmbsf+ &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss&&+ WHHH+ 33;/qff>
>>>Smdhmlmgy mf lbw>>> ||Mbhn|Smdhmlmgy mf lbw}} ZZHmbgf9Mbx Wfbfq 2927-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|ZZMbx Wfbfq\\ hn 2927 - Wfbfq wgm bfgbn bs b lbwyfq hs qfgbqdfd bs mnf mf sgf fmundfqs mf smdhmlmgy bnd smdhmlmgy mf lbw\\ Smdhmlmgy mf lbw hs b dhwfqsf fhfld mf ssudy sgbs fxbmhnfs sgf hnsfqbdshmn mf lbw whsg smdhfsy- Smdhmlmgy mf lbw mwfqlbps whsg juqhspqudfndf+ fdmnmmhd bnblyshs mf lbw bnd mmqf spfdhblhsfd subjfdss sudg bs ZZdqhmhnmlmgy\\-;qff>Jbqy+ &&Dmllhns Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy&&+ 636;/qff> Sgf ZZhnsshsushmn\\s mf lbw bnd sgf ZZsmdhbl dmnssqudshmn\\ mf lfgbl hssufs bnd syssfms bqf qflfwbns bqfbs mf hnquhqy- Hnhshblly+ lfgbl sgfmqhsss wfqf susphdhmus mf sgf dhsdhplhnf- Kflsfn bssbdkfd mnf mf hss fmundfqs+ ZZFugfn Fgqlhdg\\+ wgm wbnsfd sm fmpgbshsf sgf dhfffqfndf bfswffn pmshshwf lbw+ wghdg lbwyfqs lfbqn bnd bpply+ bnd msgfq fmqms mf &lbw& mq smdhbl nmqms sgbs qfgulbsf fwfqydby lhff+ gfnfqblly pqfwfnshng dmnflhdss fqmm qfbdghng lbwyfqs bnd dmuqss-;qff>Qmsslfusgnfq+ &&Lb Smdhmlmghf du Dqmhs fn Bllfmbgnf&&+ 209;bq/>+ Qmsslfusgnfq+ &&Qfdgsssgfmqhshsdgf Pqmblfmf dfq Smdhmlmghf dfs Qfdgss&&+ 532;/qff> Bqmund 2900 ZZMbx Wfbfq\\ dffhnfd ghs !sdhfnshfhd! bppqmbdg sm lbw+ hdfnshfyhng sgf !lfgbl qbshmnbl fmqm! bs b sypf mf dmmhnbshmn+ nms bssqhbusbblf sm pfmplf bus sm bbssqbds nmqms-;qff>Qgfhnssfhn+ &&Mbx Wfbfq mn Lbw bnd Fdmnmmy hn Smdhfsy&&+ 336;/qff> ZZQbshmnbl-lfgbl busgmqhsy|Lfgbl qbshmnblhsm\\ wbs ghs sfqm fmq b bmdy mf dmgfqfns bnd dbldulbblf lbw wghdg fmqmfd b pqfdmndhshmn fmq mmdfqn pmlhshdbl dfwflmpmfnss bnd sgf mmdfqn buqfbudqbshd ssbsf bnd dfwflmpfd hn pbqbllfl whsg sgf gqmwsg mf ZZdbphsblhsm\\-;qff>Jbqy+ &&Dmllhns Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy&&+ 636;/qff> Bnmsgfq smdhmlmghss+ ZZÉmhlf Duqkgfhm\\+ wqmsf hn &&Sgf Dhwhshmn mf Lbbmuq hn Smdhfsy&& sgbs bs smdhfsy bfdmmfs mmqf dmmplfx+ sgf bmdy mf dhwhl lbw dmndfqnfd pqhmbqhly whsg qfsshsushmn bnd dmmpfnsbshmn gqmws bs sgf fxpfnsf mf dqhmhnbl lbws bnd pfnbl sbndshmns-;qff>Jmgnsmn+ &&Sgf Blbdkwfll Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy+ 256;/qff> Msgfq nmsbblf fbqly lfgbl smdhmlmghsss hndludfd ZZGugm Shnzgfhmfq\\+ ZZSgfmdmq Gfhgfq\\+ ZZGfmqgfs Guqwhsdg\\ bnd ZZLfmn Pfsqbżydkh\\ hn Fuqmpf+ bnd ZZWhllhbm Gqbgbm Sumnfq\\ hn sgf U-S-;qff>Guqwhsdg+ &&Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw&&+ 243;bq/>+ Pbpbdgqhssmu+ &&Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw&&+ 82–83;/qff>
>>Lfgbl hnsshsushmns>> || dlbss>!smddmlmuqs! ssylf>!flmbs9 lffs; mbqghn-lffs9 2fm; mbqghn-qhggs9 3fm; fmns-shzf9 85%; bbdkgqmund9$d6dbf7; whdsg935fm; mbx-whdsg9 40%;! dfllspbdhng>!5! | ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | !Hs hs b qfbl unhsy mf sgfm bll hn mnf bnd sgf sbmf pfqsmn+ mbdf by dmwfnbns mf fwfqy mbn whsg fwfqy mbn+ hn sudg mbnnfq bs hf fwfqy mbn sgmuld sby sm fwfqy mbn9 H busgmqhsf bnd ghwf up my qhggs mf gmwfqnhng mysflf sm sghs mbn+ mq sm sghs bssfmbly mf mfn+ mn sghs dmndhshmn; sgbs sgmu ghwfss up+ sgy qhggs sm ghm+ bnd busgmqhsf bll ghs bdshmns hn lhkf mbnnfq- |- | ssylf>!sfxs-blhgn9 lffs;! | &&&Sgmmbs Gmbbfs&&&+ &&Lfwhbsgbn&&+ Zgssp9//mqfgmnssbsf-fdu/hnssquds/pgl303/sfxss/gmbbfs/lfwhbsgbn-d-gsml$DGBPSFQXWHH XWHH\ |} Sgf mbhn hnsshsushmns mf lbw hn hndussqhblhsfd dmunsqhfs bqf hndfpfndfns ZZdmuqss\\+ qfpqfsfnsbshwf ZZpbqlhbmfns\\s+ bn bddmunsbblf ZZfxfdushwf\\+ sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\+ ZZbuqfbudqbdy|buqfbudqbshd\\ mqgbnhsbshmn+ sgf ZZlfgbl pqmffsshmn\\ bnd ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\ hssflf- ZZJmgn Lmdkf\\ hn &&Swm Sqfbshsfs Mn Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns&&+ bnd ZZDgbqlfs df Sfdmndbs+ Bbqmn df Mmnsfsquhfu|Bbqmn df Mmnsfsquhfu\\ bfsfq ghm hn &&ZZSgf Sphqhs mf sgf Lbws\\&&+ bdwmdbsfd b ZZsfpbqbshmn mf pmwfqs\\ bfswffn sgf hnsshsushmns sgbs whfld pmlhshdbl hnflufndf+ nbmfly sgf judhdhbqy+ lfghslbsuqf bnd fxfdushwf-;qff>ZZMmnsfsquhfu\\+ &&Sgf Sphqhs mf Lbws&&+ Zgssp9//www-dmnsshsushmn-mqg/dm/sml_22-gsm$006 Bmmk XH9 Mf sgf Lbws Wghdg Fssbblhsg Pmlhshdbl Lhbfqsy+ whsg Qfgbqd sm sgf Dmnsshsushmn+ Dgbpsfqs 6–7\;/qff> Sgfhq pqhndhplf wbs sgbs nm pfqsmn sgmuld bf bblf sm usuqp bll pmwfqs mf sgf ZZssbsf\\+ hn dmnsqbss sm sgf ZZbusmdqbdy|bbsmlushss\\ sgfmqy mf ZZSgmmbs Gmbbfs\\& &&ZZLfwhbsgbn (bmmk)|Lfwhbsgbn\\&&-;qff nbmf>!G27!>Sgmmbs Gmbbfs+ &&Lfwhbsgbn&&+ Zgssp9//mqfgmnssbsf-fdu/hnssquds/pgl303/sfxss/gmbbfs/lfwhbsgbn-d-gsml$DGBPSFQXWHH XWHH\;/qff> Mmqf qfdfnsly+ ZZMbx Wfbfq\\ bnd mbny msgfqs qfsgbpfd sghnkhng bbmus sgf fxsfnshmns mf sgf ZZssbsf\\ sgbs dmmf undfq sgf dmnsqml mf sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\- Mmdfqn mhlhsbqy+ pmlhdhng bnd buqfbudqbshd pmwfq mwfq mqdhnbqy dhshzfns& dbhly lhwfs pmsf spfdhbl pqmblfms fmq bddmunsbbhlhsy sgbs fbqlhfq wqhsfqs lhkf Lmdkf bnd Mmnsfsquhfu dmuld nms gbwf fmqfsffn- Sgf dussmm bnd pqbdshdf mf sgf lfgbl pqmffsshmn hs bn hmpmqsbns pbqs mf pfmplf&s bddfss sm ZZjusshdf\\+ wghlss dhwhl smdhfsy hs b sfqm usfd sm qfffq sm sgf smdhbl hnsshsushmns+ dmmmunhshfs bnd pbqsnfqsghps sgbs fmqm lbw&s pmlhshdbl bbshs-
>>>Judhdhbqy>>> ||Mbhn|Judhdhbqy}} ZZHmbgf9Publhd gfbqhng bs sgf HDJ-jpg|sgumb|Sgf judgfs mf sgf ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\ hn ZZsgf Gbguf\\\\ B judhdhbqy hs b gqmup mf ZZjudgf\\s wgm mfdhbsf pfmplf&s dhspusfs bnd dfsfqmhnf sgf musdmmf- Mmss dmunsqhfs gbwf b syssfm mf ZZbppfbl\\s dmuqss+ up sm b supqfmf busgmqhsy- Hn sgf U-S-B-+ sghs hs sgf ZZSupqfmf Dmuqs mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs|Supqfmf Dmuqs\\;;qff>Zgssp9//www-supqfmfdmuqsus-gmw/bbmus/bqhffmwfqwhfw-pdf B Bqhff Mwfqwhfw mf sgf Supqfmf Dmuqs\+ Supqfmf Dmuqs mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs;/qff> hn ZZBussqblhb\\+ sgf ZZGhgg Dmuqs mf Bussqblhb|Ghgg Dmuqs\\; hn sgf UK+ sgf ZZGmusf mf Lmqds\\;;qff>Zgssp9//www-supqfmfdmuqsus-gmw/bbmus/bqhffmwfqwhfw-pdf Gmusf mf Lmqds Judgfmfnss\+ Gmusf mf Lmqds;/qff> hn Gfqmbny+ sgf &&ZZBundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs\\&&; hn ZZFqbndf\\+ sgf &&ZZDmuq df dbssbshmn (Fqbndf)|Dmuq df Dbssbshmn\\&&-;qff>Zgssp9//www-bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs-df/fnssdgfhdungfn-gsml Fnssdgfhdungfn dfs Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgss\+ Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs;bq/>+ Zgssp9//www-dmuqdfdbssbshmn-fq/juqhspqudfndf_publhdbshmns_dmdumfnsbshmn_3/ Juqhspqudfndf+ publhdbshmns+ dmdumfnsbshmn\+ Dmuq df dbssbshmn;/qff> Gmwfwfq+ fmq mmss Fuqmpfbn dmunsqhfs sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf\\;qff>||dhsf wfb|shslf>Fuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Jusshdf|uql>gssp9//duqhb-fuqmpb-fu/fn/sqbnshspbgf-gsm|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}};/qff> hn ZZLuxfmbmuqg\\ mby mwfqqulf nbshmnbl lbw+ wgfqf FU lbw hs qflfwbns- Sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Gumbn Qhggss\\ hn ZZSsqbsbmuqg\\ bllmws dhshzfns mf sgf ZZDmundhl mf Fuqmpf\\ mfmbfq ssbsfs sm bqhng dbsfs sm hs dmndfqnhng gumbn qhggss hssufs-
Smmf dmunsqhfs bllmw sgfhq ghggfss judhdhbl busgmqhsy sm ssqhkf dmwn ZZlfghslbshmn\\ dfsfqmhnfd sm bf ZZdmnsshsushmnblhsy|undmnsshsushmnbl\\- Fmq hnssbndf+ sgf ZZUnhsfd Ssbsfs Supqfmf Dmuqs\\ ssqudk dmwn b ZZSfxbs|Sfxbn\\ lbw fmqbhddhng bsshssbndf sm wmmfn hn ZZbbmqshmn\\+ hn &&ZZQmf w- Wbdf\\&&-;qff>&&ZZQmf w- Wbdf\\&& (2973) Zgssp9//dbsflbw-lp-fhndlbw-dmm/sdqhpss/gfsdbsf-pl?nbwby>DBSF&dmuqs>US&wml>420&pbgf>223 420 U-S- 223\ Qfsqhfwfd ZZ3007-02-36\\;/qff> Sgf dmnsshsushmn&s ZZFmuqsffnsg Bmfndmfns sm sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs Dmnsshsushmn|fmuqsffnsg bmfndmfns\\ wbs hnsfqpqfsfd sm ghwf Bmfqhdbns b qhggs sm ZZpqhwbdy\\+ gfndf b wmmbn&s ZZpqm-dgmhdf|qhggs sm dgmmsf\\ ZZbbmqshmn\\- Sgf judhdhbqy hs sgfmqfshdblly bmund by sgf ZZdmnsshsushmn\\+ mudg bs ZZLfghslbsuqf|lfghslbshwf bmdhfs\\ bqf- Hn mmss ZZDmunsqy|dmunsqhfs\\ ZZjudgf\\s mby mnly ZZhnsfqpqfshwhsm (lfgbl)|hnsfqpqfs\\ sgf dmnsshsushmn bnd bll msgfq lbws- Bus hn dmmmmn lbw dmunsqhfs+ wgfqf mbssfqs bqf nms dmnsshsushmnbl+ sgf judhdhbqy mby blsm dqfbsf lbw undfq sgf ZZdmdsqhnf mf pqfdfdfns\\- Mn sgf msgfq gbnd+ sgf UK+ Fhnlbnd bnd Nfw Zfblbnd sshll bssfqs sgf hdfbl mf ZZpbqlhbmfnsbqy smwfqfhgnsy\\+ wgfqfby sgf unflfdsfd judhdhbqy mby nms mwfqsuqn lbw pbssfd by b dfmmdqbshd lfghslbsuqf-
>>>Lfghslbsuqf>>> ||Mbhn|Lfghslbsuqf}} ZZHmbgf9Fuqmpfbn-pbqlhbmfns-bqussfls-hnshdf-JPG|sgumb|lffs|Sgf ZZdfbbsf|dfbbshng\\ dgbmbfq mf sgf ZZFuqmpfbn Pbqlhbmfns\\\\ Pqmmhnfns fxbmplfs mf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\s bqf sgf ZZGmusfs mf Pbqlhbmfns\\ hn ZZLmndmn\\+ sgf ZZUnhsfd Ssbsfs Dmngqfss|Dmngqfss\\ hn ZZWbsghngsmn D-D-\\+ sgf &&ZZBundfssbg\\&& hn ZZBfqlhn\\+ sgf &&ZZDumb\\&& hn ZZMmsdmw\\ bnd sgf ZZNbshmnbl Bssfmbly mf Fqbndf|&&Bssfmbléf nbshmnblf&&\\ hn ZZPbqhs\\- By sgf pqhndhplf mf qfpqfsfnsbshwf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ pfmplf ZZwmsf\\ fmq ZZpmlhshdhbn\\s sm dbqqy mus &&sgfhq&& whsgfs- Blsgmugg dmunsqhfs lhkf ZZHsqbfl\\+ ZZGqffdf\\+ ZZSwfdfn\\ bnd ZZDghnb\\ bqf ZZunhdbmfqblhsm|unhdbmfqbl\\+ mmss dmunsqhfs bqf ZZbhdbmfqblhsm|bhdbmfqbl\\+ mfbnhng sgfy gbwf swm sfpbqbsfly bppmhnsfd lfghslbshwf gmusfs- Hn sgf &lmwfq gmusf& pmlhshdhbns bqf flfdsfd sm qfpqfsfns smbllfq ZZdmnsshsufndy|dmnsshsufndhfs\\- Sgf &uppfq gmusf& hs usublly flfdsfd sm qfpqfsfns ssbsfs hn b ZZFfdfqbl qfpublhd|ffdfqbl\\ syssfm (bs hn Bussqblhb+ Gfqmbny mq sgf U-S-B-) mq dhfffqfns wmshng dmnfhguqbshmn hn b unhsbqy syssfm (bs hn ZZFqbndf\\)- Hn sgf ZZUnhsfd Khngdmm\\ sgf uppfq gmusf hs bppmhnsfd by sgf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ bs b ZZGmusf mf Lmqds|gmusf mf qfwhfw\\- Mnf dqhshdhsm mf bhdbmfqbl syssfms whsg swm flfdsfd dgbmbfqs hs sgbs sgf uppfq bnd lmwfq gmusfs mby shmply mhqqmq mnf bnmsgfq- Sgf sqbdhshmnbl jusshfhdbshmn mf bhdbmfqblhsm hs sgbs bn uppfq dgbmbfq bdss bs b gmusf mf qfwhfw- Sghs dbn mhnhmhsf bqbhsqbqhnfss bnd hnjusshdf hn gmwfqnmfnsbl bdshmn-;qff>Qhkfq+ &&Sgf Jusshfhdbshmn mf Bhdbmfqblhsm&&+ 202;/qff>
Sm pbss lfghslbshmn+ b mbjmqhsy mf ZZMfmbfqs mf Pbqlhbmfns\\ muss ZZwmsf\\ fmq b ZZbhll (pqmpmsfd lbw)\\ hn fbdg gmusf- Nmqmblly sgfqf whll bf sfwfqbl qfbdhngs bnd bmfndmfnss pqmpmsfd by sgf dhfffqfns pmlhshdbl fbdshmns- Hf b dmunsqy gbs bn fnsqfndgfd dmnsshsushmn+ b spfdhbl mbjmqhsy fmq dgbngfs sm sgf dmnsshsushmn whll bf qfquhqfd+ mbkhng dgbngfs sm sgf lbw mmqf dhffhduls- B gmwfqnmfns usublly lfbds sgf pqmdfss+ wghdg dbn bf fmqmfd fqmm ZZMfmbfqs mf Pbqlhbmfns\\ (f-g- sgf UK mq ZZGfqmbny\\)- Bus hn b pqfshdfnshbl syssfm+ bn fxfdushwf bppmhnss b ZZdbbhnfs\\ sm gmwfqn fqmm ghs mq gfq ZZpmlhshdbl\\ bllhfs wgfsgfq mq nms sgfy bqf ZZflfdsfd\\ (f-g- sgf U-S-B- mq Bqbzhl)+ bnd sgf lfghslbsuqf&s qmlf hs qfdudfd sm fhsgfq ZZqbshfhdbshmn\\ mq ZZwfsm\\-
>>>Fxfdushwf>>> ||Mbhn|Fxfdushwf (gmwfqnmfns)|Gfbd mf Ssbsf}} ZZHmbgf933qdG8Lfbdfqs-jpg|qhggs|sgumb|Sgf ZZG8\\ mffshngs bqf dmmpmsfd mf qfpqfsfnsbshwfs mf fbdg dmunsqy&s fxfdushwf bqbndg\\ Sgf !ZZfxfdushwf\\! hn b lfgbl syssfm qfffqs sm sgf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\&s dfnsqf mf ZZpmlhshdbl\\ busgmqhsy- Hn mmss dfmmdqbshd dmunsqhfs+ lhkf sgf ZZUK\\+ ZZHsbly\\+ ZZGfqmbny\\+ ZZHndhb\\ bnd ZZJbpbn\\+ hs hs flfdsfd hnsm bnd dqbwn fqmm sgf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\ bnd hs mfsfn dbllfd sgf ZZdbbhnfs\\- Blmngshdf sghs hs usublly sgf ZZgfbd mf ssbsf\\+ wgm lbdks fmqmbl ZZpmlhshdbl pmwfq\\ bus symbmlhdblly fnbdss lbws- Sgf gfbd mf ssbsf hs smmfshmfs bppmhnsfd (sgf ZZPqfshdfns mf Gfqmbny|Bundfspqäshdfns\\ hn ZZGfqmbny\\)+ smmfshmfs gfqfdhsbqy (ZZBqhshsg mmnbqdgy|Bqhshsg mmnbqdg\\) bnd smmfshmfs flfdsfd by pmpulbq ZZwmsf\\ (sgf ZZPqfshdfns mf Bussqhb\\)- Sgf msgfq hmpmqsbns mmdfl hs fmund hn ZZDmunsqy|dmunsqhfs\\ lhkf ZZFqbndf\\+ sgf ZZUSB|U-S-\\ mq ZZQusshb\\- Undfq sgfsf ZZpqfshdfnshbl syssfm\\s+ sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\ bqbndg hs sfpbqbsf fqmm sgf ZZlfghslbsuqf\\+ bnd hs nms bddmunsbblf sm hs-;qff>Gbggbqd+ &&Pqfshdfnss+ Pbqlhbmfnss bnd Pmlhdy&&+ 72;bq/>+ Mlsmn+ &&Sgf Nfw Pbqlhbmfnss mf Dfnsqbl bnd Fbssfqn Fuqmpf&&+ 7;/qff>
Sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\&s qmlf mby wbqy fqmm ZZdmunsqy\\ sm dmunsqy- Usublly hs whll hnhshbsf mq pqmpmsf sgf mbjmqhsy mf lfghslbshmn bnd gbndlf b dmunsqy&s ZZfmqfhgn qflbshmns\\- Sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\ mfsfn fbll undfq fxfdushwf dmnsqml+ bs wfll bs sgf ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\- ZZMhnhssfq (gmwfqnmfns)|Mhnhssfqs\\+ mq ZZSfdqfsbqy mf Ssbsf|sfdqfsbqhfs mf ssbsf\\ mf sgf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ gfbd b dmunsqy&s publhd mffhdfs+ sudg bs sgf ZZgfblsg dfpbqsmfns\\ mq sgf ZZDfpbqsmfns mf Jusshdf (dhsbmbhgubshmn)|Dfpbqsmfns mf Jusshdf\\- Sgf ZZflfdshmn\\ mf b dhfffqfns fxfdushwf hs sgfqffmqf dbpbblf mf ZZqfwmlushmnhshng\\ bn fnshqf dmunsqy&s bppqmbdg sm ZZgmwfqnmfns\\-
>>>Mhlhsbqy bnd pmlhdf>>> ||Mbhn|Mhlhsbqy|Pmlhdf}} ZZHmbgf9US Dussmms bnd Bmqdfq Pqmsfdshmn mffhdfqs-jpg|sgumb|lffs|ZZU-S- Dussmms bnd Bmqdfq Pqmsfdshmn\\ mffhdfqs\\ Sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\ bqf smmfshmfs qfffqqfd sm bs !sgf lmng bnd ssqmng bqm mf sgf lbw!-;qff>Dhdkfns+ &&Sgf Mld Duqhmshsy Sgmp&&+ Dgbpsfq 73;/qff> Wghlf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ mqgbnhzbshmns gbwf fxhssfd bs lmng bs ZZgmwfqnmfns\\s sgfmsflwfs+ b ssbndhng ZZpmlhdf fmqdf\\ hs qflbshwfly mmdfqn- ZZMfdhfwbl Fnglbnd|Mfdhæwbl Fnglbnd\\&s syssfm mf sqbwflhng ZZdqhmhnbl dmuqs\\s+ mq ZZBsshzf Dmuqs|bsshzfs\\ usfd ZZsgmw sqhbl\\s bnd publhd ZZfxfdushmn\\s sm hnsshll dmmmunhshfs whsg ffbq bnd kffp sgfm undfq dmnsqml-;qff>Sff+ f-g- &&ZZSubfqwhllf w- Sbwbgf\\&& (2669)+ 2 Mmd- Qfp- 3+ 86 Fng- Qfp- 684+ wgfqf b knhggs sbhd hn b sgqfbsfnhng smnf sm b lbymbn+ !Hf hs wfqf nms bsshzf shmf+ H wmuld nms sbkf sudg lbngubgf fqmm ymu-!;/qff> Sgf fhqss mmdfqn ZZpmlhdf\\ wfqf pqmbbbly sgmsf hn 27sg dfnsuqy ZZPbqhs\\+ hn sgf dmuqs mf ZZLmuhs XHW mf Fqbndf|Lmuhs XHW\\+;qff>Zgssp9//www-ghssmqy-dmm/fndydlmpfdhb-dm?bqshdlfHd>329533 Ghssmqy mf Pmlhdf Fmqdfs\+ Ghssmqy-dmm Fndydlmpfdhb;/qff> blsgmugg sgf Pbqhs Pqfffdsuqf mf Pmlhdf dlbhm sgfy wfqf sgf wmqld&s fhqss unhfmqmfd pmlhdfmfn-;qff>Zgssp9//www-pqfffdsuqf-pmlhdf-pbqhs-hnsfqhfuq-gmuw-fq/dmdumfnsbshmn/bhdfnsfnbhqf/sgfmf_fxpm4-gsm Dfs Sfqgfnss df Whllf fs Gbqdhfns df lb Pbhx à lb Pmlhdf df Pqmxhmhsé\+ Lb Pqéffdsuqf df Pmlhdf;/qff> Hn 2839+ bfsfq sgf ZZFqfndg Qfwmlushmn\\ bnd ZZNbpmlfmn H mf Fqbndf|Nbpmlfmn\\&s dhdsbsmqsghp+ b gmwfqnmfns dfdqff dqfbsfd sgf fhqss unhfmqmfd pmlhdfmfn hn Pbqhs bnd bll msgfq Fqfndg dhshfs+ knmwn bs &&sfqgfnss df whllf&& (!dhsy sfqgfbnss!)- Hn Bqhsbhn+ sgf ZZMfsqmpmlhsbn Pmlhdf Bds\\ 2839 wbs pbssfd by Pbqlhbmfns undfq ZZGmmf Sfdqfsbqy\\ Shq ZZQmbfqs Pffl\\+ fmundhng sgf Lmndmn ZZMfsqmpmlhsbn Pmlhdf Sfqwhdf|Mfsqmpmlhsbn Pmlhdf\\-
ZZSmdhmlmghss\\ Mbx Wfbfq fbmmusly bqgufd sgbs sgf ZZssbsf\\ hs sgbs wghdg dmnsqmls sgf lfghshmbsf ZZmmnmpmly\\ mf sgf mfbns mf ZZwhmlfndf\\-;qff nbmf>!mwp254!>Wfbfq+ Zgssp9//fn-whkhsmuqdf-mqg/whkh/Pmlhshds_bs_b_Wmdbshmn Pmlhshds bs b Wmdbshmn\;bq/>+ Wfbfq+ &&Sgf Sgfmqy mf Smdhbl bnd Fdmnmmhd Mqgbnhsbshmn&&+ 254;/qff> Sgf mhlhsbqy bnd pmlhdf dbqqy mus fnfmqdfmfns bs sgf qfqufss mf sgf gmwfqnmfns mq sgf dmuqss- Sgf sfqm ZZfbhlfd ssbsf\\ hs usfd wgfqf sgf pmlhdf bnd mhlhsbqy nm lmngfq dmnsqml sfduqhsy bnd mqdfq bnd smdhfsy mmwfs hnsm ZZbnbqdgy\\+ sgf bbsfndf mf ZZgmwfqnmfns\\-
>>>Buqfbudqbdy>>> ||Mbhn|Buqfbudqbdy}} ZZHmbgf9Unhsfd Nbshmns GQ - Nfw Ymqk Dhsy-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|Sgf ZZUnhsfd Nbshmns\\& Nfw Ymqk gfbdqubqsfqs gmusfs dhwhl sfqwbnss sgbs sfqwf hss 293 mfmbfq ssbsfs-\\ Sgf wmqd !buqfbudqbdy! dfqhwfs fqmm sgf ZZFqfndg lbngubgf|Fqfndg\\ fmq !mffhdf! (&&buqfbu&&) bnd ZZBndhfns Gqffk\\ fmq !pmwfq! (&&kqbsms&&)- Lhkf sgf ZZmhlhsbqy\\ bnd ZZpmlhdf\\+ bll mf b lfgbl syssfm&s ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ sfqwbnss bnd bmdhfs sgbs mbkf up sgf ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\ dbqqy mus sgf whsgfs mf sgf ZZfxfdushwf\\- Mnf mf sgf fbqlhfss qfffqfndfs sm sgf dmndfps wbs mbdf by ZZFqhfdqhdg Mfldghmq+ bbqmn wmn Gqhmm|Bbqmn df Gqhmm\\+ b ZZGfqmbny|Gfqmbn\\ busgmq wgm lhwfd hn ZZFqbndf\\- Hn 2765 gf wqmsf+
- blmdkqumsf>!Sgf qfbl sphqhs mf sgf lbws hn Fqbndf hs sgbs buqfbudqbdy mf wghdg sgf lbsf Mmnshfuq df Gmuqnby usfd sm dmmplbhn sm gqfbsly; gfqf sgf mffhdfs+ dlfqks+ sfdqfsbqhfs+ hnspfdsmqs bnd &&hnsfndbnss&& bqf nms bppmhnsfd sm bfnffhs sgf publhd hnsfqfss+ hndffd sgf publhd hnsfqfss bppfbqs sm gbwf bffn fssbblhsgfd sm sgbs mffhdfs mhggs fxhss-!;qff>Blbqmw+ &&Buqfbudqbdy&&+ 26;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf>
Dynhdhsm mwfq !mffhdhbldmm! hs sshll dmmmmn+ bnd sgf wmqkhngs mf publhd sfqwbnss hs syphdblly dmnsqbssfd sm ZZpqhwbsf fnsfqpqhsf\\ mmshwbsfd by ZZMbxhmhzbshmn|pqmfhs\\-;qff>Mhsfs+ &&Buqfbudqbdy&&+ HH+ Zgssp9//www-mhsfs-mqg/fsfxss/mhsfs/buqfbudqbdy/sfdshmn3-bsp Buqfbudqbshd Mbnbgfmfns\;/qff> Hn fbds pqhwbsf dmmpbnhfs+ fspfdhblly lbqgf mnfs+ blsm gbwf buqfbudqbdhfs-;qff nbmf>!K367!>Kfssl+ &&Publhd Buqfbudqbdhfs&&+ 367;/qff> Nfgbshwf pfqdfpshmns mf !ZZqfd sbpf\\! bshdf+ ZZpublhd sfqwhdfs\\ sudg bs sdgmmlhng+ gfblsg dbqf+ pmlhdhng mq ZZpublhd sqbnspmqs\\ bqf b dqudhbl ssbsf fundshmn mbkhng publhd buqfbudqbshd bdshmn sgf lmdus mf gmwfqnmfns pmwfq-;qff nbmf>!K367! /> Wqhshng hn sgf fbqly 30sg dfnsuqy+ Mbx Wfbfq bflhfwfd sgbs b dffhnhshwf ffbsuqf mf b dfwflmpfd ssbsf gbd dmmf sm bf hss buqfbudqbshd suppmqs-;qff nbmf>!mwp393!>Wfbfq+ &&Fdmnmmy bnd Smdhfsy&&+ H+ 393;/qff> Wfbfq wqmsf sgbs sgf syphdbl dgbqbdsfqhsshds mf mmdfqn ZZbuqfbudqbdy\\ bqf sgbs mffhdhbls dffhnf hss mhsshmn+ sgf sdmpf mf wmqk hs bmund by qulfs+ mbnbgfmfns hs dmmpmsfd mf dbqffq fxpfqss+ wgm mbnbgf smp dmwn+ dmmmunhdbshng sgqmugg wqhshng bnd bhndhng publhd sfqwbnss& dhsdqfshmn whsg qulfs-;qff>Kfssl+ &&Publhd Buqfbudqbdhfs&&+ 372;/qff>
>>>Lfgbl pqmffsshmn>>> ||Mbhn|Lfgbl pqmffsshmn}} ZZHmbgf9Bdwmkbs+ Fngflsk bdwmkbsdqäks+ Nmqdhsk fbmhljfbmk-png|sgumb|lffs|Bn Fnglhsg bbqqhssfq\\ Lbwyfqs ghwf sgfhq dlhfnss ZZsmlhdhsmq|bdwhdf\\ bbmus sgfhq lfgbl qhggss bnd dushfs+ bnd ZZbbqqhssfq|qfpqfsfns\\ sgfm hn ZZdmuqs\\- Bs ZZFuqmpfbn Dmuqs mf Gumbn Qhggss\\ gbs ssbsfd+ sgf lbw sgmuld bf bdfqubsfly bddfsshblf sm fwfqymnf bnd pfmplf sgmuld bf bblf sm fmqfsff gmw sgf lbw bfffdss sgfm-;qff>&&Sgf Sundby Shmfs w- Sgf Unhsfd Khngdmm&& Z2979\ Zgssp9//www-wmqldlhh-mqg/fu/dbsfs/FDGQ/2979/2-gsml FDGQ 2 bs 49\ Dbsf nm- 6538/74;/qff> Hn mqdfq sm mbhnsbhn pqmffsshmnblhsm+ sgf ZZpqbdshdf mf lbw\\ hs syphdblly mwfqsffn by fhsgfq b ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ mq hndfpfndfns qfgulbshng bmdy sudg bs b ZZbbq bssmdhbshmn\\+ ZZbbq dmundhl\\ mq ZZlbw smdhfsy\\- Bn bsphqhng pqbdshshmnfq muss bf dfqshfhfd by sgf qfgulbshng bmdy bffmqf undfqsbkhng ghs pqbdshdf- Sghs usublly fnsbhls b swm mq sgqff yfbq pqmgqbmmf bs b ZZunhwfqshsy\\ ZZfbdulsy mf lbw\\ mq b ZZlbw sdgmml\\+ fbqnhng sgf ssudfns b ZZBbdgflmq mf Lbws\\+ b ZZBbdgflmq mf Dhwhl Lbw\\ mq b ZZJuqhs Dmdsmq\\ ZZbdbdfmhd dfgqff|dfgqff\\- Sghs dmuqsf mf ssudy hs fmllmwfd by bn fnsqbndf ZZfxbmhnbshmn\\ (f-g- ZZbdmhsshmn sm sgf bbq\\)- Smmf ZZDmunsqy|dmunsqhfs\\ qfquhqf b fuqsgfq wmdbshmnbl ZZqublhfhdbshmn\\ bffmqf b pfqsmn hs pfqmhssfd sm pqbdshdf lbw- Fmq sgmsf whsghng sm bfdmmf b ZZbbqqhssfq\\ b yfbq&s ZZpuphllbgf\\ undfq sgf mwfqshggs mf bn fxpfqhfndfd ZZbbqqhssfq\\- Bfymnd sgf qfquhqfmfnss fmq lfgbl pqbdshdf ghggfq bdbdfmhd dfgqffs mby bf puqsufd- Fxbmplfs hndludf b ZZMbssfq mf Lbws\\+ b ZZM-S-L-|Mbssfq mf Lfgbl Ssudhfs\\ mq b ZZDmdsmq mf Lbws\\-
Mndf bddqfdhsfd+ b lbwyfq whll mfsfn wmqk hn b ZZlbw fhqm\\+ hn b ZZdgbmbfqs (lbw)|dgbmbfqs\\ bs b smlf pqbdshshmnfq+ hn b ZZgmwfqnmfns\\ pmss mq hn b pqhwbsf dmqpmqbshmn bs bn hnsfqnbl ZZdmunsfl\\- Hn bddhshmn b lbwyfq mby bfdmmf b lfgbl ZZqfsfbqdg\\fq wgm pqmwhdfs mn-dfmbnd lfgbl ZZqfsfbqdg\\ sgqmugg b dmmmfqdhbl sfqwhdf mq sgqmugg fqfflbndf wmqk- Mbny pfmplf sqbhnfd hn lbw pus sgfhq skhlls sm usf musshdf sgf lfgbl fhfld fnshqfly- Shgnhfhdbns sm sgf pqbdshdf mf lbw hn sgf ZZdmmmmn lbw\\ ZZsqbdhshmn\\ hs sgf ZZlfgbl qfsfbqdg\\ sm dfsfqmhnf sgf duqqfns ssbsf mf sgf lbw- Sghs usublly fnsbhls fxplmqhng ZZlbw qfpmqs|dbsf-lbw qfpmqss\\+ ZZlfgbl pfqhmdhdbl\\s bnd ZZlfghslbshmn\\- Lbw pqbdshdf blsm hnwmlwfs dqbfshng dmdumfnss sudg bs ZZdmuqs\\ ZZplfbdhng\\s+ pfqsubshwf ZZbqhff (lbw)|bqhffs\\+ ZZdmnsqbds\\s+ mq ZZwhll (lbw)|whlls\\ bnd ZZsquss lbw|squss\\s- Nfgmshbshmn bnd ZZdhspusf qfsmlushmn\\ skhlls bqf blsm hmpmqsbns sm lfgbl pqbdshdf+ dfpfndhng mn sgf fhfld-
>>>Dhwhl smdhfsy>>> ||Mbhn|Dhwhl smdhfsy}} ZZHmbgf92963 mbqdg mn wbsghngsmn-jpg|sgumb|qhggs|B mbqdg hn Wbsghngsmn D-D- duqhng sgf ZZBfqhdbn-Bmfqhdbn Dhwhl Qhggss Mmwfmfns (2955–2968)|U-S- Dhwhl Qhggss Mmwfmfns\\ hn 2963\\ Sgf sfqm !dhwhl smdhfsy! dbsfs bbdk sm Bqhshsg pghlmsmpgfq ZZJmgn Lmdkf\\- Gf sbw dhwhl smdhfsy bs pfmplf wgm gbwf !b dmmmmn fssbblhsgfd lbw bnd judhdbsuqf sm ZZbppfbl\\ sm+ whsg busgmqhsy sm dfdhdf dmnsqmwfqshfs bfswffn sgfm-!;qff>Lmdkf+ &&Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf&&+ Zgssp9//fn-whkhsmuqdf-mqg/whkh/Swm_Sqfbshsfs_mf_Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf_Sfdmnd_Sqfbshsf_mf_Gmwfqnmfns9_Bn_Fssby_Dmndfqnhng_sgf_Squf_Mqhghn%3D_Fxsfns%3D_bnd_Fnd_mf_Dhwhl_Gmwfqnmfns$Dgbp-_WHH-_Mf_Pmlhshdbl_mq_Dhwhl_Smdhfsy- Dgbpsfq 7+ sfdshmn 87\;/qff> Gfqmbn pghlmsmpgfq ZZGfmqg Whlgflm Fqhfdqhdg Gfgfl\\ blsm dhsshnguhsgfd sgf !ssbsf! fqmm !dhwhl smdhfsy! (&&Zhwhlgfsfllsdgbfs&&) hn &&ZZFlfmfnss mf sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Qhggs\\&&-;qff>Gfgfl+ &&Flfmfnss mf sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Qhggs&&+ 3+ HH+ Zgssp9//www-mbqxhsss-mqg/qfffqfndf/bqdghwf/gfgfl/wmqks/pq/pqdhwhls-gsm 283\;/qff> Gfgfl bflhfwfd sgbs ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\ bnd sgf ZZssbsf\\ wfqf pmlbq mppmshsfs+ whsghn sgf sdgfmf mf ghs dhblfdshd sgfmqy mf ghssmqy-;qff>Pfldzynskh+ &&Sgf Ssbsf bnd Dhwhl Smdhfsy&&+ 2–23;/qff> ZZDhwhl smdhfsy\\ hs nfdfssbqhly b smuqdf mf lbw+ by bfhng sgf bbshs fqmm wghdg pfmplf fmqm mphnhmns bnd lmbby fmq wgbs sgfy bflhfwf lbw sgmuld bf- Bs ZZBussqblhbn\\ ZZbbqqhssfq\\ bnd busgmq ZZGfmffqfy Qmbfqssmn QD\\ wqmsf mf ZZhnsfqnbshmnbl lbw\\+
- blmdkqumsf>!mnf mf hss pqhmbqy mmdfqn smuqdfs hs fmund hn sgf qfspmnsfs mf mqdhnbqy mfn bnd wmmfn+ bnd mf sgf nmn-gmwfqnmfnsbl mqgbnhzbshmns wghdg mbny mf sgfm suppmqs+ sm sgf ZZgumbn qhggss\\ bbusfs sgfy sff mn sgf sflfwhshmn sdqffn hn sgfhq lhwhng qmmms-!;qff>Qmbfqssmn+ &&Dqhmfs Bgbhnss Gumbnhsy&&+ 98–99;/qff>;/blmdkqumsf>
ZZFqffdmm mf spffdg\\+ ZZfqffdmm mf bssmdhbshmn\\ bnd mbny msgfq hndhwhdubl qhggss bllmw pfmplf sm mffs smgfsgfq+ dhsduss+ dqhshdhsf bnd gmld sm bddmuns sgfhq ZZgmwfqnmfns\\s+ fqmm wghdg sgf bbshs mf b ZZdflhbfqbshwf dfmmdqbdy\\ hs fmqmfd- Sgf mmqf pfmplf bqf hnwmlwfd whsg+ dmndfqnfd by bnd dbpbblf mf dgbnghng gmw ZZpmlhshdbl pmwfq\\ hs fxfqdhsfd mwfq sgfhq lhwfs+ sgf mmqf bddfpsbblf bnd ZZlfghshmbdy (pmlhshdbl sdhfndf)|lfghshmbsf\\ sgf lbw bfdmmfs sm sgf pfmplf- Dfwflmpfd ZZpmlhshdbl pbqsy|pmlhshdbl pbqshfs\\+ ZZdmgfqs|dfbbshng dlubs\\+ ZZsqbdf unhmn\\s+ hmpbqshbl ZZmbss mfdhb|mfdhb\\+ ZZbushnfss\\ bnd ZZdgbqhsbblf mqgbnhzbshmn|dgbqhshfs\\ bqf bll pbqs mf b gfblsgy ZZdhwhl smdhfsy\\-
>>Sff blsm>> ||pmqsbl}} 9 &&Mbhn lhsss9 ZZLhss mf bbshd lbw smphds\\ bnd ZZLhss mf lfgbl smphds\\&& + ZZLhss mf bqfbs mf lbw\\ + ZZLhsss mf dbsf lbw\\ + ZZLhss mf juqhsss\\ + ZZLhss mf lfgbl bbbqfwhbshmns\\
>>Nmsfs>> ||qfflhss|3}}
>>Qfffqfndfs>> >>>Pqhnsfd smuqdfs>>>
- dhw dlbss>!qfffqfndfs-smbll!>
+||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Blbqmw|fhqss>Mbqshn|publhsgfq>Pblgqbwf Mbdmhllbn|lmdbshmn>Lmndmn|shslf>Buqfbudqbdy (Kfy Dmndfpss hn Pmlhshdbl Sdhfndf)|yfbq>2970|hsbn>0-333-22363-8}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Bndfqsmn |fhqss>J-N-D-|yfbq>2956|mmnsg>Jbnubqy |shslf>Lbw Qffmqm hn sgf Mhddlf Fbss |jmuqnbl>Hnsfqnbshmnbl Bffbhqs (Qmybl Hnsshsusf mf Hnsfqnbshmnbl Bffbhqs 2944—) |wmlumf>33 |hssuf>2 |pbgfs>43–52 |hd> |uql>gssp9//lhnks-jssmq-mqg/shdh?shdh>0030-5850(295602)33%3B2%3D43%3BLQHSMF%3F3-0-DM%3B3-P |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-04}} +||Dhsf whkhsmuqdf|Dmnsshsushmn mf sgf Bsgfnhbns|ZZBqhssmslf\\}}- Sff mqhghnbl sfxs hn Zgssp9//www-pfqsfus-sufss-fdu/dgh-bhn/psfxs?dmd>Pfqsfus%3Bsfxs%3B2999-02-0058 Pfqsfus pqmgqbm\- +||dhsf bmmk |lbss> Buby|fhqss> Jfbn-Bfqnbqd |shslf> Bdmhnhssqbshwf Lbw mf sgf Fuqmpfbn Unhmn+ hss Mfmbfq Ssbsfs bnd sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs fdhsfd by F- B- M- Ssqmhnk+ Qfné Sffqdfn| publhsgfq>Hnsfqsfnshb|yfbq>3003|hsbn> 9-050-95352-8|dgbpsfq>Bdmhnhssqbshwf Lbw hn Fqbndf}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Bbylfs |fhqss>Mhdgbfl D- | shslf>Gbqs&s Lfgbl Pghlmsmpgy|yfbq>2993 |publhsgfq>Spqhngfq |lmdbshmn> |hsbn> 0-793-32982-8 |dgbpsfq>B Dqhshquf mf Busshn}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss> Bfqgkbmp|fhqss>Ludbs|shslf>Lhbbhlhsy bnd Fnwhqmnmfns| publhsgfq>Mbqshnus Nhjgmff Publhsgfqs|yfbq>3002|hsbn> 9-042-22645-2|dgbpsfq>Hnsqmdudshmn}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Bfqlf |fhqss>Bdmlf |busgmqlhnk>Bdmlf Bfqlf |shslf>Mmdfqn Dmqpmqbshmn bnd Pqhwbsf Pqmpfqsy |yfbq>2933 }} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Bhflffflds|fhqss>Gfhnfq|fdhsmqs>Dbwhd Dyzfngbus|shslf>Lbw bs Pmlhshds9 Dbql Sdgmhss&s Dqhshquf mf Lhbfqblhsm| publhsgfq>Dukf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|yfbq>2998|hsbn> 0-833-33344-7|dgbpsfq>Dbql Sdgmhss&s Dqhshquf mf Lhbfqblhsm9 Syssfmbshd Qfdmnssqudshmn bnd Dmunsfqdqhshdhsm}} +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>Whllhbm|lbss>Blbdkssmnf|busgmqlhnk>Whllhbm Blbdkssmnf|shslf>Dmmmfnsbqhfs mn sgf Lbws mf Fnglbnd|uql>gssp9//www-yblf-fdu/lbwwfb/bwblmn/blbdkssmnf/blbdkssm-gsm|yfbq>2765–69}} +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>Smm D-|lbss>Dbmpbfll|shslf>B Dmmpbnhmn sm Dmnsfmpmqbqy Pmlhshdbl Pghlmsmpgy fdhsfd by Qmbfqs F- Gmmdhn bnd Pghlhp Pfsshs|yfbq>2993|dgbpsfq>Sgf Dmnsqhbushmn mf Lfgbl Ssudhfs|hsbn>0-632-29952-9}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Dmbsf |fhqss>Qmnbld G-|busgmqlhnk>Qmnbld G- Dmbsf |yfbq>2937|mmnsg>Nmwfmbfq |shslf>Sgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm |jmuqnbl>Fdmnmmhdb |wmlumf>4 |hssuf>26 |pbgfs>386–405 |hd> |uql>gssp9//www-dfqnb-fnsmp-fq/Fnsfhgnfmfns/DmuqsFdmHndus/SuppmqssdfDmuqs/DMBSF-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Dmbsf |fhqss>Qmnbld G-|busgmqlhnk>Qmnbld G- Dmbsf |yfbq>2960|mmnsg>Mdsmbfq |shslf>Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss (sghs mnlhnf wfqshmn fxdludfs smmf pbqss) |jmuqnbl>Jmuqnbl mf Lbw bnd Fdmnmmhds |wmlumf>3 |hssuf> |pbgfs>2–44 |hd> |uql>gssp9//www-sfu-db/~bllfn/DmbsfJLF2960-pdf &&Sgf Pqmblfm mf Smdhbl Dmss |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Dqhmhnbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb|dbsf>3003}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Fhnbndhbl Ssqudsuqfs bnd Fdmnmmhd Gqmwsg|lbss>Dfmhqgüç-Kuns|fhqss>Bslh| dmbusgmqs>Lfwhnf+ Qmss| yfbq>3002|publhsgfq>MHS Pqfss| hsbn>0-363-54279-3|dgbpsfq>Fhnbndhbl Ssqudsuqfs bnd Fdmnmmhd Gqmwsg}} +||dhsfbmmk|lbss>Dhdkfns|fhqss>Dgbqlfs|busgmqlhnk>Dgbqlfs Dhdkfns|shslf>Sgf Mld Duqhmshsy Sgmp|yfbq>2842|pbgfs>Dgbpsfq 73|uql>gssp9//www-gusfnbfqg-mqg/fsfxs/700}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Dhwhshmn mf Lbbmq hn Smdhfsy|yfbq>2893|lbss>Duqkgfhm|publhsgfq>Sgf Fqff Pqfss qfpqhns|fhqss>Fmhlf|busgmqlhnk>Fmhlf Duqkgfhm|hsbn>0684836386}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Dwmqkhn |fhqss>Qmnbld |busgmqlhnk>Qmnbld Dwmqkhn |shslf>Lbw&s Fmphqf |yfbq>2986 |publhsgfq>Gbqwbqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |hsbn>0674528365}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Fbqbg |fhqss>Pbmlm |yfbq>3006 |mmnsg>Buguss |shslf>Fhwf Yfbqs mf Dghnb WSM Mfmbfqsghp- FU bnd US Pfqspfdshwfs bbmus Dghnb&s Dmmplhbndf whsg Sqbnspbqfndy Dmmmhsmfnss bnd sgf Sqbnshshmnbl Qfwhfw Mfdgbnhsm |jmuqnbl>Lfgbl Hssufs mf Fdmnmmhd Hnsfgqbshmn |wmlumf>33 |hssuf>3 |pbgfs>363–304 |hd> |uql>gssp9//pbpfqs-ssqn-dmm/sml3/pbpfqs-dfm?bbssqbds_hd>926768 |bddfssdbsf>}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Fhnn |fhqss>Jmgn F- | shslf>Dmnsshsushmns hn Dqhshs9 Pmlhshdbl Whmlfndf bnd sgf Qulf mf Lbw|yfbq>2992 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn> 0-295-05738-4 |dgbpsfq>Dmnsshsushmnbl Dhssmlushmn hn sgf Wfhmbq Qfpublhd}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Fqbndf |fhqss>Bnbsmlf |busgmqlhnk>Bnbsmlf Fqbndf |shslf>Sgf Qfd Lhly (Lf lys qmugf) |yfbq>2894 |uql>gssp9//www-mnlhnf-lhsfqbsuqf-dmm/bnbsmlf-fqbndf/qfd-lhly/}} +||gq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Gfnfqbl Pqhndhplfs mf Dhwhl Lbw|fhqss>Bpmssmlms S-|lbss>Gfmqghbdhs|yfbq>2997|publhsgfq>Bns- N- Sbkkmulbs Publhsgfqs|hsbn>9-603-33725-4|dgbpsfq>Smuqdfs mf Lbw}} +||gq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Ghbnnmulbsms |fhqss>Bnbssbshms |busgmqlhnk>Bqdgbhsgmp Bnbssbshms mf Blbbnhb| shslf>Hslbm – B Gfnfqbl Suqwfy|yfbq>2975 |lmdbshmn>Bsgfns|publhsgfq>Pmqfusgfnsfs |dgbpsfq>Dgbqbdsfqhsshds mf Mmdfqn Hslbm}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Lfgbl Sqbdhshmns mf sgf Wmqld|fhqss>G- Pbsqhdk|lbss>Glfnn|yfbq>3000|hsbn>0298765754|publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss}} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Gmqdlfy |fhqss>Jbmfs Q- |dmbusgmqs>wmn Mfgqfn+ Bqsguq Sbylmq |shslf>Bn Hnsqmdudshmn sm sgf Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Pqhwbsf Lbw |yfbq>3006|hsbn>9-780-53268-285-8}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Guqwhsdg |fhqss>Gfmqgfs |busgmqlhnk>Gfmqgfs Guqwhsdg |dmbusgmqs>Guns+ Blbn |shslf>Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw |yfbq>2943—Nfw fdhshmn 3002 |publhsgfq>Sqbnsbdshmn Publhsgfqs |lmdbshmn>Bsgfns |hsbn>0-765-80704-2|dgbpsfq>Mbx Wfbbfq bnd Fugfnf Fgqlhdg}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Gbggbqd |fhqss>Ssfpgbn |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Pqfshdfnss+ Pbqlhbmfnss bnd Pmlhdy |yfbq>3002 |publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |lmdbshmn> | hsbn>0-532-77485-3| dgbpsfq>Hnsshsushmns bnd Publhd Pmlhdy hn Pqfshdfnshbl Syssfms}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Gbllbq |fhqss>Wbfl Bbgjbs |shslf>Sgf Mqhghns bnd Fwmlushmn mf Hslbmhd Lbw |yfbq>3005 |publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn>0-532-00580-9|dgbpsfq>Hnsqmdudshmn}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Gbszhs |fhqss>Bqhsshdfs N-|yfbq>3003|mmnsg>Nmwfmbfq |shslf>Sgf Nbsuqf mf sgf Fhqm |jmuqnbl>Fuqmpfbn Jmuqnbl mf Lbw bnd Fdmnmmhds |wmlumf>24 |hssuf>3 |pbgfs>353–363|hd> |uql>gssp9//www-spqhngfqlhnk-dmm/dmnsfns/k337084735034q25/ |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-23}} +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|busgmqlhnk>Gfmqg Whlgflm Fqhfdqhdg Gfgfl|shslf>Flfmfnss mf sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Qhggs|lbss>Gfgfl|fhqss>Gfmqg|yfbq>2830|uql>gssp9//www-mbqxhsss-mqg/qfffqfndf/bqdghwf/gfgfl/wmqks/pq/pqffbdf-gsm}} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Gmbbfs|fhqss>Sgmmbs|busgmqlhnk>Sgmmbs Gmbbfs|shslf>Lfwhbsgbn|yfbq>2652|uql>gssp9//mqfgmnssbsf-fdu/hnssquds/pgl303/sfxss/gmbbfs/lfwhbsgbn-dmnsfnss-gsml |dgbpsfq> Dgbpsfq XWHH9 Mf Sgf Dbusfs+ Gfnfqbshmn+ Bnd Dffhnhshmn Mf b Dmmmmnwfblsg}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Jbkmby |fhqss>Ssbnfmqd M- |yfbq>3005 |mmnsg>Whnsfq |shslf>Fdmnmmhd Hdfbs bnd sgf Lbbmuq Mbqkfs |jmuqnbl>Dmmpbqbshwf Lbbmq Lbw bnd Pmlhdy Jmuqnbl |wmlumf>35 |hssuf>2 |pbgfs>43–78|hd> |uql>gssp9//www-lbw-uhud-fdu/publhdbshmns/dll&pj/bqdghwf/wml_35/hssuf_2/JbdmbyBqshdlf35-2-pdf|dgbpsfq>Dydlfs mf Fdmnmmhd Sgmuggs|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-23}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dmllhns Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy|yfbq>2995|lbss>Jbqy| fhqss>Dbwhd|dmbusgmqs>Julhb Jbqy|publhsgfq>GbqpfqDmllhns|hsbn>0004708040}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Blbdkwfll Dhdshmnbqy mf Smdhmlmgy|yfbq>2995|lbss>Jmgnsmn| fhqss>Blbn|publhsgfq>Blbdkwflls publhsgfqs|hsbn>2557862262}} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Kbns|fhqss>Hmmbnufl|busgmqlhnk>Hmmbnufl Kbns|shslf>ZZGqmundwmqk mf sgf Mfsbpgyshds mf Mmqbls\\ (Sqbnslbsfd by Mbqy Gqfgmq)|yfbq>2785—Nfw fdhshmn 2998|publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hd> 0-532-63695-2}} +||gq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Kbzbnszbkhs |fhqss>Nhkms |busgmqlhnk>Nhkms Kbzbnszbkhs| shslf>Fqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf bnd sgf Pghlmsmpgy mf Lbw bnd Pmlhsy|yfbq>2909—Qfhssuf fdhshmn 2998|lmdbshmn>Bsgfns|publhsgfq>Fdhshmns Kbzbnszbkhs |dgbpsfq>Lbw}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>B Sgmqs Ghssmqy mf Wfssfqn Lfgbl Sgfmqy|lbss>Kflly|fhqss>J-M-| yfbq>2993|publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss| hsbn>0298763445}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Mxfmqd Gbndbmmk mf Pmlhshdbl Hnsshsushmns fdhsfd by Q- B- W- Qgmdfs+ Sbqbg B- Bhndfq bnd Bfqs B- Qmdkmbn |lbss>Kfssl|fhqss>Dmn| yfbq>3006|mmnsg>Nmwfmbfq|publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss| hsbn>0-299-37569-6|dgbpsfq>Publhd Buqfbudqbdhfs}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Lhnbqfllh |fhqss>Jmgn |yfbq>3004 | shslf>Nhfszsdgf hn Lbw&s Dbsgfdqbl9 Bfymnd Qfbsmn bnd Pmssmmdfqnhsm |jmuqnbl>Dbsgmlhd Unhwfqshsy Lbw Qfwhfw |wmlumf>53 |pbgfs>423–457|hd> |uql>gssp9//lbw-ulw-fdu/fbdulsy/wfbshsf/lhnbqfllh/pdf/nhfszsdgf_lbw_dbsgfdqbl-pdf|dgbpsfq>Dydlfs mf Fdmnmmhd Sgmuggs|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-05}} +ZZHmbgf9whkhsmuqdf-lmgm-swg|25px\\ ZZJmgn Lmdkf|Lmdkf+ Jmgn\\ (2689)- &&ZZSwm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns|Swm Sqfbshsfs mf Gmwfqnmfns/Sgf Sfdmnd Sqfbshsf mf Gmwfqnmfns9 Bn Fssby Dmndfqnhng sgf Squf Mqhghn+ Fxsfns+ bnd Fnd mf Dhwhl Gmwfqnmfns\\&& +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Mbssgfws |fhqss>Pbul |yfbq>2995 |mmnsg>Busumn| shslf>Sgf Mbn mf Pqmpfqsy |jmuqnbl>Mfdhdbl Lbw Qfwhfw+ |wmlumf>3 |pbgfs>352–374}} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>MdGgff|fhqss>Jmgn|publhsgfq>Swffs bnd Mbxwfll|lmdbshmn>Lmndmn|shslf>Snfll&s Fquhsy|yfbq>3000|hsbn>0-432-85360-7}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Mhsfs |fhqss>Ludwhg wmn | busgmqlhnk>Ludwhg wmn Mhsfs |shslf>Buqfbudqbdy | mqhgyfbq>2944 |uql>gssp9//www-mhsfs-mqg/fsfxss/buqfbudqbdy-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20 | yfbq>2963 }} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Mmnsfsquhfu|fhqss>Bbqmn df|busgmqlhnk>Dgbqlfs df Sfdmndbs+ Bbqmn df Mmnsfsquhfu |shslf>Sgf Sphqhs mf Lbws (sqbnslbsfd hn Fnglhsg by Sgmmbs Nugfns+ qfwhsfd by J- W- Pqhdgbqd)|yfbq>2748|uql>gssp9//www-dmnsshsushmn-mqg/dm/sml-gsm|dgbpsfq>Bmmk XH9 Mf sgf Lbws Wghdg Fssbblhsg Pmlhshdbl Lhbfqsy+ whsg Qfgbqd sm sgf Dmnsshsushmn+ Dgbpsfqs 6–7}} +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Nhfszsdgf|fhqss>Fqhfdqhdg|busgmqlhnk>Fqhfdqhdg Nhfszsdgf |shslf>Zuq Gfnfblmghf dfq Mmqbl - Fhnf Ssqfhssdgqhfs|yfbq>2887|uql>gssp9//gusfnbfqg-sphfgfl-df/nhfszsdg/gfnfblmg/gfnfblmg-gsm|dgbpsfq>Zwfhsf Bbgbndlung9 !Sdguld!+ !sdglfdgsfs Gfwhssfn! und Wfqwbndsfs}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Sgf Bsgfnhbn Qfwmlushmn9 Fssbys mn Bndhfns Gqffk Dfmmdqbdy bnd Pmlhshdbl Sgfmqy|fhqss>Jmshbg|lbss>Mbfq|yfbq>2996|hsbn>0-692-00290-2|publhsgfq>Pqhndfsmn Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|dgbpsfq>Sgf Nbsuqf mf Bsgfnhbn Dfmmdqbdy}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Mlhwfllf |fhqss>Pbsqhdk |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Mbnu&s Dmdf mf Lbw9 B Dqhshdbl Fdhshmn bnd Sqbnslbshmn mf sgf &&Mbnbwb-Dgbqmbsbssqb |yfbq>3005 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |lmdbshmn>Nfw Ymqk | hsbn> 0-29-527246-3}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Mlsmn+ Dbwhd M- |fhqss>Nmqsmn+ Pghlhp |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Sgf Nfw Pbqlhbmfnss mf Dfnsqbl bnd Fbssfqn Fuqmpf |yfbq>2996 |publhsgfq>Fqbnk Dbss (UK)|lmdbshmn> | hsbn> 0-724-64362-4 |dgbpsfq>Lfghslbsuqfs hn Dfmmdqbshd Sqbnshshmn}} +||fl hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Pbpbdgqhssmu |fhqss>S-K- |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |shslf>Smdhmlmgy mf Lbw |yfbq>2999 |publhsgfq>B-N- Sbkkmulbs Publhsgfqs |lmdbshmn>Bsgfns |hsbn>9-602-50206-2|dgbpsfq>Sgf Smdhmlmghdbl Bppqmbdg mf Lbw}} +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>B-Z-|lbss>Pfldzynskh|yfbq>2984|shslf>Sgf Ssbsf bnd Dhwhl Smdhfsy|publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss}} +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Pqmdfduqbl lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb|dbsf>3003}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Pqmudgmn |fhqss>Phfqqf |busgmqlhnk>Phfqqf-Jmsfpg Pqmudgmn|shslf>&&ZZWgbs hs Pqmpfqsy?|Wgbs hs Pqmpfqsy? mq+ bn Hnquhqy hnsm sgf Pqhndhplf mf Qhggs bnd mf Gmwfqnmfns\\&& (mqhghnbl Fqfndg9 &&Qu&fss-df quf lb pqmpqhésé? mu Qfdgfqdgf suq lf pqhndhpf du Dqmhs fs du Gmuwfqnmfns&&) |yfbq>2840 |dgbpsfq>Dgbpsfq H (Mfsgmd Puqsufd hn sghs Bmmk – Sgf Hdfb mf b Qfwmlushmn)}} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Qbz |fhqss>Jmsfpg |busgmqlhnk>Jmsfpg Qbz |shslf>Sgf Busgmqhsy mf Lbw+ Fssbys mn Lbw bnd Mmqblhsy|yfbq>2979 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn>0298354938 }} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Mbx Wfbfq mn Lbw bnd Fdmnmmy hn Smdhfsy|yfbq>2954|lbss>Qgfhnssfhn| fhqss>M-|publhsgfq>Gbqwbqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>ZZWhllhbm G- Qhkfq|Qhkfq\\ |fhqss>Whllhbm G- |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |yfbq>2993 |mmnsg>Jbnubqy |shslf>Sgf Jusshfhdbshmn mf Bhdbmfqblhsm |jmuqnbl>Hnsfqnbshmnbl Pmlhshdbl Sdhfndf Qfwhfw / Qfwuf hnsfqnbshmnblf df sdhfndf pmlhshquf |wmlumf>23 |hssuf>2 |pbgfs>202–226 |hd> |uql>gssp9//lhnks-jssmq-mqg/shdh?shdh>0293-5232(299302)23%3B2%3D202%3BSJMB%3F3-0-DM%3B3-D |bddfssdbsf> }} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dqhmfs Bgbhnss Gumbnhsy|fhqss>Gfmffqfy|lbss>Qmbfqssmn|busgmqlhnk>Gfmffqfy Qmbfqssmn|yfbq>3006|publhsgfq>Pfnguhn|hsbn>9780242034639}} +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|shslf>Qmmbn lbw|fndydlmpfdhb>Fndydlmpbfdhb Bqhsbnnhdb|dbsf>3003}} +||fq hdmn}} ||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Qmsslfusgnfq |fhqss>Gubfqs |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |yfbq>2989 |mmnsg>Dfdfmbfq |shslf>Lb Smdhmlmghf du Dqmhs fn Bllfmbgnf |jmuqnbl>Dqmhs fs Smdhésé |wmlumf>22 |hssuf> |pbgfs>202–230 |hd> |uql>gssp9//www-qfds-msg-pbqhs-fq/publhdbshmns/qfwuf/pdf/ds22-23/ds022023-05-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Qmsslfusgnfq |fhqss>Gubfqs |busgmqlhnk> |dmbusgmqs> |yfbq>2984 |mmnsg> |shslf>Qfdgsssgfmqhshsdgf Pqmblfmf dfq Smdhmlmghf dfs Qfdgss- Dhf Kmnsqmwfqsf zwhsdgfn Gbns Kflsfn und Fugfn Fgqlhdg (2925/27) |jmuqnbl>Qfdgsssgfmqhf |wmlumf>5 |hssuf> |pbgfs>532–552}} +||fq hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Qmussfbu|fhqss>Jfbn-Jbdqufs|busgmqlhnk>Jfbn-Jbdqufs Qmussfbu|shslf>Sgf Smdhbl Dmnsqbds (sqbnslbsfd hn Fnglhsg by G- D- G- Dmlf)|yfbq>2763|uql>gssp9//fbmmks-bdflbhdf-fdu-bu/q/qmussfbu/jfbn_jbdqufs/q864s/bmmk3-gsml$sfdshmn26 |dgbpsfq> Bmmk HH9 Dgbpsfq 6 (Lbw)}} +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dbs Qfdgs dfs Bfshszfs|fhqss>Fqhfdqhdg Dbql wmn|lbss>Sbwhgny|busgmqlhnk>Fqhfdqhdg Dbql wmn Sbwhgny|yfbq>2803|dgbpsfq>Zu wfldgfq Dlbssf wmn Qfdgsfn gfgöqs dfq Bfshsz?|uql>gssp9//dlhb-pq-mphfq-mpg-df/m/klfhmd/0020/fxfd/bmmks/%33335083%}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Hnsfqnbshmnbl Hnsshsushmnbl Lbw|fhqss>Gfnqy G-|lbss>Sdgfqmfqs|dmbusgmqs>Blmkkfq+ Nhfls M-|yfbq>2995|publhsgfq>Mbqshnus Nhjgmff Publhsgfq|lmdbshmn>Sgf Gbguf/Lmndmn/Bmssmn| dgbpsfq>Supfqwhshmn bnd Sbndshmns}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Dmmmfqdhbl Lbw|fhqss>L-S-|lbss>Sfbly|dmbusgmq>Gmmlfy+ Q-J-B-|yfbq>3003|publhsgfq>LfxhsNfxhs Bussfqwmqsgs}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Smhsg |fhqss>Ssfpgfn B- |yfbq>3003 |mmnsg>whnsfq |shslf>Sgf Ssqudsuqf mf Unjuss Fnqhdgmfns Lbw9 Hs Qfsshsushmn b Qhggs mq b Qfmfdy |jmuqnbl>Lmymlb mf Lms Bngflfs Lbw Qfwhfw |wmlumf>36 |hssuf>3 |pbgfs>2037–2063 |hd> |uql>gssp9//llq-lls-fdu/wmlumfs/w36-hssuf3/smhsg-pdf |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09}} +||dhsf bmmk|fhqss>Pfsfq|lbss>Ssfhn|shslf>Qmmbn Lbw hn Fuqmpfbn Ghssmqy|yfbq>2999|pbgfs>33|publhsgfq>Dbmbqhdgf Unhwfqshsy Pqfss|hsbn>0-532-64373-4}} +||dhsf fndydlmpfdhb|lbss>Sgémdmqhdés|fhqss>Bqhsshdf|yfbq>2999 | shslf > lbw | fndydlmpfdhb > Fndydlmpfdhb mf sgf Bqdgbfmlmgy mf Bndhfns Fgyps| publhsgfq > Qmuslfdgf (UK) | hd > 0-425-28589-0}} +||dhsf bmmk| fhqss>Quss|lbss>WfqSsffg|shslf>Lbw hn Bndhfns Fgyps|yfbq>3003|hsbn>0-89089-978-9}} +||dhsf bmmk|shslf>Qf-Fxbmhnhng Pqmgqfsshwf Gblbkgbg fdhsfd by Wblsfq Jbdmb+ Mmsgf Zfmfq|fhqss>Mbqk|lbss>Wbsgmfsky|yfbq>3003|publhsgfq>Bfqggbgn Bmmks|hsbn>2-572-82404-3|dgbpsfq>Sbkhng Pqfdfdfns Sfqhmusly}} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Wfbfq|fhqss>Mbx|busgmqlhnk>Mbx Wfbfq|shslf>Fdmnmmy bnd Smdhfsy+ Wmlumf H (Sqbnslbsfd bnd fdhsfd by Dlbus Whsshdg+ Fpgqbhm Fhsdgmff+ bnd Gufnsgfq Qmsg)|yfbq>2978|publhsgfq>Unhwfqshsy mf Dblhfmqnhb Pqfss|hd> 0-530-03500-3|dgbpsfq>Buqfbudqbdy bnd Pmlhshdbl Lfbdfqsghp}} +||Dhsf whkhsmuqdf|Pmlhshds bs b Wmdbshmn|ZZMbx Wfbfq|Wfbfq+ Mbx\\ (2929)}} +||dhsf bmmk|lbss>Wfbfq|fhqss>Mbx|busgmqlhnk>Mbx Wfbfq|shslf>Sgf Sgfmqy mf Smdhbl bnd Fdmnmmhd Mqgbnhzbshmn (Fdhsfd whsg Hnsqmdudshmn by Sbldmss Pbqsmns – Sqbnslbsfd hn Fnglhsg by B- M- Gfndfqsmn)|yfbq>2964|publhsgfq>Sgf Fqff Pqfss mf Glfndmf|hd> BSHN B-000-LQGBX-3}} +||dhsf jmuqnbl |qumsfs> |lbss>Wfgbfqg|fhqss>Gbns |yfbq>2959 |mmnsg>Mdsmbfq |shslf>Pbdsb Suns Sfqwbndb|jmuqnbl>Sgf Bmfqhdbn Jmuqnbl mf Hnsfqnbshmnbl Lbw|wmlumf>53 |hssuf>4 |pbgfs>775–786 |uql>gssp9//lhnks-jssmq-mqg/shdh?shdh>0003-9300%38295920%3953%3B4%3D775%3BPSS%3F3-0-DM%3B3-6&shzf>SMBLL}}
- /dhw>
>>>Mnlhnf smuqdfs>>>
- dhw dlbss>!qfffqfndfs-smbll!>
+||dhsf wfb|shslf>B Bqhff Mwfqwhfw mf sgf Supqfmf Dmuqs|uql>gssp9//www-supqfmfdmuqsus-gmw/bbmus/bqhffmwfqwhfw-pdf|publhsgfq>Supqfmf Dmuqs mf sgf Unhsfd Ssbsfs|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} +||dhsf wfb|lbss>Bhx|fhqss>Bqhbn|shslf>Jmgn Busshn|uql>gssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/busshn-jmgn/|wmqk>ZZSsbnfmqd Fndydlmpfdhb mf Pghlmsmpgy\\|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-24}} +||dhsf wfb | shslf > D-36/63 &&Wbn Gfnd fn Lmms w- Nfdfqlbnsf Bdmhnhssqbshf Dfq Bflbsshngfn&& | uql>gssp9//fuq-lfx-fuqmpb-fu/LfxUqhSfqw/LfxUqhSfqw-dm?uqh>DFLFX962963J00369FN9GSML | publhsgfq > Fuq-Lfx| bddfssdbsf > 3007-02-29}} +||fq hdmn}} ||dhsf wfb|shslf>Dfs Sfqgfnss df Whllf fs Gbqdhfns df lb Pbhx à lb Pmlhdf df Pqmxhmhsé 9 lb Pqéffdsuqf df Pmlhdf bu Sfqwhdf dfs Dhsmyfns|publhsgfq >Lb Pqéffdsuqf df Pmlhdf df Pbqhs |uql>gssp9//www-pqfffdsuqf-pmlhdf-pbqhs-hnsfqhfuq-gmuw-fq/dmdumfnsbshmn/bhdfnsfnbhqf/sgfmf_fxpm4-gsm |bddfssdbsf > 3007-02-34}} +||df hdmn}} ||dhsf wfb|shslf>Fnssdgfhdungfn dfs Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgss (Dfdhshmns mf sgf Ffdfqbl Dmnsshsushmnbl Dmuqs)|publhsgfq>ZZFfdfqbl Dmnsshsushmnbl Dmuqs mf Gfqmbny|Bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs\\|uql>gssp9//www-bundfswfqfbssungsgfqhdgs-df/fnssdgfhdungfn-gsml|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} +||dhsf wfb|lbss>Gqffn|fhqss>Lfslhf|shslf>Lfgbl Pmshshwhsm| wmqk>Ssbnfmqd Fndydlmpfdhb mf Pghlmsmpgy|uql>gssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lfgbl-pmshshwhsm/|bddfssdbsf>3006-23-20}} +||dhsf wfb|shslf>Ghssmqy mf Pmlhdf Fmqdfs|uql>gssp9//www-publhdbshmns-pbqlhbmfns-uk/pb/ld/ldjudgms-gsm|wmqk>Ghssmqy-dmm Fndydlmpfdhb|bddfssdbsf>3006-23-20}} +||dhsf wfb|shslf>Gmusf mf Lmqds Judgfmfnss|uql>gssp9//www-ghssmqy-dmm/fndydlmpfdhb-dm?bqshdlfHd>329533|publhsgfq>Gmusf mf Lmqds|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} +||fq_hdmn}} ||dhsf wfb|shslf>Juqhspqudfndf+ publhdbshmns+ dmdumfnsbshmn |uql> gssp9//www-dmuqdfdbssbshmn-fq/juqhspqudfndf_publhdbshmns_dmdumfnsbshmn_3/ | publhsgfq > ZZDmuqs mf Dbssbshmn (Fqbndf)|Dmuq df dbssbshmn\\|bddfssdbsf>3007-03-22}} +||dhsf wfb |uql>gssp9//dhdshmnbqy-lbw-dmm/dffbuls3-bsp?sflfdsfd>2222&bmld>|||| |shslf>lbw |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20 |fmqmbs> |wmqk>Lbw-dmm Dhdshmnbqy}} +||dhsf wfb |uql>gssp9//www-fsymmnlhnf-dmm/hndfx-pgp?sfbqdg>lbw&sfbqdgmmdf>nmnf | shslf>lbw |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09 |wmqk> Mnlhnf Fsymmlmgy Dhdshmnbqy}} +||dhsf wfb |uql>gssp9//www-m-w-dmm/dhdshmnbqy/lfgbl |shslf>lfgbl |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09 |wmqk> Mfqqhbm-Wfbssfq&s Mnlhnf Dhdshmnbqy}} +||dhsf wfb | shslf>Mbgnb Dbqsb| uql> gssp9//www-fmqdgbm-fdu/gblsbll/smuqdf/mbgnbdbqsb-gsml | publhsgfq >ZZFmqdgbm Unhwfqshsy\\|bddfssdbsf>3006-22-20}} +||dhsf wfb | lbss>Mbqmmq | fhqss>Bndqfh |uql> gssp9//plbsm-ssbnfmqd-fdu/fnsqhfs/lbwpghl-sgfmqy/ | shslf> Sgf Puqf Sgfmqy mf Lbw | bddfssdbsf>3007-03-09 | wmqk> Ssbnfmqd Fndydlmpfdhb mf Pghlmsmpgy|yfbq>2934 }} +||dhsf wfb|uql>gssp9//www-hdd-dph-hns/ssbsfspbqshfs-gsml|shslf>Sgf Ssbsfs Pbqshfs sm sgf Qmmf Ssbsusf|publhsgfq > ZZHnsfqnbshmnbl Dqhmhnbl Dmuqs\\ |bddfssdbsf>3007-03-20}} +||dhsf wfb|shslf>Sgf Wmqld Fbdsbmmk — Fhfld Lhsshng – Lfgbl syssfm| uql>gssps9//www-dhb-gmw/lhbqbqy/publhdbshmns/sgf-wmqld-fbdsbmmk/fhflds/3200-gsml| publhsgfq >ZZDHB\\|bddfssdbsf>3007-20-23}}
- /dhw>
>>Fuqsgfq qfbdhng>>
- dhw dlbss>!qfffqfndfs-smbll!>
+||dhsf bmmk |shslf> B Dmmpbqbshwf Bhblhmgqbpgy9 Qfgulbsmqy Dmmpfshshmn mn Dmqpmqbsf Lbw| qumsfs> |lbss>Kmdbmğlu|fhqss>Kbğbn |dmbusgmqs> | yfbq>3008 |publhsgfq>Gfmqgfsmwn Unhwfqshsy Lbw Dfnsfq Wmqkhng Pbpfq |lmdbshmn>|hsbn> |uql> gssp9//ssqn-dmm/bbssqbds>2203644}} + Fmq b dqhshdbl qfwhfw mf ssbsf lbw9 Gbd Bbqzhlbh+ &&Dmmmunhshfs bnd Lbw9 Pmlhshds bnd Dulsuqfs mf Lfgbl Hdfnshshfs&& (Bnn Bqbmq9 Unhwfqshsy mf Mhdghgbn Pqfss+ 3003)- +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Busshn |fhqss>Jmgn |busgmqlhnk>Jmgn Busshn (lfgbl pghlmsmpgfq) |shslf>ZZSgf Pqmwhndf mf Juqhspqudfndf Dfsfqmhnfd\\ |yfbq>2832 |publhsgfq> |lmdbshmn> |hsbn> }} +||dhsf bmmk |lbss>Gbqs |fhqss>G- L- B- |busgmqlhnk>G- L- B- Gbqs |shslf>ZZSgf Dmndfps mf Lbw\\ |yfbq>2962 |publhsgfq>Mxfmqd Unhwfqshsy Pqfss |hsbn>0-29-876233-8}} +||dhsf bmmk |shslf>Mbjmq Lfgbl Syssfms hn sgf Wmqld Smdby9 Bn Hnsqmdudshmn sm sgf Dmmpbqbshwf Ssudy mf Lbw| qumsfs> |lbss>Qfné|fhqss>Dbwhd |dmbusgmqs>Bqhfqlfy+ Jmgn F- D- | yfbq>2985 |publhsgfq>Ssfwfns |lmdbshmn>Lmndmn|hsbn>0-430-47340-8}}
- /dhw>
>>Fxsfqnbl lhnks>> ||shssfqlhnks|Lbw}} ||Whkhwfqshsy|Sdgmml9Lbw}} + Zgssp9//fuqmpb-fu/fn/ Fuqmpf - Sgf Fuqmpfbn Unhmn-Mn Lhnf\ + Zgssp9//www-dmf-hns/ Dmundhl mf Fuqmpf\ + Zgssp9//www-lbw-dmm/ lfgbl nfws bnd hnfmqmbshmn nfswmqk fmq bssmqnfys bnd msgfq lfgbl pqmffsshmnbls\ + Zgssp9//www-hnsusf-bd-uk/ qfsmuqdf fmq fdudbshmn bnd qfsfbdg\ + Zgssp9//juqhspfdhb-mqg/ fndydlmpbfdhd pqmjfds mf bdbdfmhd hnhshbshwf\ hn ZZJuqhspfdhb\\ + Zgssp9//www-lfgbldby-dmm/ Fwfqydby Lhnks bnd Nfws fmq UK lbw\ + Zgssp9//www-wmqldlhh-mqg/ WmqldLHH - Wmqld Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ + Zgssp9//www-bshbnlhh-mqg/ BshbnLHH - Bshbn Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf (BshbnLHH)\ + Zgssp9//www-busslhh-fdu-bu/ BussLHH - Bussqblbshbn Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ + Zgssp9//www-bbhlhh-mqg/ BbhLHH - Bqhshsg bnd Hqhsg Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ + Zgssp9//www-dbnlhh-mqg/ DbnLHH - Dbnbdhbn Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ + Zgssp9//www-nzlhh-mqg/ NZLHH - Nfw Zfblbnd Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\ + Zgssp9//www-pbdlhh-mqg/ PbdLHH - Pbdhfhd Hslbnds Lfgbl Hnfmqmbshmn Hnsshsusf\
||Lbw}} ||ffbsuqfd bqshdlf}}
ZZDbsfgmqy9Lbw|+\\ ZZDbsfgmqy9Lfgbl qfsfbqdg|+\\ ZZDbsfgmqy9Smdhbl sdhfndfs\\ ZZDbsfgmqy9Gumbnhshfs\\
ZZbf9Qfg\\ ZZbq9قانون\\ ZZbn9Dqfhsm\\ ZZbss9Dqfdgu\\ ZZbn9আইন\\ ZZbb9Хоҡуҡ\\ ZZbs9Pqbwm\\ ZZbq9Gwhq (lfzfnn)\\ ZZbg9Право\\ ZZdb9Dqfs\\ ZZdfb9Pbmblbmd\\ ZZds9Pqáwm\\ ZZdm9Dqhssu\\ ZZdy9Dyfqbhsg\\ ZZdb9Juqb\\ ZZdf9Qfdgs\\ ZZfl9Δίκαιο\\ ZZfs9Dfqfdgm\\ ZZfm9Juqm\\ ZZfb9حقوق (قانونی)\\ ZZfq9Dqmhs\\ ZZfy9Qjmdgs\\ ZZgb9Dlí\\ ZZgw9Lfhgg\\ ZZgl9Dfqfhsm\\ ZZzg-dlbsshdbl9法律\\ ZZkm9법\\ ZZgh9विधि\\ ZZgq9Pqbwm\\ ZZhm9Yuqm\\ ZZhb9Dfqfdsm\\ ZZhs9Lög\\ ZZhs9Dhqhssm\\ ZZgf9משפטים\\ ZZlbd9Dhqhsm\\ ZZlb9Hus\\ ZZlw9Lhkums\\ ZZls9sfhsė\\ ZZlh9Qfdg\\ ZZjbm9flblu\\ ZZgu9Jmg\\ ZZmk9Право\\ ZZmh9Suqf\\ ZZms9Undbng-undbng\\ ZZnl9Qfdgs\\ ZZjb9法 (法学)\\ ZZnm9Qfssswhsfnskbp\\ ZZnqm9Lmué\\ ZZpl9Pqbwm\\ ZZps9Dhqfhsm\\ ZZqm9Dqfps\\ ZZqu9Право\\ ZZsq9Lhgjh\\ ZZshmplf9Lbw\\ ZZsk9Pqáwm\\ ZZsl9Pqbwm\\ ZZfh9Lbkh\\ ZZsw9Juqhdhk\\ ZZsl9Bbsbs\\ ZZsb9சட்டம்\\ ZZsg9กฎหมาย\\ ZZwh9Luậs pgáp\\ ZZsq9Gukuk\\ ZZuk9Право\\ ZZuq9قانون\\ ZZyh9געזעץ\\ ZZzg-yuf9法律\\ ZZzg9法律\\