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| '''Anti-Americanism''', often '''anti-American sentiment''', is opposition or hostility to the people, culture or policies of the ].<ref>Dictionary definitions typically apply the term to the American people and government policies. (See, for instance, and the .) Cultural anti-Americanism is in academic literature.</ref> In practice, a broad range of ]s and ]s critical of or opposed to the United States have been labeled anti-Americanism. Thus, the applicability of the term is often disputed.<ref>Hollander, Paul, , The New Criterion, November 2002, accessed 29 April 2007.</ref> Contemporary examples typically focus on opposition to United States policy, though historically the term has been applied to a variety of concepts. | |||
| Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been ]. Anti-Americanism has been described as a belief<ref>Hollander, Paul. ''Anti-Americanism: Irrational and rational'', Transaction Publishers, 1995</ref> that configures the United States and the American way of life as threatening at their core<ref>Ceaser, James W. , ''The Public Interest,'' Summer 2003.</ref>—what ] has called "a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values."<ref>Paul Hollander defined the prejudice thus: "Anti—Americanism is a predisposition to hostility toward the United States and American society, a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values; it entails an aversion to American culture in particular and its influence abroad, often also contempt for the American national character (or what is presumed to be such a character) and dislike of American people, manners, behavior; dress, and so on; rejection of American foreign policy and a firm belief in the malignity of American influence and presence anywhere in the world."{{Fact|date=May 2007}}</ref> However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of ]s, ]s and ]isms towards Americans or the United States.<ref name=OConnor> | |||
| O'Connor, Brendan. , Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92</ref> | |||
| Whether sentiment hostile to the United States reflects reasoned evaluation of specific policies and administrations, rather than a prejudiced ], is a further complication. Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies,<ref>Rodman, Peter W. , ''The National Interest,'' Washington D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001</ref> such as the ] and ]<ref> | |||
| By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005</ref> wars. For this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a ] term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational.<ref>O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "... Cold War (1945-1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as ‘anti-Americanism’ became more prominent."</ref> | |||
| ==Definitions and usage== | |||
| In the first edition of ]'s ] (1828) the word 'anti-American' was defined as "opposed to America, or to the true interests or government of the United States; opposed to the revolution in America."<ref></ref> In France the use of the noun form 'antiaméricanisme' has been cataloged from ],<ref>Le Petit Robert ISBN 2-85036-668-4</ref> entering wide ] language in the ].<ref>Roger, Phillipe. ''The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism,'' , University of Chicago Press, 2005.</ref> The related noun "]" (which is thought often to elicit anti-Americanism) has been dated to a ] source as early as 1867;<ref>Rubin, Barry. , Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2004</ref> the verb form, "]"—"to render American; to assimilate to the Americans in customs, ideas, etc.; to stamp with American characteristics"—was registered in Webster's dictionary of 1828. Labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" may be a partly retroactive exercise, but numerous examples of hostile sentiment directed at the country can be found, from at least the late 18th century onwards. The political employment of the word 'Anti-American' may be traced to the end of the ] (]–]), when the ] was accused by the ] ] of near-treasonous events at the ], such as (unfounded) claims of ] proceedings, and framed as the anti-American Party.<ref></ref> | |||
| Definitions of the term anti-Americanism have been much debated. German newspaper publisher and political scientist ] suggests five classic aspects of the phenomenon: reducing Americans to stereotypes; believing the United States to have an irremediably evil nature; ascribing to the U.S. establishment a vast conspiratorial power aimed at utterly dominating the globe; holding the United States responsible for all the evils in the world; and seeking to limit the influence of the United States by destroying it or by cutting oneself and one's society off from its polluting products and practices.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060501fareviewessay85311a/walter-russell-mead/through-our-friends-eyes-defending-and-advising-the-hyperpower.html|title=Through Our Friends' Eyes -- Defending and Advising the Hyperpower |accessdate=2008-04-12 |last=Mead |first=Walter Russell |date=May/June 2006 |publisher=]}} Review of Josef Joffe's ''Überpower: The Imperial Temptation of America.''</ref> Other advocates of the significance of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ] current, comparable to ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm|title=European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied | |||
| |first=Andrei S.|last=Markovits|publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs}}</ref> Anti-Americanism has also been described as an attempt to frame the consequences of U.S. policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with ] status.<ref>Kagan, Robert. ''Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order'' (2003)</ref> | |||
| Its status as an "]" is a greatly contended aspect, however, and it is often called a ] term by critics who feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. American academic ], a prolific critic of U.S. policy, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by ] states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to "anti-Sovietism", a label used by the ] to suppress ] or critical thought, for instance.<ref> Preparatory to Porto: Alegre ''Zmagazine''</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/1994----02.htm | |||
| |title=On Violence and Youth—Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pepi Leistyna and Stephen Sherblom | |||
| |publisher=chomsky.info, quoting Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, Summer 1995 | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.democracynow.org/2004/10/21/noam_chomsky_on_the_state_of | |||
| |title=Noam Chomsky on the State of the Nation, Iraq and the Election | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |publisher=DEMOCRACY NOW! | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> Brendon O'Connor notes that studies of the topic have been "patchy and impressionistic," and often one-sided attacks on anti-Americanism as an irrational position.<ref name=OConnor/> | |||
| Some have attempted to recognize both positions. French academic ] has argued that the term represents two very different tendencies: "One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled "anti-American" by supporters of U.S. policies in an ideological bid to discredit their opponents."<ref></ref> Guerlain argues that these two "ideal types" of anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult. Other scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization.<ref>Katzenstein, Peter and Robert Keohane. "", in ''Anti-Americanisms in World Politics,'' Katzenstein and Keohane, eds., Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006 (forthcoming).</ref> The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ] or belief system. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| Since the founding of the United States of America, anti-Americanism has existed in different forms and for different reasons. Some anti-American views derive from ideological resistance to American values and culture. Other views are expressions of group identity, racism, and xenophobia. Still other anti-American sentiments are reactions to the policies of the United States government. | |||
| ===The degeneracy thesis=== | |||
| Anti-American sentiment originated with Europe's first contact with this land mass, the study of the ], and the examination of its ], ], and ]. The first anti-American ], the "degeneracy thesis," portrayed America as a regressive and ] bankrupt ]. The theory that the ] and other ] conditions in America physically and ]ly weakened both ] and ]s was commonly argued in Europe, and occasionally debated by early American thinkers such as ], ], and ]{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. | |||
| In ] ], court ] to ] and chief proponent of this thesis, described America as "degenerate or monstrous" colonies and argued that, "the weakest European could crush them with ease."<ref>de Pauw, Cornelius. ''Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains ou Mémoires intéressants pour servir à l'histoire de l'espèce humaine.'' London, 1768.</ref> | |||
| The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever producing true culture. Paraphrasing Pauw, the ] ] wrote, "America has not yet produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science."<ref>Raynal, Abbé Guillaume-Thomas. ''Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes.'' Amsterdam, 1770.</ref> (So virulent was Raynal's antipathy that his book was suppressed by the French monarchy.) | |||
| A derivative of the thesis regarding the soullessness of America and its inherent threat to Europe was also used in ] rhetoric and in German and Japanese propaganda during ]. | |||
| ====Anti-technology and Romantic hostility==== | |||
| ] poster addressing the Dutch public in 1944 with the words: "The USA are supposed to save European culture". The image utilizes a number of themes, some of which (racism, use of excessive force, American culture and the influence of Judaism) are still in use within some varieties of modern anti-Americanism.]] | |||
| The ] created a new type of anti-American political thought, hostile to the political institutions of the United States and their impact upon Europe. Furthermore, the ] strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of ] and obsessed with ] and national character, disdained the American project. | |||
| The German poet ] encapsulated the Romantic view, "With the expression ''Bodenlosigkeit'' (absence of ground), I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme." {{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| With the rise of American industry in the late ], intellectual anti-American discourse entered a new form. Mass production, the ], and the speed of American life and work became a major threat to some intellectuals' view of European life and tradition. | |||
| ] wrote, "The breathless haste with which they (the Americans) work - the distinctive vice of the new world - is already beginning ferociously to infect old Europe and is spreading a spiritual emptiness over the continent." {{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| It has been argued that this thesis transformed into a ]ian critique of ]. Heidegger wrote in ]: "Europe lies today in a great pincer, squeezed between Russia on the one side and America on the other. From a metaphysical point of view, Russia and America are the same, with the same dreary technological frenzy and the same unrestricted organization of the average man." {{Fact|date=October 2007}} ] had made similar claims in ]'s ''Man and Technics'' and his 1934 bestseller ''The Hour of Decision''. {{Fact|date=October 2007}} In ], the Spaniard ] wrote a book called ''El Peligro Yanqui'' (“The Yankee Peril”), in which he condemned American ], ], anti-] (“socialism is a social heresy there”) and ], finding particular fault with the country’s ], which he felt diminished individuality and increased anonymity. He called the United States “a colossal child: all appetite...”<ref>Luis Araquistáin, ''El Peligro Yanqui'' (Madrid: Publicaciones españa, 1921).</ref> | |||
| ====Anti-globalism==== | |||
| ''See also: ]'' | |||
| ] graffiti in ]]] | |||
| According to its opponents, neoliberal ] has magnified the visibility of trade conflicts and decreased job security<ref>Moore, Michael, ], 1997</ref>, and is often attributed to either U.S. or Anglo-American influence<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | year=1995| | |||
| |url=http://www.dis.org/daver/anarchism/chomsky2.html | |||
| |title=Globalization and Resistance | |||
| | accessdate=2007-02-24}} An Interview with Noam Chomsky by Husayn Al-Kurdi}}</ref> Anti-globalist sentiments stem from{{Dubious|date=April 2008}} perceptions that the United States was the inspiration and architect for ] and ] free trade policy, which those opposed to it claim is exploitative, and leads to conditions that either impoverish or do not enrich developing nations. According to some critics, globalization also exposed previously isolated countries to the spread of the English language and American ], a process that some have labeled ] (see ]). The 'Anglo-American' corporate business model is the subject of much opposition ("''the EU constitution on offer, ] had argued, was too low on social protection and too high on shameful Anglo-Saxon economic liberalism''")<ref>{{Cite web| year=2005| url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200506060005| title=A triumph of the right| publisher=New Statesman| month= June 06| accessdate=2007-02-24}}</ref> | |||
| ====National Identity ==== | |||
| ] Just as the United States itself has defined itself against ] and ] countries during its history, and is now defining itself against ] and ], anti-American ideologies have sometimes been used for propaganda purposes. In Iran for instance, the cry of "Death to America" has been used in Iran's parliament<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.poe-news.com/stories.php?poeurlid=41572 | |||
| |publisher=The Christian Science Monitor | |||
| |title=In Iran, 'Death to America' is back | |||
| |author=Scott Peterson | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> and at political rallies <ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0212/p01s02-wome.html | |||
| |title="Death To America", Iran Parliament OKs Nuke Enrichment Bill | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> . Certain forms of social identity theory argue that the existence of "an other" is crucial to the development of group identity. In the case of a European strand of anti-Americanism, some authors, like A.S. Markowitz in ''Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America'', argue it would be linked to the creation of a coalescing European identity.<BLOCKQUOTE>"''The fundamental role of anti-Americanism in Europe in general, and particularly among those on the Left, is to absolve themselves of their own moral failings and intellectual errors by heaping them onto the monster scapegoat, the United States of America. For stupidity and bloodshed to vanish from Europe, the U.S. must be identified as the singular threat to democracy (contrary to every lesson of actual history). Thus, during the Cold War, it was dogma among Europeans from Sweden to Sicily, from Athens to Paris, that the "imperialistic" power was America, even though it was the USSR that annexed Eastern Europe, made satellites out of several African countries, and invaded Afghanistan, even though it was the People's Republic of China that marched into Tibet, attacked South Korea, and subjugated three Indochinese countries. A similar dynamic applies today in the war on terror.''<ref name=tae17764>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20070519095127/http://www.taemag.com/issues/articleID.17764/article_detail.asp | |||
| |title=Europe's Anti-American Obsession | |||
| |author=Jean-Francois Revel | |||
| |journal=The American Enterprise | |||
| |month=July/August | |||
| |year=2006 | |||
| |accessdate=]}} (from internet archive)</ref>"</BLOCKQUOTE> | |||
| Others, such as Minxin Pei of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, suggest that the unique character of American nationalism{{Fact|date=September 2007}} is the cause of some anti-Americanism. | |||
| <BLOCKQUOTE>''"The US has difficulty understanding why other countries feel nationalistic. And its idealism appears to others as hypocrisy. "Many admire its idealism, universalism and optimism... others reject American nationalism as merely the expression of an overbearing, self-righteous and misguided bully.'"''<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2970424.stm | |||
| |title=The roots of anti-Americanism | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |author=Steve Schifferes | |||
| |publisher=BBC News | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref></BLOCKQUOTE> | |||
| According to ], the concept is totalitarian: | |||
| ''"The concept "anti-American" is an interesting one. The counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships... Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as "anti-Soviet." That's a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people with even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule and contempt. Suppose someone in Italy who criticizes Italian state policy were condemned as "anti-Italian." It would be regarded as too ridiculous even to merit laughter. Maybe under Mussolini, but surely not otherwise. Actually the concept has earlier origins. It was used in the Bible by King Ahab, the epitome of evil, to condemn those who sought justice as "anti-Israel" ("ocher Yisrael," in the original Hebrew, roughly "hater of Israel," or "disturber of Israel"). His specific target was Elijah."''<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20021209.htm | |||
| |title=Is Chomsky 'anti-American'?] Noam Chomsky | |||
| |author=Jacklyn Martin | |||
| |publisher=chomsky.info, requoting The Herald | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> | |||
| ===Perceived ideological contradictions=== | |||
| ], ], 2004]] | |||
| ] hit upon one theme that, in various and different forms, has long defined some forms of anti-American sentiment: the perceived ] of a supposed freedom-loving people engaged in less than admirable practices. Americans in his eyes were hypocrites in their relations with ] and ]. | |||
| "How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" He famously stated that, "I am willing to love all mankind, except an American." | |||
| ====Early 20th century==== | |||
| As European immigration to the United States continued and the country's economic potential became more obvious, anti-American stances grew a much more explicit geopolitical dimension. A new strand of anti-American sentiment started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the ], and anti-Americanism was widespread among the ] after the U.S. entered the ]. Furthermore, many of the anti-American ideological threads spread to other areas, such as ] and ], where Continental philosophy was popular and growing American power was increasingly viewed as a threat. In political terms, even among the allies of the United States, ] and ], there was resentment at the end of the war as they found themselves massively in debt to the United States. These sentiments became even more widespread during the ] and ] and sometimes tended toward the ]: the belief that America was ruled by a ] conspiracy was common in countries ruled by ] before and during ]. | |||
| ====Post-Cold War policies==== | |||
| ] poster of ] depicting a hand symbolizing USA and ] with a ] ]]] | |||
| The ] may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism because the U.S. was left as the world's only ] and people who formerly saw the United States as a bastion against Communism or needed the American security umbrella no longer felt the need to support the United States. Where the governments of allied states in particular had felt disinclined to openly criticize U.S. policy during the Cold War, they have had fewer such qualms since. "''By cultivating an anti-American position, Europe feigns membership in a global opposition of the downtrodden by America."''<ref>{{citation | |||
| |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20070124103109/http://chronicle.com/temp/reprint.php?id=5cm8m89n8bpb099csz9qn8p6z7nzj8xp | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |title=Western Europe's America Problem | |||
| |author=Andrei S. Markovits | |||
| |publishter=The Chronicle | |||
| |accessdate=]}} (from internet archive)</ref> In addition, criticism of American economic sanctions and embargos toward various countries, including ], ], ] and ], while maintaining commercial relations with countries such as ] generates resentment{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. | |||
| French author Jean-François Revel wrote that "''For skeptics of democratic capitalism, the United States is, quite simply, the enemy. For many years, and still today, a principal function of anti-Americanism has been to discredit the nation that stands as the supreme alternative to socialism. More recently, Islamists, anti-modern Greens, and others have taken to pillorying the U.S. for the same reason.''"<ref name=tae17764 /> | |||
| The belief that America was ruled by a ] conspiracy or that ] was an American ] has also motivated anti-American hatred in some circles during the last third of the 20th century. Other items of concern include American military interventions and ], especially in connection with the ], and the perceived selective favor given to allies of the United States in international institutions {{Fact|date=April 2007}}, especially involving issues like nuclear proliferation <ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200201140006 | |||
| |title=Why It Is Right to be Anti-American] | |||
| |author=Nick Cohen | |||
| |publisher= New Stateman | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref>. Also the apparent dismissal of ], i.e. the treatment of detainees, in the ] has intensified criticism . | |||
| ==Regional attitudes== | |||
| Anti-Americanism in some form has existed across different American presidential administrations, though its severity may wax and wane considerably depending upon particular economic or geopolitical issues. ]'s presidency, for instance, is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism,<ref>Speulda, Nicole., ''The Princeton Project on National Security,'' Princeton University, 2005</ref> with the ] affecting global opinions of the U.S.<ref>CNN: , February 14, 2003</ref> | |||
| ====Australia==== | |||
| While not to the extent of Europe there is a rising attitude of anti-Americanism in ].{{Fact|date=June 2007}} However, anti-American sentiments have been present in Australian culture since the settlement and incorporation of the Australian continent by the ] in 1788, in which a mixture of anti-Americanism and ] developed in Australia and shaped the nation's views towards the United States and Great Britain. In recent years, the close relations of ] and ], as well as unconditioned support for the War on Terror, has led some to believe that Australia has become a "lap dog" to the U.S. The continued war in Iraq has also led to an increase of anti-Americanism. The politically motivated deployment of Australian troops in the ], has in recent years worsened this relation. <ref>Cold War, Hot War, An Australian Perspective on the Korean War. by Gavan McCormack</ref> | |||
| ====Europe==== | |||
| ]'s 2004 single ] was widely perceived as anti-American]] | |||
| During the ] administration, public opinion of America has declined in most European countries. A Pew Global Attitudes Project poll shows "favorable opinions" of America between 2000 and 2006 dropping from 83% to 56% in the ], from 62% to 39% in ], from 78% to 37% in ] and from 50% to 23% in ].<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=252 | |||
| |title=America's Image Slips, But Allies Share U.S. Concerns Over Iran, Hamas | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> | |||
| In ], a traditional U.S. ally, public affection for the USA has measurably declined in recent years. A June 2006 poll by Populus for '']'' showed that the number of Britons agreeing that "it is important for Britain’s long-term security that we have a close and special relationship with the U.S." had fallen to 58% (from 71% in April), and that 65% believed that "Britain’s future lies more with Europe than America".<ref></ref> Only 44% agreed that "America is a force for good in the world." A later poll reported in ] during the ] said that 63% of Britons felt that Britain is tied too closely to the U.S.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://politics.guardian.co.uk/foreignaffairs/story/0,,1828225,00.html | |||
| |title=Stand up to US, voters tell Blair | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> | |||
| In early 2002, the #1 best seller in France was ], which claimed that 9/11 was a conspiracy orchestrated by the U.S. government<ref>Bitterman, Jim , CNN, 26 June 2002.</ref>. It broke the French record for first-month book sales.<ref>Crumley, Bruce , The Daily Telegraph, 20 November 2003.</ref> In Europe in 2002, vandalism of American companies was reported in ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.pa-aware.org/resources/pdfs/Political%20Violence%20Against%20Americans%202002.pdf | |||
| |format=pdf | |||
| |title=pPolitical Violence Against Americans 2002 | |||
| |year=2003 | |||
| |publisher=Department of state | |||
| |author=Bureau of Diplomatic Security | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref> | |||
| European anti-Americanism well predates the invasion of Iraq and the Bush Administration, with criticisms of American "hegemonism", the coining of the term "hyperpuissance", and the dream of making the EU a "counterbalance" to the United States all flaring up in the '90s. The usual criticisms were also levied, that America was enforcing sanctions against Iraq for oil, and attributing sinister motives to ].<ref>, BBC News, 8 May 1999.</ref> French anti-americanism predates the founding of the United States with the belief that it was a barbaric land and all who went there also degenerated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6547881.stm |title=Anti-American Examined|work=]|accessdate=2007-11-11|date=]}}</ref> | |||
| ====East Asia==== | |||
| In ] and ], much recent anti-Americanism has focused on the presence and behavior of American military personnel, aggravated especially by high-profile crimes by U.S. servicemembers, such as the ].<ref name=CNNOkinawa>{{cite web |url= http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9510/okinawa_protest/index.html|title=Thousands rally against U.S. bases in Okinawa|accessdate=2008-04-11 |publisher=] |date=October 21, 1995 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.iht.com/articles/2002/08/01/kor_ed1_.php |title=Road deaths ignite Korean anti-Americanism|accessdate=2008-04-11 |publisher=] |date=August 1, 2002}}</ref> The on-going U.S. military presence in ] remains a contentious issue in Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/27/rice/|title=Rice soothes Japan on rape case |accessdate=2008-03-13 |publisher=] |date=February 27, 2008 }}</ref> | |||
| While protests have arisen over specific incidents, they are often reflective of deeper historical resentments. Robert Hathaway, director of the Wilson Center's Asia program, suggests: "the growth of anti-American sentiment in both Japan and South Korea must be seen not simply as a response to American policies and actions, but as reflective of deeper domestic trends and developments within these Asian countries."<ref name=WilsonProgram>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=events.event_summary&event_id=27212 | |||
| |title= The Making of "Anti-American" Sentiment in Korea and Japan | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars|accessdate=]}}</ref> In Japan, a variety of threads have contributed to anti-Americanism in the post-war era, including pacifism on the political left, nationalism on the right, and opportunistic worries over American influence in Japanese economic life.<ref>{{cite book |title=Korean Attitudes Toward the United States: Changing Dynamics |chapter=Anti-Americanism in Japan |last=Glosserman |first=Bob |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EB4PbvOcbP8C&pg=PA34&lpg=PA34&dq=Japan+anti-Americanism&source=web&ots=yFxiwsSd46&sig=cJNelkjTAtiSzgi4CJr4iIV-TgA&hl=en |year=2005 |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |isbn=0765614359 |pages=34-45 }}</ref> Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by American occupation and support for authoritarian rule, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7D6113FF931A25754C0A961948260|title=Anti-Americanism Grows in South Korea |accessdate=2008-04-11|publisher=] |date=July 12, 1987}}</ref> Speaking to the Wilson Center, Katherine Moon notes that while the majority of South Koreans support the American alliance "anti-Americanism also represents the collective venting of accumulated grievances that in many instances have lain hidden for decades."<ref name=WilsonProgram/> | |||
| ====Middle East==== | |||
| ] | |||
| The Middle East region has been a focal point of much anti-American sentiment in the latter decades of the ] and the beginning of the ], often blamed on specific U.S. policies in the region, particularly its close relationship with ] and its stance on such matters as ]'s civil war and ]. However, some argue that the real roots lay in government policy as reflected in state-directed media. By this reasoning, America is blamed for failed systems in the Middle East, as a means of re-directing internal dissent outwards, towards what Osama Bin Ladin has called "the far enemy", America, instead of at indigenous regimes. | |||
| The term ], as well as the chant ''"Death to America"'' have been in continual use in ] since at least the ] in 1979. The Iranian capital ] has many examples of anti-American murals and posters sponsored by the state; the former U.S. Embassy in the city has been decorated with a number of such murals. | |||
| In 2002 and 2004, Zogby International polled the favorable/unfavorable ratings of the U.S. in | |||
| Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. | |||
| In Zogby's 2002 survey, 76% of Egyptians had a negative attitude toward the United States, compared with 98% in 2004. In Morocco, 61% viewed the country unfavorably in 2002, but in two years, that number has jumped to 88 percent. In Saudi Arabia, such responses rose from 87% in 2002 to 94% in June. Attitudes were virtually unchanged in Lebanon but improved slightly in the UAE, from 87 % who said in 2002 that they disliked the United States to 73% in 2004.<ref name="Zogby">{{cite journal|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A7080-2004Jul22.html| title=Poll Shows Growing Arab Rancor at U.S.| first=Dafna| last=Linzer| month=July 23| year=2004| page=A26 | publisher=The Washington Post}}</ref> However most of these countries showed a marked distinction between negative perceptions of the United States, and much less negative of Americans.<ref name="Zogby"/> | |||
| The Pew Research Institute probed more deeply the stereotypes of westerners in the Middle East. While more than 70% of Middle Easterners identified more than 3 negative characteristics of the Westerner stereotype, the three strongest were selfish, violent and greedy. Few had positive opinions of Westerners, but the strongest positive stereotypes were devout and respectful of women.<ref name="Pewpoll">{{cite web|url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=830 | title=The Great Divide: How Westerners and Muslims View Each Other: Europe's Muslims More Moderate| accessdate=2006-09-12| month=June 22| year=2006| work=Pew Global Attitudes Project}}</ref> The report also demonstrates strong unfavorable views of Jews and weakly favorable views of Christians predominate in the Middle East. In Jordan, 61%, Pakistan 27%, and Turkey 16% have favorable views of Christians while in Jordan 1%, Pakistan 6%, and Turkey 15% have favorable views of Jews.<ref name="Pewpoll"/> | |||
| Cultural anti-Americanism in the Middle East may have its origins with ], an influential ] author, who Paul Berman titled "the Philosopher of Islamic Terror".<ref>Berman, Paul , New York Times Magazine, 23 March 2003, accessed 29 April 2007.</ref> Qutb, the leading intellectual of the ], studied in Greely, Colorado, from 1948-50, and wrote a book, ''The America I Have Seen'' based on his impressions. In it he decried everything in American from individual freedom and taste in music to Church socials and haircuts,<ref>David Von Drehle, ''Smithsonian Magazine''</ref>.<BLOCKQUOTE>''"They danced to the tunes of the gramophone, and the dance floor was replete with tapping feet, enticing legs, arms wrapped around waists, lips pressed to lips, and chests pressed to chests. The atmosphere was full of desire..."''</BLOCKQUOTE>He offered a distorted chronology of American history and was disturbed by its sexually liberated women<ref>Siegel, Robert , NPR, ''All Things Considered'', 6 May 2003, accessed 29 April 2007.</ref><BLOCKQUOTE>''"The American girl is well acquainted with her body's seductive capacity. She knows it lies in the face, and in expressive eyes, and thirsty lips. She knows seductiveness lies in the round breasts, the full buttocks, and in the shapely thighs, sleek legs -- and she shows all this and does not hide it."''</BLOCKQUOTE>He was particularly disturbed by Jazz, which he called the American's ''preferred music, and it is created by Negroes to satisfy their love of noise and to whet their sexual desires ...''<ref>''Amrika allati Ra'aytu'' (The America that I Have Seen) quoted on Calvert (2000)</ref>. Qutb's writings influenced generations of militants and radicals in the Middle East who viewed America as a cultural temptress bent on overturning traditional customs and morals, especially with respect to the relations between the sexes. As Paul Hollander has written: | |||
| <BLOCKQUOTE>"''The most obvious and clear link between anti-Americanism and modernization is encountered in Islamic countries and other traditional societies where modernization clashes head on with entrenched traditional beliefs, institutions, and patterns of behavior, and where it challenges the very meaning of life, social relations, and religious verities. What becomes of the world when women can go to work and show large surfaces of skin to men they are not related to? In a recent case, the indignant male members of a Kurdish family in Sweden were "provoked" by the transgressing female of their family who had the temerity to have a job and a boyfriend and dress in Western ways. She was finally killed by her father.''"<ref name=Hollander2007>Hollander, Paul , The New Criterion, Nov 2002, accessed 29 April 2007.</ref></BLOCKQUOTE> | |||
| Hollander went on to explain that: | |||
| <BLOCKQUOTE>"''In Arab countries and among Muslim populations, anti-Americanism is not only the monopoly of intellectuals but also a widespread disposition of the masses. In these areas, traditional religion, radical politics, and economic backwardness combine to make anti-Americanism an exceptionally widespread, virulent, and reflexive response to a wide range of collective and personal frustrations and grievances-and a welcome alternative to any collective or individual self-examination or stock-taking. '' | |||
| ''More generally, it is the rise of alternatives, ushered in by modernization, that threatens traditional societies and generates anti-American reaction. The stability of traditional society (like that of modern totalitarian systems) rests on the lack of alternatives, on the lack of choice. Choice is deeply subversive-culturally, politically, psychologically.'' | |||
| ''The recent outburst of murderous anti- Americanism has added a new dimension to the phenomenon, or at any rate, throws into relief the intense hatred it may encapsulate. The violence of September 11 shows that when anti-Americanism is nurtured by the kind of indignation and resentment that in is stimulated and sanctioned by religious convictions, it can become spectacularly destructive.''"<ref name=Hollander2007 /></BLOCKQUOTE> | |||
| ====Latin America==== | |||
| In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots dating back to the 1830s and the ]{{Fact|date=August 2007}}. Other significant 19th century events which led to a rise in anti-American sentiment were the 1846-1848 ], the 1855 American intervention in Nicaragua and the ] of 1898 - which turned Cuba into a virtual dependency of the United States.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/aftermath/legacy.html The Mexican-American War: Aftermath</ref><ref>Volker Skierka (2004) ''Fidel Castro A Biography''. Cambridge: Polity Press: 4</ref>Perceived racist attitudes of the white Anglo-Saxon protestants of the north towards the populations of South America also caused resentment.<ref>Thomas Skidmore and Peter Smith (1997) ''Modern Latin America''. Oxford University Press: 364-5</ref>In the twentieth century American support for the 1954 coup in ] against ], the ], the ], ], the ], the ], the support of the ] and the ], continued to fueled anti-Americanism in the region.<ref>Peter Winn (2006)'' Americas: The Changing Face of Latin America and the Caribbean''. University of California Press: 472, 478, 482</ref><ref>George Pendle (1976) ''A History of Latin America''. London: Penguin: 180-86</ref><ref>by Moisés Naim - Financial Times, December 7, 2001. | |||
| </ref>Similarly, U.S. support for dictators such as ], ], ] has influenced regional attitudes.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/09/19/us.cia.chile.ap/ | |||
| |title=CIA acknowledges involvement in Allende's overthrow, Pinochet's rise | |||
| |date=], ] | |||
| |publisher=BBC News | |||
| |accessdate=]}}</ref>] the revolutionary leader of ] has throughout his career tried to co-ordinate long standing South American resentments againt the USA through military and propagandist means.<ref>George Anne Geyer (1991) ''Guerilla Prince: The Untold Story of Fidel Castro''. Little Brown and Company</ref><ref>Volker Skierka (2004) ''Fidel Castro A Biography''. Cambridge: Polity Press</ref> | |||
| The perceived failures of the ] reforms of the 1980s and the 1990s intensified opposition to the ],<ref>BBC News. ''How the US 'lost' Latin America''. accessed ] ]</ref> leading to a resurgence in support for ], support for ] in the region, the ] of key industries and ] of government.<ref>Foreign Affairs. ''Latin America's Left Turn''. accessed ] ] </ref>America's tightening of the economic embargo on Cuba in 1996 and 2004 also caused resentment among South American leaders and has prompted them to use the Madrid based Iberian Summit as a meeting place rather than the American dominated ].<ref>Peter Winn (2006)'' Americas: The Changing Face of Latin America and the Caribbean''. University of California Press: 645</ref>One of the most vocal of these leaders has been ] of ], who is known for his strong opposition towards the American government, particularly ], driving him to address him in many ways; referring to him as "the devil" before the United Nations.<ref>James, Ian , AP, 20 Sep 2006, </ref>He has clearly stated his intent to use Venezuela's oil resources as a card ''"against the toughest country in the world, the United States."''<ref>Blum, Justin (''Washington Post'', 22 November 2005).. Retrieved 29 November 2005.</ref> | |||
| == Quotes == | |||
| *"The heaviest blow ever dealt at liberty will be dealt by this country , in the failure of its example to the earth" - ]<ref>Hesketh Pearson (1949) Dickens: 114</ref> | |||
| *"America is the only country that went from barbarism to decadence without civilization in between." - ] | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *"]" | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| ===Notes=== | |||
| {{Reflist}} | |||
| ===Resources=== | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |first=Gerrit-Jan |last=Berendse |title=German Anti-Americanism in Context |journal=Journal of European Studies |volume=33 |year=2003 |month=December |doi=10.1177/0047244103040422}} | |||
| *{{cite book |authorlink=Ian Buruma |first=Ian |last=Buruma |coauthors=] |title=Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies |year=2005 |isbn=1594200084}} | |||
| *{{cite book| |first=Richard Z. |last=Chesnoff |title=The Arrogance of the French: Why They Can't Stand Us--and Why the Feeling Is Mutual |publisher=Sentinel |month=April |year=2005 |isbn=1-59523-010-6}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=John |last=Dean |coauthors=Gabilliet, Jean-Paul |title=European Readings of American Popular Culture |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1996}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |last=Fabbrini |first=Sergio |title=Layers of Anti-Americanism: Americanization, American Unilateralism and Anti-Americanism in a European Perspective. |journal=European Journal of American Culture |year=2004 |month=September |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=79-94 |doi=10.1386/ejac.23.2.79/0 |issn=1466-0407}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=J. L. |last=Granatstein |title=Yankee Go Home? Canadians and Anti-Americanism |year=1996}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |last=Hodgson |first=Godfrey |title=Anti-Americanism and American Exceptionalism |journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies |year=2004 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=27-38 |issn=1479-4012}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Hollander |title=Understanding Anti-Americanism: Its Origins and Impact at Home and Abroad |year=2004}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |last=Ickstadt |first=Heinz |title=Uniting a Divided Nation: Americanism and Anti-americanism in Post-war Germany |journal=European Journal of American Culture |year=2004 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=157-170 |doi=10.1386/ejac.23.2.157/0 |issn=1466-0407}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Josef |last=Joffe |title=Überpower: The Imperial Temptation |year=2006 |isbn=0393330141}}<!--Reviewed: [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061501114.html--> | |||
| *{{cite book |authorlink=Chalmers Johnson |first=Chalmers Ashby |last=Johnson |title=Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire |isbn=0805075593 |publisher=Henry Holt |year=2004}} | |||
| *{{cite book |last=Larson |first=Eric Victor |coauthors=Levin, Norman D.; Baik, Seonhae; Savych, Bogdan |title=Ambivalent Allies? A Study of South Korean Attitudes toward the U.S |url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102789791 |publisher=Rand |year=2004 |isbn=0-8330-3584-3}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Andrei S. |last=Markovits |title=Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America |publisher=Princeton UP |year=2007 |isbn=0691122873}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=Nakaya, Andrea C. (ed.) |title=] |publisher=] |location=] |year=2005}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |first=Brendon |last=O'Connor |title=A Brief History Of Anti-Americanism: From Cultural Criticism to Terrorism |journal=Australasian Journal of American Studies |volume=23 |issue=1 |month=July |year=2004 |page=82}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Brendon |last=O'Connor |coauthors=Griffiths, Martin (eds.) |title=The Rise of anti-Americanism |publisher=Routledge |year=2005}} | |||
| *{{cite book |author=O'Connor, Brendon (ed.) |title=Anti-Americanism: History, Causes, Themes |(Four Volumes) |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2007 |isbn=1846450047}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Pells |url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8912267 |title=Not like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1997}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Jean-François |last=Revel |authorlink=Jean-François Revel |title=Anti-Americanism |location=San Francisco |publisher=Encounter Books |isbn=159403060X |year=2003}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Philippe |last=Roger |title=The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism |year=2005 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0226723690}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Barry |last=Rubin |authorlink=Barry Rubin |coauthors=Rubin, Judith Colp |title=Hating America: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-19-530649-X}} <!----> | |||
| *{{cite web |first=Fabrice |last=Serodes |url=http://www.sens-public.org/article.php3?id_article=174 |title=L'anglophobie est morte! Vive l'antiaméricanisme? |year=2005}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=David |last=Strauss |title=Menace in the West: The Rise of French Anti-Americanism in Modern Times |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1978 |isbn=0313203164}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Julia |last=Sweig |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10016/friendly_fire.html |title=Friendly Fire: Losing Friends and Making Enemies in the Anti-American Century |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2006 |isbn=1-58648-300-5}} | |||
| *{{cite journal |first=Charles J. |last=Swindells |title=Anti-Americanism and Its Discontents |journal=New Zealand International Review |volume=30 |issue=1 |year=2005 |pages=8+ |issn=0110-0262}} | |||
| *{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Trommler |coauthors=McVeigh, Joseph |title=America and the Germans: An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History |chapter=Volume 2: The Relationship in the Twentieth Century |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1990}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| ===Peer-Reviewed Articles=== | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Peter A. | |||
| | last =Furia | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors =Russell E. Lucas | |||
| | year =2006 | |||
| | month =September | |||
| | title =Determinants of Arab Public Opinion on Foreign Relations. | |||
| | journal =International Studies Quarterly | |||
| | volume =50 | |||
| | issue = 3 | |||
| | pages = 585 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.igottheconch.com/index.php?title=Determinants_of_Arab_Public_Opinion_on_Foreign_Relations | |||
| }} | |||
| ===Other Articles=== | |||
| <!--alphabetized--> | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Giacomo | |||
| | last =Chiozza | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = | |||
| | year =2004 | |||
| | month =November 7 | |||
| | title =Love and Hate: Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World | |||
| | journal =Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | issue = | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/seminars/chiozza_f04.pdf | |||
| }} PDF file | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Gregory | |||
| | last =Johnston | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = | |||
| | year =2006 | |||
| | month =August | |||
| | title =Anti-Americanism: An Exploration of a Contested Concept in Western Europe | |||
| | journal =Dissertation | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | issue = | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url =http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-05102006-104506/unrestricted/Johnston_dis.pdf | |||
| }} PDF file | |||
| *{{cite book | |||
| | last =Katzenstein | |||
| | first =Peter J. | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors =Robert O. Keohane | |||
| | year =2005 | |||
| | title =Anti-americanisms in World Politics | |||
| | publisher =Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences | |||
| | location =Cornell University Press | |||
| | id =ISBN 0-8014-7351-9 | |||
| }} | |||
| **{{cite journal | |||
| | first = Nusrat | |||
| | last = Choudhury | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = | |||
| | year = | |||
| | month = | |||
| | title =The Economic Impact of Anti-Americanism | |||
| | journal = | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | issue = | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ppns/papers/choudhury.pdf | |||
| }} PDF draft chapter later found in the book ''Anti-americanisms in World Politics'' | |||
| **{{cite journal | |||
| | first = Peter J. | |||
| | last = Katzenstein | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = Robert O. Keohane | |||
| | year =2005 | |||
| | month = | |||
| | title =Types and Sources of Anti-Americanism: A Framework for Analysis | |||
| | journal =University of Southern California Center for International Studies | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | issue = | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://usccis.org/tools/software/original/public/fileforward.php?Id=3150 | |||
| }} Word document draft chapter later found in the book ''Anti-americanisms in World Politics'' | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Alan | |||
| | last =McPherson | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
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| | year =2004 | |||
| | month =Winter/Spring | |||
| | title =Myths of Anti-Americanism: The Case of Latin America | |||
| | journal =The Brown Journal of World Affairs | |||
| | volume =X | |||
| | issue =2 | |||
| | pages = 141 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url =http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/10.2/Anti-Americanism/McPherson.pdf | |||
| }} PDF file | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Barry | |||
| | last =Rubin | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors =Judith Rubin | |||
| | year =2004 | |||
| | month =Summer/Fall | |||
| | title =Anti-Americanism Re-Examined | |||
| | journal =The Brown Journal of World Affairs | |||
| | volume =XI | |||
| | issue =I | |||
| | pages =17 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url =http://www.bjwa.org/article.php?id=o0Djck79oz12Gvq17Tf1RuBta5k5dtbH6Mc45RNV | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Vladimir | |||
| | last =Shlapentokh | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors =Joshua Woods | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | month =Winter / Spring | |||
| | title =The Threat of International Terrorism and the Image of the United States Abroad | |||
| | journal =The Brown Journal of World Affairs | |||
| | volume =X | |||
| | issue =2 | |||
| | pages =167 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/10.2/Anti-Americanism/Shlapentokh.pdf | |||
| }} PDF file | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =Hubert | |||
| | last =Vedrine | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
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| | year =2004 | |||
| | month =Winter/Spring | |||
| | title =On Anti-Americanism | |||
| | journal =The Brown Journal of World Affairs | |||
| | volume =X | |||
| | issue =2 | |||
| | pages = 117 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.watsoninstitute.org/bjwa/archive/10.2/Anti-Americanism/Vedrine.pdf | |||
| }} PDF file | |||
| ===Government Documents=== | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
| | first =W. | |||
| | last =Schneider | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
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| | year =2004 | |||
| | month =September 23 | |||
| | title =Final report of the Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on Strategic Communication, United States Office of the Secretary of the Defense | |||
| | journal =US Pentagon | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | issue = | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url =http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2004-09-Strategic_Communication.pdf | |||
| }} PDF file | |||
| *{{cite journal | |||
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| | month =November 29 | |||
| | title =They hate our policies, not our freedom Pentagon report contains major criticisms of administration | |||
| | journal =Christian Science Monitor | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | issue = | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1129/dailyUpdate.html | |||
| }} Explanation of the report | |||
| ===Magazine & Newspaper Articles=== | |||
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| | title = Ongoing series: How the World Sees America | |||
| | journal =Washington Post/Newsweek | |||
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| | url =http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/america}} | |||
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| | month =September 13, | |||
| | title =BBC Apologises to Envoy for Anti-American Abuse | |||
| | journal =Guardian Unlimited | |||
| | volume = | |||
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| | pages = | |||
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| | url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/wtccrash/story/0,,552742,00.html | |||
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| | title = What the World Thinks of America | |||
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| }} | |||
| * | |||
| {{US topics}} | |||
| {{Discriminationfooter}} | |||
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