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Anti-Americanism, often anti-American sentiment, is opposition or hostility to the people, culture or policies of the United States. In practice, a broad range of attitudes and actions critical of or opposed to the United States have been labeled anti-Americanism. Thus, the applicability of the term is often disputed. Contemporary examples typically focus on opposition to United States policy, though historically the term has been applied to a variety of concepts.

Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarised. Anti-Americanism has been described as a belief that configures the United States and the American way of life as threatening at their core—what Paul Hollander has called "a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values." However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms towards Americans or the United States.

Whether sentiment hostile to the United States reflects reasoned evaluation of specific policies and administrations, rather than a prejudiced belief system, is a further complication. Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies, such as the Vietnam and Iraq wars. For this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational.

Discussions on anti-Americanism have in most cases lacked a precise definition of what the sentiment entails, which has led to the term being used broadly and in a impressionistic manner, resulting in an incoherent nature in the many expressions described as anti-American.

Etymology

In the first edition of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) the word 'anti-American' was defined as "opposed to America, or to the true interests or government of the United States; opposed to the revolution in America." In France the use of the noun form 'antiaméricanisme' has been cataloged from 1948, entering wide political language in the 1950s. The related noun "Americanization" (which is thought often to elicit anti-Americanism) has been dated to a French source as early as 1867; the verb form, "Americanize"—"to render American; to assimilate to the Americans in customs, ideas, etc.; to stamp with American characteristics"—was registered in Webster's dictionary of 1828. Labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" may be a partly retroactive exercise, but numerous examples of hostile sentiment directed at the country can be found, from at least the late 18th century onwards. The political employment of the word 'Anti-American' may be traced to the end of the War of 1812 (1812–1815), when the Federalist Party was accused by the Democratic-Republican press of near-treasonous events at the Hartford Convention, such as (unfounded) claims of secession proceedings, and framed as the anti-American Party.

Theory

Definitions

Definitions of the term anti-Americanism have been much debated. German newspaper publisher and political scientist Josef Joffe suggests five classic aspects of the phenomenon: reducing Americans to stereotypes; believing the United States to have an irremediably evil nature; ascribing to the U.S. establishment a vast conspiratorial power aimed at utterly dominating the globe; holding the United States responsible for all the evils in the world; and seeking to limit the influence of the United States by destroying it or by cutting oneself and one's society off from its polluting products and practices. Other advocates of the significance of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to anti-Semitism. Anti-Americanism has also been described as an attempt to frame the consequences of U.S. policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower status.

Its status as an "-ism" is a greatly contended aspect, however, and it is often called a propaganda term by critics who feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. Brendon O'Connor notes that studies of the topic have been "patchy and impressionistic," and often one-sided attacks on anti-Americanism as an irrational position. American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U.S. policy, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by totalitarian states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to "anti-Sovietism", a label used by the Kremlin to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance.

"The concept "anti-American" is an interesting one. The counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships... Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as "anti-Soviet." That's a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people with even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule and contempt. Suppose someone in Italy who criticizes Italian state policy were condemned as "anti-Italian." It would be regarded as too ridiculous even to merit laughter. Maybe under Mussolini, but surely not otherwise. Actually the concept has earlier origins. It was used in the Bible by King Ahab, the epitome of evil, to condemn those who sought justice as "anti-Israel" ("ocher Yisrael," in the original Hebrew, roughly "hater of Israel," or "disturber of Israel"). His specific target was Elijah."

Some have attempted to recognize both positions. French academic Pierre Guerlain has argued that the term represents two very different tendencies: "One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled "anti-American" by supporters of U.S. policies in an ideological bid to discredit their opponents." Guerlain argues that these two "ideal types" of anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult. Other scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization. The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

Proposed origins

Amongst theories developed to explain the causes of anti-Americanism two are considered decisive by Rubin et al.: resistance and scapegoating. The first holds that sentiment against America is a response by non-American realists seeking to protect their national interests against U.S. influence. From this perspective, hatred of America reflects "real-life experience" and is not an irrational or imagined perception. The authors argue that the primary reason for anti-Americanism is "the belief that what underlies all U.S. actions is a desire to take over or remake the world". The scapegoating theory instead regards anti-Americanism as an irrational perception, based on jealousy, delusions or ideological prejudice. Similarly, ideological resistance against the individualism and capitalism which the United States has come to represent has also been mentioned as a source of anti-Americanism.

The scapegoating theory proposes that political elites manipulate anti-American perceptions among the public to distract from domestic problems. Relatedly, America can be construed as an "Other" to solidify national identity. These ideas are illustrated by A.S. Markowitz in Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America, in which it is argued that anti-Americanism is linked to the creation of a coalescing European identity.

"The fundamental role of anti-Americanism in Europe in general, and particularly among those on the Left, is to absolve themselves of their own moral failings and intellectual errors by heaping them onto the monster scapegoat, the United States of America. For stupidity and bloodshed to vanish from Europe, the U.S. must be identified as the singular threat to democracy (contrary to every lesson of actual history)."

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

The degeneracy thesis

In the mid- to late-eighteenth century, a theory emerged among European intellectuals that the New World landmasses were inherently inferior to Europe. The so-called "degeneracy thesis" held that the humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically weakened both men and animals. Two authors, James W. Ceaser and Philippe Roger, have interpreted this theory as a "a kind of prehistory of anti-Americanism." Purported evidence for the idea included the smallness of American fauna, dogs that ceased to bark, and venomous plants; one theory put forth was that the New World had emerged from the Biblical flood later than the Old World. Native Americans were also held to be feeble, small, and without ardor.

The theory originated with Comte de Buffon, a leading French naturalist, in his Histoire Naturelle (1766). The French writer Voltaire joined Buffon and others in making the argument. Dutchman Cornelius de Pauw, court philosopher to Frederick II of Prussia became its leading proponent. While Buffon focused on the American biological environment, de Pauw attacked people native to the continent. In 1768, he described America as "degenerate or monstrous" colonies and argued that, "the weakest European could crush them with ease."

The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever producing true culture. Paraphrasing de Pauw, the French Encyclopedist Abbé Raynal wrote, "America has not yet produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science." The theory was debated and rejected by early American thinkers such as Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson; Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1781), provided a detailed rebuttal of de Buffon. Hamilton also vigorously rebuked the idea in Federalist No. 11 (1787). The living examples of Jefferson and Franklin—vigorous geniuses and clearly not degenerate—helped refute the thesis.

Research into the degeneracy idea dates to at least 1944 and the work of Italian historian Antonello Gerbi. One critic, citing Raynal's ideas, suggests that it was specifically extended to the English colonies that would become the United States.

Roger suggests that the idea of degeneracy posited a symbolic, as well as a scientific America, that would evolve beyond the original thesis. He argues that Buffon's ideas formed the root of a "stratification of negative discourses" that has recurred throughout the two countries' relationship (and has been matched by persistent anti-Gallic sentiment in the United States).

Culture

Brendan O'Connor argues that proto-anti-Americanism developed in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with the view that the United States was culturally backward. The country and its peope were held to lack "taste, grace and civility" and also to have a brazen and arrogant character. British author Frances Trollope says in her Domestic Manners of the Americans that the most important difference between English and Americans is "want of refinement", explaining that "that polish which removes the coarser and rougher parts of our nature is unknown and undreamed of" in America. Other writers critical of American culture and manners included the bishop Talleyrand in France and Charles Dickens in England.

Simon Schuma says: "By the end of the nineteenth century, the stereotype of the ugly American—voracious, preachy, mercenary, and bombastically chauvinist—was firmly in place in Europe." O'Connor suggests that such prejudices were rooted in an idealized image of European refinement and that the notion of high European culture pitted against American vulgarity has not disappeared.

Politics and ideology

The young United States also faced criticism on political and ideological grounds. Ceaser argues that the Romantic strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and national character, disdained the rationalistic American project. The German poet Nikolaus Lenau commented: "With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (absence of ground), I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme." Ceaser argues in his essay that such comments often repurposed the language of degeneracy, and the prejudice came to focus solely on the United States and not Canada and Mexico.

The nature of American democracy was also questioned. The sentiment was that the country lacked " monarch, aristocracy, strong traditions, official religion, or rigid class system," according to Rubin, and its democracy was attacked by some Europeans in the early nineteenth century as degraded, a travesty, and a failure. The French Revolution, which was loathed by many European conservatives, also implicated the United States and the idea of creating a constitution on abstract and universal principles. That the country was intended to be a bastion of liberty was also seen as fraudulent given that it had been established with slavery. ("How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" asked Samuel Johnson in 1775. He famously stated that, "I am willing to love all mankind, except an American.")

Early-twentieth century

Anti-technology

With the rise of American industry in the late nineteenth century, intellectual anti-American discourse entered a new form. Mass production, the Taylor system, and the speed of American life and work became a major threat to some intellectuals' view of European life and tradition.

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote, "The breathless haste with which they (the Americans) work - the distinctive vice of the new world - is already beginning ferociously to infect old Europe and is spreading a spiritual emptiness over the continent."

It has been argued that this thesis transformed into a Heideggerian critique of technologism. Heidegger wrote in 1935: "Europe lies today in a great pincer, squeezed between Russia on the one side and America on the other. From a metaphysical point of view, Russia and America are the same, with the same dreary technological frenzy and the same unrestricted organization of the average man." Oswald Spengler had made similar claims in 1931's Man and Technics and his 1934 bestseller The Hour of Decision. In 1921, the Spaniard Luis Araquistáin wrote a book called El Peligro Yanqui (“The Yankee Peril”), in which he condemned American nationalism, mechanization, anti-socialism (“socialism is a social heresy there”) and architecture, finding particular fault with the country’s skyscrapers, which he felt diminished individuality and increased anonymity. He called the United States “a colossal child: all appetite...”

World wars

As European immigration to the United States continued and the country's economic potential became more obvious, anti-American stances grew a much more explicit geopolitical dimension. A new strand of anti-American sentiment started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the Pacific, and anti-Americanism was widespread among the Central Powers after the U.S. entered the First World War. Furthermore, many of the anti-American ideological threads spread to other areas, such as Japan and Latin America, where Continental philosophy was popular and growing American power was increasingly viewed as a threat. In political terms, even among the allies of the United States, Britain and France, there was resentment at the end of the war as they found themselves massively in debt to the United States. These sentiments became even more widespread during the interbellum and Great Depression and sometimes tended toward the anti-Semitic: the belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy was common in countries ruled by fascists before and during World War II.

Post-Cold War

Anti-globalism

See also: Anti-globalization

According to its opponents, neoliberal globalization has magnified the visibility of trade conflicts and decreased job security, and is often attributed to either U.S. or Anglo-American influence Anti-globalist sentiments stem from perceptions that the United States was the inspiration and architect for globalization and neoliberal free trade policy, which those opposed to it claim is exploitative, and leads to conditions that either impoverish or do not enrich developing nations. According to some critics, globalization also exposed previously isolated countries to the spread of the English language and American popular culture, a process that some have labeled cultural imperialism (see American Cultural Imperialism). The 'Anglo-American' corporate business model is the subject of much opposition ("the EU constitution on offer, Laurent Fabius had argued, was too low on social protection and too high on shameful Anglo-Saxon economic liberalism")

Post-Cold War policies

The fall of the Soviet Union may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism because the U.S. was left as the world's only superpower and people who formerly saw the United States as a bastion against Communism or needed the American security umbrella no longer felt the need to support the United States. Where the governments of allied states in particular had felt disinclined to openly criticize U.S. policy during the Cold War, they have had fewer such qualms since. "By cultivating an anti-American position, Europe feigns membership in a global opposition of the downtrodden by America." In addition, criticism of American economic sanctions and embargoes toward various countries, including Cuba, Sudan, North Korea and Iran, while maintaining commercial relations with countries such as China generates resentment.

French author Jean-François Revel wrote that "For skeptics of democratic capitalism, the United States is, quite simply, the enemy. For many years, and still today, a principal function of anti-Americanism has been to discredit the nation that stands as the supreme alternative to socialism. More recently, Islamists, anti-modern Greens, and others have taken to pillorying the U.S. for the same reason."

The belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy or that Israel was an American puppet state has also motivated anti-American hatred in some circles during the last third of the 20th century. Other items of concern include American military interventions and imperialism, especially in connection with the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the perceived selective favor given to allies of the United States in international institutions , especially involving issues like nuclear proliferation . Also the apparent dismissal of international law, i.e. the treatment of detainees, in the War on Terror has intensified criticism .

Regional attitudes

George W. Bush's presidency is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism, with the 2003 invasion of Iraq affecting global opinions of the U.S.

East Asia

Robert Hathaway, director of the Wilson Center's Asia program, suggests: "the growth of anti-American sentiment in both Japan and South Korea must be seen not simply as a response to American policies and actions, but as reflective of deeper domestic trends and developments within these Asian countries."

Quotes

• "The heaviest blow ever dealt at liberty will be dealt by this country , in the failure of its example to the earth" - Charles Dickens
• "America is the only country that went from barbarism to decadence without civilization in between." - Georges Clemenceau

See also

• List of assassinations and acts of terrorism against Americans
• Opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
• "The Ugly American"
• How the World Sees America
• Overseas expansion of the United States
• Special Relationship

References

Notes

1. Dictionary definitions typically apply the term to the American people and government policies. (See, for instance, Merriam-Webster and the American Heritage Dictionary.) Cultural anti-Americanism is attested in academic literature.
2. Hollander, Paul The Politics of Envy, The New Criterion, Nov 2002, accessed 29 April 2007.
3. Hollander, Paul. Anti-Americanism: Irrational and rational, Transaction Publishers, 1995
4. ^ Ceaser, James W. "A genealogy of Anti-Americanism", The Public Interest, Summer 2003.
5. Paul Hollander defined the prejudice thus: "Anti—Americanism is a predisposition to hostility toward the United States and American society, a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values; it entails an aversion to American culture in particular and its influence abroad, often also contempt for the American national character (or what is presumed to be such a character) and dislike of American people, manners, behavior; dress, and so on; rejection of American foreign policy and a firm belief in the malignity of American influence and presence anywhere in the world."
6. ^ O'Connor, Brendan: "A Brief History of Anti-Americanism from Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92
7. Rodman, Peter W. The world’s resentment, The National Interest, Washington D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001
8. Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
9. O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "... Cold War (1945-1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as ‘anti-Americanism’ became more prominent."
10. O'Connor, Brendan, p 89.
11. The ARTFL Project - Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913+1828)
12. Le Petit Robert ISBN 2-85036-668-4
13. Roger, Phillipe. The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism, introductory excerpt, University of Chicago Press, 2005.
14. Rubin, Barry. "Understanding Anti-Americanism", Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2004
15. Encyclopedia of the American Foreign Relations
16. Mead, Walter Russell (May/June 2006). "Through Our Friends' Eyes -- Defending and Advising the Hyperpower". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Review of Josef Joffe's Überpower: The Imperial Temptation of America.
17. Markovits, Andrei S. "European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.
18. Kagan, Robert. Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (2003)
19. Interviewing Chomsky Preparatory to Porto: Alegre Zmagazine
20. On Violence and Youth—Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pepi Leistyna and Stephen Sherblom, chomsky.info, quoting Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, Summer 1995 , retrieved 2008-01-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
21. Noam Chomsky on the State of the Nation, Iraq and the Election, DEMOCRACY NOW!, October 21, 2004, retrieved 2008-01-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
22. Jacklyn Martin (December 9, 2002), Is Chomsky 'anti-American'?] Noam Chomsky, chomsky.info, requoting The Herald, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
23. Pierre Guerlain, A Tale of Two Anti-Americanisms (European Journal of American Studies 2007))
24. Katzenstein, Peter and Robert Keohane. "Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America", in Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Katzenstein and Keohane, eds., Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006 (forthcoming).
25. Rubin, Barry and Judith Colp Rubin. 2004. "Anti-Americanism Re-Examined." The Brown Journal of World Affairs 10(2): 17-24.
26. ^ Jhee, Byong-Kuen (Apr 07, 2005). "Anti-Americanism and Electoral Politics in Korea" (PDF). Paper presented at the annual meeting of the The Midwest Political Science Association, Palmer House Hilton, Chicago, Illinois. Retrieved 2008-05-24. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
27. ^ Jean-Francois Revel (2006), "Europe's Anti-American Obsession", The American Enterprise, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) (from internet archive)
28. ^ Grantham, Bill (2003). "Brilliant Mischief: The French on Anti-Americanism". World Policy Journal. 20 (2). Retrieved 2008-05-16. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
29. ^ Meunier, Sophie (2005). "Anti-Americanism in France" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University. Retrieved 2008-05-18. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
30. ^ Popkin, Richard H. (1978). "The Dispute of the New World: The History of a Polemic, 1750-1900 (review)" (PDF). Journal of the History of Philosophy. 16 (1): 115–118. Retrieved 2008-05-27. Jefferson, who was U. S. ambassador to Paris after the Revolution, was pushed by the rampant anti-Americanism of some of the French intellectuals to publish the only book of his that appeared in his lifetime, the Notes on Virginia (1782-1784) {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
31. ^ Goldstein, James A. "Aliens in the Garden". Roger Williams University School of Law Faculty Papers. nellco.org (Posted with permission of the author}. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
32. de Pauw, Cornelius. Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains ou Mémoires intéressants pour servir à l'histoire de l'espèce humaine. London, 1768.
33. Raynal, Abbé Guillaume-Thomas. Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes. Amsterdam, 1770.
34. Danzer, Gerald A. (1974). "Has the Discovery of America Been Useful or Hurtful to Mankind? Yesterday's Questions and Today's Students". The History Teacher. 7 (2): 192–206. Retrieved 2008-05-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
35. ^ Rubin, Judy (September 4, 2004). "The Five Stages of Anti-Americanism". Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
36. ^ Schuma, Simon (March 10, 2003). "The Unloved American". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
37. Staples, Brent (June 4, 2006). "Give Us Liberty". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
38. Luis Araquistáin, El Peligro Yanqui (Madrid: Publicaciones españa, 1921).
39. moore, Michael (1997), Downsize This, Crown Publishers, ISBN 051770739X, retrieved 2008-05-27
40. "Globalization and Resistance". 1995. Archived from the original on 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2007-02-24. An Interview with Noam Chomsky by Husayn Al-Kurdi
41. "A triumph of the right". New Statesman. 2005. Retrieved 2007-02-24. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
42. Andrei S. Markovits (January 19, 2007), Western Europe's America Problem, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |publishter= ignored (help) (from internet archive)
43. Nick Cohen (January 14, 2002), Why It Is Right to be Anti-American], New Stateman, retrieved 2008-04-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
44. Speulda, Nicole.Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
45. CNN: Anti-Americanism in Europe deepens, February 14, 2003
46. The Making of "Anti-American" Sentiment in Korea and Japan, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 06, 2003, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
47. Hesketh Pearson (1949) Dickens: 114
48. Cited to Georges Clemenceau in Hans Bendix, "Merry Christmas, America!" The Saturday Review of Literature, 1945-12-01, p. 9.
      Mentioned in Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography (1943): "A witty Frenchman has said of us: 'The United States of America is the only nation to plunge from barbarism to degeneracy with no culture in between.'"
      Also attributed to Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw.

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External links

Peer-Reviewed Articles

• Furia, Peter A. (2006). "Determinants of Arab Public Opinion on Foreign Relations". International Studies Quarterly. 50 (3): 585. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Other Articles

• Chiozza, Giacomo (2004). "Love and Hate: Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World" (PDF). Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Johnston, Gregory (2006). "Anti-Americanism: An Exploration of a Contested Concept in Western Europe" (PDF). Dissertation. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Katzenstein, Peter J. (2005). Anti-americanisms in World Politics. Cornell University Press: Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. ISBN 0-8014-7351-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Choudhury, Nusrat. "The Economic Impact of Anti-Americanism" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help) PDF draft chapter later found in the book Anti-americanisms in World Politics
  • Katzenstein, Peter J. (2005). "Types and Sources of Anti-Americanism: A Framework for Analysis". University of Southern California Center for International Studies. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Word document draft chapter later found in the book Anti-americanisms in World Politics
• McPherson, Alan (2004). "Myths of Anti-Americanism: The Case of Latin America" (PDF). The Brown Journal of World Affairs. X (2): 141. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Rubin, Barry (2004). "Anti-Americanism Re-Examined". The Brown Journal of World Affairs. XI (I): 17. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Shlapentokh, Vladimir (2004). "The Threat of International Terrorism and the Image of the United States Abroad" (PDF). The Brown Journal of World Affairs. X (2): 167. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Vedrine, Hubert (2004). "On Anti-Americanism" (PDF). The Brown Journal of World Affairs. X (2): 117. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file

Government Documents

• Schneider, W. (2004). "Final report of the Defense Science Board (DSB) Task Force on Strategic Communication, United States Office of the Secretary of the Defense" (PDF). US Pentagon. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) PDF file
• Regan, Tom (2004). "They hate our policies, not our freedom Pentagon report contains major criticisms of administration". Christian Science Monitor. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Explanation of the report

Magazine & Newspaper Articles

• Bakshi, Amar (2007). "Ongoing series: How the World Sees America". Washington Post/Newsweek. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
• Arlidge, John (2001). "BBC Apologises to Envoy for Anti-American Abuse". Guardian Unlimited. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2003). "What the World Thinks of America". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• British Broadcasting Corporation (2003). "What the World Thinks of America". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2003). "What the World Thinks of America". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Ceaser, James W. (2003). "A Genealogy of Anti-Americanism". The Public Interest. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Fleming, Chris. "Understanding Anti-Americanism". Anthropoetics. 9 (2). {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Fulford, Robert (2001). "U.S. Bashing No Longer a Game". National Post. {{cite journal}}: Check |first= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Jacobson, Nora (2004). "Before You Flee to Canada, Can We Talk?". The Washington Post. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Kagan, Robert (2002). "Power and Weakness". Policy Review. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Lieven, Anatol (2001). "After the Attacks: America's New Cold War". Guardian. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help), Carnegie Endowment for Int'l Peace
• Lobe, Jim (2003). "Views of U.S. Plummet". Int'l Press Service News Agency. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Mead, Walter Russell (2003). "Why Do They Hate Us? Two Books Take Aim at French Anti-Americanism". Foreign Affairs. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Netanyahu, Benjamin (2001). "Statement for the Government Reform Committee". http://www.Bnetanyahu.com. {{cite journal}}: Check |first= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Porter, Henry (2001). "The Great Divide, Why Europe and America are World's Apart". Guardian. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Revel, Jean-François (2003). "Europe's Anti-American Obsession". The American Enterprise. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Rubin, Barry (2004). Hating America: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516773-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Staff Writer (2006). "Anti-Americanism 'feels like racism'". British Broadcasting Corporation. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Survey (2004). "A Year After Iraq War: Mistrust of America in Europe Ever Higher, Muslim Anger Persists". Pew Research Center. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Wellemeyer, Jonathan (2006). "Hollywood and the Spread of Anti-Americanism". National Public Radio. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Zakaria, Fareed (2004). "The Arrogant Empire". Newsweek. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• BBC question and answers article

Template:Discriminationfooter

• Anti-Americanism
• Anti-national sentiment
• American studies
• Foreign relations of the United States
• Politics of the United States
• International relations
• Persecution
• Prejudices