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| :''This article is about Ashkenazi Jews. For people with Ashkenazi as a surname, see ].'' | |||
| {{Infobox Ethnic group | |||
| |image = <div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;">] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] | |||
| <div style="background-color:#fee8ab"><small><small> ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ] • ]</small></small> | |||
| |group = Ashkenazi Jews <br> (יהודי אשכנז ''Yehudei Ashkenaz'') | |||
| |poptime = 8<ref name="behar"/> - 11.2<ref>, September 8, 1997.</ref> million | |||
| |popplace = | |||
| |region1 = {{flagcountry|United States}} | |||
| |pop1 = 5-6 million <ref name=Feldman>Gabriel E. Feldman, {{PDFlink||650 ]<!-- application/pdf, 666434 bytes -->}} , '']'', Volume 3, 2001.</ref> | |||
| |region2 = {{flagcountry|Israel}} | |||
| |pop2 = 2.8 million <ref name=Feldman/> | |||
| |region3 = {{flagicon|European Union}} ] | |||
| |pop3 = ~1,030,000{{Fact|date=June 2007}} | |||
| |region4 = {{flagcountry|Russia}} | |||
| |pop4 = 400,000{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |region5 = {{flagcountry|Canada}} | |||
| |pop5 = ~ 240,000{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |region6 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}} | |||
| |pop6 = 200,000{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |region7 = {{flagcountry|Germany}} | |||
| |pop7 = 100,000{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |region8 = {{flagcountry|South Africa}} | |||
| |pop8 = 80,000{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |region9 = {{flagcountry|Mexico}} | |||
| |pop9 = 40,000{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |region10 = {{flagcountry|Chile}} | |||
| |pop10 = 18,500{{Fact|date=December 2007}} | |||
| |langs =], ], ], ] | |||
| |rels = ] | |||
| |related = ], ], and other ] | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Ashkenazi Jews''', also known as '''Ashkenazic Jews''' or '''Ashkenazim''' (]: '''אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים''', {{pronounced|ˌaʃkəˈnazim}}, sing. {{IPA|}}; also '''יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכֲּנָז''', ''Yehudei Ashkenaz'', "the Jews of Ashkenaz"), are the ] descended from the ] ] of the ]. ''Ashkenaz'' is the ] name for the region which in modern times encompasses the country of ] and ] borderland areas. ] is also a ] ] in the ] (). Thus, ''Ashkenazim'' or ''Ashkenazi Jews'' are literally "German Jews." The word "Ashkenazi" is pronounced with a sound, rather than with as in a few similar instances in the ]. | |||
| Many Ashkenazi Jews later migrated, largely eastward, forming communities in non German-speaking areas, including ], ], ], ] and elsewhere between the 10th and 19th centuries. With them, they took and diversified ], a ] ] that had since medieval times been the ] among Ashkenazi Jews. To a much lesser extent, the Judæo-French language ] and the ]-based ] (Judæo-Czech) were also spoken. The Ashkenazi Jews developed a distinct culture and liturgy influenced, to varying degrees, by interaction with surrounding peoples, predominantly ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| Although in the 11th century they comprised only 3% of the world's ], Ashkenazi Jews accounted for (at their highest) 92% of the world's ] in 1931 and today make up approximately 80% of Jews worldwide.<ref name="sephardic">{{cite web| url=http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles3/sephardic.htm| title=Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?| publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs| first=Daniel J.| last=Elazar| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> Most Jewish communities with extended histories in Europe are Ashkenazim, with the exception of those associated with the ] region. The majority of the Jews who migrated from Europe to other continents in the past two centuries are Ashekenazim, ] in particular. This is especially true in the ], where 6 out of the 7 million strong ]ish population — the largest ] in the world when consistent statistical parameters are employed<ref name="pfef">{{cite web|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html |publisher=Haaretz Daily Newspaper Israel |title=Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768 |last=Pfeffer |first=Anshel |accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> — is Ashkenazi, representing the world's single largest concentration of Ashkenazim. | |||
| ==Who is an Ashkenazi Jew?== | |||
| The ] is not universally agreed upon -- neither by religious scholars (especially across different ]), nor in the context of politics (as applied to those who wish to make ]), nor even in the conventional, everyday sense (where 'Jewishness' may be loosely understood by the casual observer as encompassing both religious and ]s, or religious Jews alone). This makes it especially difficult to define who is an Ashkenazi Jew, because Ashkenazi Jews have been defined by different people using religious, cultural, or ethnic perspectives. Since the overwhelming majority of Ashkenazi Jews no longer live in Eastern Europe, the isolation that once favored a distinct religious tradition and culture has vanished. Furthermore, the word ''Ashkenazi'' is being used in non-traditional ways, especially in ]. By conservative and orthodox philosophies, a person can only be considered a jew if their mother was jewish, or they have undergone conversion. This means that a person can be Ashkenazi but not considered a jew by some of those within the jewish communities, making the term "Ashkenazi" more applicable as broad ethnicity which evolved from the practice of judaism in Europe. | |||
| ===Religious definition=== | |||
| Religious Jews have ]im, customs, in addition to ], or religious law, and different interpretations of law. Different groups of religious Jews in different geographic areas historically adopted different customs and interpretations. On certain issues, Orthodox Jews are required to follow the customs of their ancestors, and do not regard themselves as having the option of picking and choosing. Therefore, observant Jews at times find it important for religious reasons to ascertain who their household's religious ancestors are in order to know what customs their household should follow. These times include, for example, when two Jews of different ethnic background marry, when a non-Jew converts to Judaism and determines what customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less observant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must determine what was done in his or her family's past. In this sense, "Ashkenazic" refers both to a family ancestry and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ancestry. | |||
| In a religious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose family tradition and ritual follows Ashkenazi practice. When the Ashkenazi community first began to develop in the ] and until the ], the centers of Jewish religious authority were in the Islamic world, at ] and in Islamic Spain. Ashkenaz (Germany) was so distant geographically that it developed a '']'' of its own, and Ashkenazi Hebrew came to be pronounced in ways distinct from other forms of Hebrew. | |||
| In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is ], since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a ] or ] woman who marries into an ] or ] Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashkenazi Jews, and a ] who ] and takes on Ashkenazi religious practices becomes an Ashkenazi Jew. | |||
| Traditional Jewish law or ] considers a person who has undergone a formal religious conversion to be a Jew, but it also defines ] by ancestry, following the maternal lineage, irrespective of belief. According to Halacha, membership in a ] or participation in a local Jewish community does not alone make one a Jew. Likewise a person who disassociates themselves from the Jewish community is still considered to be Jewish by Halachic standards. Outside the ], no central authority or ruling body in Judaism determines who is a Jew. More religiously liberal and secular Jews have different approaches to accepting the Jewish heritage. | |||
| Since by tradition, Jewish status is inherited and follows the maternal lineage, someone who is maternally descended from a Jew, even if totally unaware of their Jewish heritage, or even if a practitioner of another religion, is from a traditional Jewish legal perspective still a Jew. Likewise, a person born of a Jewish father and non-Jewish mother is not considered Jewish by traditional Orthodox Jewish law, even if he was raised Jewish, unless he or she converts. | |||
| As a result of both difficulties caused applying of the traditional rules in the face of wide-spread intermarriage in less traditional Jewish circles and ideological perspectives (]), ] and ] adopted an approach of single-parent descent irrespective of gender. Under this definition, someone born to one Jewish parent who is given a Jewish upbringing is considered Jewish, and conversely, someone born to one Jewish parent who is not given a Jewish upbringing is considered a non-Jew (regardless of whether it is the father or mother who is Jewish). | |||
| The following examples illustrate Jewish identity issues from the perspective of ]: | |||
| ]]] | |||
| ]]] | |||
| *'''Apostasy'''. A Jew who converts to another religion, though an apostate, is still considered a Jew. ], who converted to ], was still considered an Ashkenazi Jew. In the state of ], however, an Israeli Jew who converts to a different religion is no longer considered to be Jewish. | |||
| *'''Atheism'''. A Jew who becomes an atheist is still considered a Jew. ], an atheist whose Jewish mother and father had converted to ] before he was born, would be considered an Ashkenazi Jew. | |||
| *'''Hidden Identity'''. A Jew whose identity was hidden, who was raised in another religion, is still considered a Jew. ], the former US ] whose Jewish parents converted to ] to escape persecution in the ] and then hid their ancestry, is considered an Ashkenazi Jew, even though she did not know of her "identity" until she became an adult, and was a professing Catholic. | |||
| *'''Renunciation'''. A Jew who renounces and even condemns Judaism is still considered a Jew. ], the international chess star who claimed that the ] was a Jewish invention and a lie, claimed to have only a Jewish mother, though evidence has shown to suggest that both his parents were Jewish.<ref>Nicholas, Peter, and Clea Benson. </ref> | |||
| With the reintegration of Jews from around the world in ], North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is blurring, especially outside of ]. Many Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews have joined liberal movements that originally developed within Ashkenazi Judaism. At least in recent decades, the congregations they have joined have often embraced them, and absorbed new traditions into their minhag. ]s and ]s in all non-Orthodox movements study ] in ], learning Sephardic rather than Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation. Ashkenazi congregations are adopting Sephardic or modern Israeli melodies for many prayers and traditional songs. Since the middle of the 20th century there has been a gradual ] and fusion of traditions, and this is affecting the ] of all but the most traditional congregations. | |||
| New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as the ], and the emergence of ''post-denominational Judaism''<ref>{{cite journal | author=Rosenthal, Rachel | title=What's in a name? | journal=Kedma | year=2006 | issue=Winter 2006 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref>{{cite web | author=Greenberg, Richard and Debra Nussbaum Cohen |url=http://jewschool.com/THE_NEW_JEW.pdf |title=Uncovering the Un-Movement |date=2005}}</ref> often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest in ], which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the ] framework. Another trend is the new popularity of ] worship in the ] movement and the ] style ], both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.kehilathadar.org/Aboutus/forward08-10-01.html| year=August 10, 2001| title=Any Old Shul Won't Do for the Young and Cool| first=Rachel| last=Donadio| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> | |||
| ===Cultural definition=== | |||
| In a cultural sense, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the concept of '']'', a word that literally means “Jewishness” in the ]. Of course, there are other kinds of Jewishness. ''Yiddishkeit'' is simply the Jewishness of Ashkenazi Jews. | |||
| Before the ] and the ] in Europe, this meant the study of ] and ] for men, and a family and communal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for men and women. From the ] to ] to ], most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, and spoke Yiddish in their secular lives. | |||
| But with modernization, ''Yiddishkeit'' now encompasses not just Orthodoxy and ], but a broad range of movements, ideologies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of Jewishness. Although a far smaller number of Jews still speak Yiddish, ''Yiddishkeit'' can be identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association. Broadly speaking, a Jew is one who associates culturally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish books and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, travels to Israel, visits ancient synagogues in ], and so forth. It is a definition that applies to Jewish culture in general, and to Ashkenazi Yiddishkeit in particular. | |||
| Contemporary population migrations have contributed to a reconfigured Jewishness among Jews of Ashkenazi descent that transcends Yiddishkeit and other traditional articulations of Ashkenazi Jewishness. As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Eastern Europe, settling mostly in Israel, North America, and other English-speaking areas, the geographic isolation which gave rise to Ashkenazim has given way to mixing with other cultures, and with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no longer isolated in distinct geographic locales. For Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe, chopped liver and ] were archetypal Jewish foods. To contemporary Ashkenazi Jews living both in ] and in the ], Middle Eastern foods such as ] and ], neither traditional to the historic Ashkenazi experience, have become central to their lives as Ashkenazi Jews in the current era. ] has replaced Yiddish as the primary Jewish language for some Ashkenazi Jews, except for many ] and ] sects which continue to use Yiddish. For example, in ], ], and other cities where large ultra-Orthodox populations reside Yiddish still remains the language spoken by Jews. Also, in many religious areas of Israel, including ] and ], some conservative Hasidic groups continue using Yiddish, often refusing to use Hebrew entirely. Given the phenomenal growth of Hasidic Jews all over the world, and in the United States in particular, the number of Yiddish speakers, many sociologists{{Who|date=June 2008}} predict, will boom. The number of Yiddish speakers today may be stagnant, or growing slowly, because of so many elderly Jews dying, but when this older cohort of Yiddish speakers dies the language will experience tremendous growth.{{Syn|date=June 2008}} In many yeshivas all over the world, Yiddish is the primary language of instruction. | |||
| France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the ], by the time of the ], there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the ] and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in ], and speaking mainly Yiddish. The two communities were so separate and different that the ] emancipated them separately in 1791. But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by the ] in the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Ashkenazi Jews arrived in large numbers as refugees from ], the ], and the economic turmoil of the ]. By the 1930s, ] had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in radical political movements. After the ] years and the ], the French Jewish population was augmented once again, first by refugees from Eastern Europe, and later by immigrants and refugees from North Africa, many of them ]. Then, in the 1990s, yet another Ashkenazi Jewish wave began to arrive from countries of the former ] and Eastern Europe. The result is a pluralistic Jewish community that still has some distinct elements of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic culture. But in France, it is becoming much more difficult to sort out the two, and a distinctly French Jewishness has emerged.<ref>Wall, Irwin. (2002) "Remaking Jewish Identity in France" in Howard Wettstein, ''Diaspora's and Exiles''. University of California Press, pages 164-190.</ref> | |||
| ===Ethnic definition=== | |||
| In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can be traced to the Jews of Central and Eastern Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists have identified genetic variations that have high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but not in the general European population. This is true for patrilineal markers (] ]s) as well as for matrilineal markers (] haplotypes)<ref></ref>. | |||
| Since the middle of the 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and with people of other nations and faiths, while some Jews have also adopted children from other ethnic groups or parts of the world and raised them as Jews. Conversion to Judaism, rare for nearly 2,000 years, has become more common. Jewish women and families who choose artificial insemination often choose a biological father who is not Jewish, to avoid common autosomal recessive genetic diseases. Orthodox religious authorities actually encourage this, because of the danger that a Jewish donor could be a ]. Thus, the concept of Ashkenazi Jews as a distinct ethnic people, especially in ways that can be defined ancestrally and therefore traced genetically, has also blurred considerably. | |||
| A study by Michael Seldin, a geneticist at the University of California Davis School of Medicine, found Ashkenazi Jews to be a clear, relatively homogenous genetic subgroup. Strikingly, regardless of the place of origin, Ashkenazi Jews can be grouped in the same genetic cohort — that is, regardless of whether an Ashkenazi Jew's ancestors came from Poland, Russia, Hungary, Lithuania, or any other place with a historical Jewish population, they belong to the same ethnic group. The research demonstrates the endogamy of the Jewish population in Europe and lends further credence to the idea of Ashkenazi Jews as an ethnic group. Moreover, though intermarriage among Jews of Ashkenazi descent has become increasingly more common, many Ultra-Orthodox Jews, particularly members Hasidic or Hareidi sects, continue to marry exclusively fellow Ashkenazi Jews. This trend keeps Ashkenazi genes prevalent and will also help researchers further study the genes of Ashkenazi Jews with relative ease. It is also noteworthy that these Ultra-Orthodox Jews often have extremely large families too.<ref></ref>. | |||
| ===Realignment in Israel=== | |||
| In Israel the term ''Ashkenazi'' is now used in ways that have nothing to do with its original meaning. In practice, the label Ashkenazi is often applied to all Jews of European background living in Israel, including those whose ethnic background is actually ]. Jews of any non-Ashkenazi background, including Mizrahi, Yemenite, Kurdish, and others having no connection at all with the ], have similarly come to be lumped together as ]. Jews of mixed background are increasingly common, partly because of intermarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because some do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews. | |||
| Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in ] matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties: although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties which play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to the ], a unicameral legislature with 120 seats. | |||
| ==Origins of Ashkenazim== | |||
| Although the historical record itself is very limited, there is a consensus of cultural, linguistic, and genetic evidence that the Ashkenazi Jewish population originated in the Middle East. When they arrived in northern France and the Rhineland sometime around 800-1000 AD, the Ashkenazi Jews brought with them both ] and the Babylonian Talmudic culture that underlies it. ], once spoken by the vast majority of Ashkenazi Jewry, is a ] which developed from the ] vernacular, heavily influenced by ] and ]. (By comparison, the ] or ] influence on Yiddish was much less significant). | |||
| European Jews came to be called "Ashkenaz" because the main centers of Jewish learning were located in ]. ''Ashkenaz'' is a ] name for Germany. (See ] for the term's etymology.) | |||
| ===Background in the Roman Empire=== | |||
| After the forced Jewish exile from ] in 70 AD and the complete Roman takeover of Judea following the ] of 132-135 AD, Jews continued to be a majority of the population in Palestine for several hundred years. However, the Romans no longer recognized the authority of the ] or any other Jewish body, and Jews were prohibited from living in Jerusalem. Outside the Roman Empire, a large Jewish community remained in ]. Other Jewish populations could be found dispersed around the Mediterranean region, with the largest concentrations in the ], ], ], ], and ], including ] itself. Smaller communities are recorded in southern ] (France), ], and ].<ref>{{cite book|title="Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 BC to 640 AD |author=Schwartz, Seth |date=2001 |publisher=Princeton University Press| id=ISBN 0-691-11781-0 |pages=103-128 }}</ref> | |||
| Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 AD, when Emperor ] granted all free peoples this privilege. However as a penalty for the ], Jews were still required to pay a ] until the reign of Emperor ] in 363 AD. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were still free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. But after Christianity became the official religion of ] and ], Jews were increasingly marginalized, and brutally persecuted. | |||
| In Palestine and Mesopotamia, where Jewish religious scholarship was centered, the majority of Jews were still engaged in farming, as demonstrated by the preoccupation of early Talmudic writings with agriculture. In ] communities, trade was a common occupation, facilitated by the easy mobility of traders through the dispersed Jewish communities. | |||
| Throughout this period and into the early Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to ].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Beginnings of Jewishness| author=Shaye J. D. Cohen |date=2001 |publisher=] | id=ISBN 0-520-22693-3}}</ref> In Palestine and Mesopotamia, the spoken language of Jews continued to be ], but elsewhere in the diaspora, most Jews spoke Greek. Conversion and assimilation were especially common within the Hellenized or Greek-speaking Jewish communities, amongst whom the ] and ] (Greek translations and adaptations of the ] or Hebrew Bible) were the source of scripture. A remnant of this Greek-speaking Jewish population (the ]) survives to this day. | |||
| The Germanic invasions of the ] in the 5th century by tribes such as the ], ], ], and ] caused massive economic and social instability within the western Empire, contributing to its decline. In the late Roman Empire, Jews are known to have lived in ] and ], as well as in what is now ]. However, it is unclear whether there is any continuity between these late Roman communities and the distinct Ashkenazi Jewish culture that began to emerge about 500 years later. King ] of the ] expelled the Jews from his ] kingdom in 629. Jews in former Roman territories now faced new challenges as harsher anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced. | |||
| ===Rabbinic Judaism moves to Ashkenaz=== | |||
| In Mesopotamia, and in Persian lands free of Roman imperial domination, Jewish life fared much better. Since the conquest of ] by ], this community had always been the leading ] community, a rival to the leadership of Palestine. After conditions for Jews began to deteriorate in Roman controlled lands, many of the religious leaders of ] and the ] fled to the east. At the academies of ] and ] near Babylon, ] based on ]ic learning began to emerge and assert its authority over Jewish life throughout the diaspora. Rabbinic Judaism created a religious mandate for literacy, requiring all Jewish males to learn Hebrew and read from the Torah. This emphasis on literacy and learning a second language would eventually be of great benefit to the Jews, allowing them to take on commercial and financial roles within Gentile societies where literacy was often quite low. | |||
| After the Islamic conquest of the Middle East and North Africa, new opportunities for trade and commerce opened between the Middle East and Western Europe. The vast majority of Jews in the world now lived in Islamic lands. Urbanization, trade, and commerce within the Islamic world allowed Jews, as a highly literate people, to abandon farming and live in cities, engaging in occupations where they could use their skills.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ideas.repec.org/p/cpr/ceprdp/5571.html| title=From Farmers to Merchants, Voluntary Conversions and Diaspora: A Human Capital Interpretation of Jewish History| last=Botticini| first=Maristella| coauthors= Zvi Eckstein| year=March 2006| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> The influential, sophisticated, and well organized Jewish community of Mesopotamia, now centered in Baghdad, became the center of the Jewish world. In the Caliphate of Baghdad, Jews took on many of the financial occupations that they would later hold in the cities of Ashkenaz. Jewish traders from Baghdad began to travel to the west, renewing Jewish life in the western Mediterranean region. They brought with them Rabbinic Judaism and Babylonian ]ic scholarship. | |||
| After 800 AD, ] unification of former Frankish lands with northern Italy and Rome brought on a brief period of stability and unity in Western Europe. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle once again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews in his lands freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under the ]. Returning once again to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took on occupations in finance and commerce, including moneylending or ]. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for ].) From Charlemagne's time on to the present, there is a well documented record of Jewish life in northern Europe, and by the 11th century, when ] of ] wrote his commentaries, Ashkenazi Jews had emerged also as interpreters and commentators on the ] and ]. | |||
| ===DNA clues=== | |||
| Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis began in the 1990s. Like most DNA studies of human migration patterns, these studies have focused on two segments of the human genome, the ] (inherited only by males), and the mitochondrial genome (], DNA which passes from mother to child). Both segments are unaffected by recombination. Thus, they provide an indicator of paternal and maternal origins, respectively. | |||
| A study of ] of the Y chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer ''et al''<ref name="hammer">{{cite journal| title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes| first=M. F.| last=Hammer| coauthors=A. J. Redd, E. T. Wood, M. R. Bonner, H. Jarjanazi, T. Karafet, S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Oppenheim, M. A. Jobling, T. Jenkins, H. Ostrer, and B. Bonné-Tamir| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| month=May 9| year=2000| doi=10.1073/pnas.100115997| volume=97| pages=6769| pmid=10801975}}</ref> found that the ] of some Ashkenazi and ] contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." | |||
| Until recently, geneticists had largely attributed the genesis of most of the ], including the Ashkenazim of Northern and Central Europe, to have been founded by the males who migrated from the Middle East and "by the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism".<ref name="wade">{{cite journal| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/14/science/14gene.html?_r=1&oref=slogin| title=New Light on Origins of Ashkenazi in Europe| first=Nicholas| last=Wade| journal=The New York Times| month=January 14| year=2006| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> But new studies suggest that in addition to the male founders, significant female founder ancestry may also derive from the Middle East.<ref name="wade">{{cite journal| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/14/science/14gene.html?_r=1&oref=slogin| title=New Light on Origins of Ashkenazi in Europe| first=Nicholas| last=Wade| journal=The New York Times| month=January 14| year=2006| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> | |||
| Recent research indicates that a significant portion of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry is also likely of ] origin. A 2006 study by Behar ''et al''<ref name="behar">{{cite journal| url=http://www.ftdna.com/pdf/43026_Doron.pdf| title=The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event| first=Doron M.| last=Behar| coauthors=Ene Metspalu, Toomas Kivisild, Alessandro Achilli, Yarin Hadid, Shay Tzur, Luisa Pereira, Antonio Amorim, Lluı's Quintana-Murci, Kari Majamaa, Corinna Herrnstadt, Neil Howell, Oleg Balanovsky, Ildus Kutuev, Andrey Pshenichnov, David Gurwitz, Batsheva Bonne-Tamir, Antonio Torroni, Richard Villems, and Karl Skorecki| journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics| month=March| year=2006| volume=78| issue=3| pages=487–97| pmid=16404693| doi=10.1086/500307}}</ref>, based on ] analysis of ] (mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a ]/]ine mtDNA pool" originating in the Near East in the first and second centuries CE. According to the authors, "the observed global pattern of distribution renders very unlikely the possibility that the four aforementioned founder lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene flow from a European host population." | |||
| <blockquote>Both the extent and location of the maternal ancestral deme from which the Ashkenazi Jewry arose remain obscure. Here, using complete sequences of the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), we show that close to one-half of Ashkenazi Jews, estimated at 8,000,000 people, can be traced back to only four women carrying distinct mtDNAs that are virtually absent in other populations, with the important exception of low frequencies among non-Ashkenazi Jews. We conclude that four founding mtDNAs, likely of Near Eastern ancestry, underwent major expansion(s) in Europe within the past millennium.<ref name="behar"/><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/01/12/jewish.descent.ap/index.html| title=404 error| publisher=CNN.com| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last=Wade| first=Nicholas| title=| journal=New York Times| month=January 14| year=2006}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ==Ashkenazi migrations throughout the High and Late Middle Ages== | |||
| Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the ] and ] as early as the 8th and 9th century. By the early 900s, Jewish populations were well-established in ], and later followed the ] into ] in 1066, also settling in the ]. With the onset of the ], and the expulsions from ] (1290), France (1394), and parts of ] (1400s), Jewish migration pushed eastward into ], ], and ]. Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to ] European prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, and preventing certain financial activities (such as "]" loans) between Christians.<ref>{{cite book | first=Hayim | last=Ben-Sasson | title=A History of the Jewish People | publisher=Harvard University Press |date=1976 }}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| By the 1400s, the Ashkenazi Jewish communities in ] were the largest Jewish communities of the ].<ref name="Ashkenazim">{{cite web| url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Ashkenazim.html| title=Ashkenazim| first=Shira| last=Schoenberg| publisher=Jewish Virtual Library| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> Poland in this time was a decentralized medieval monarchy, incorporating lands from ] to ], including much of modern ] and ]. This area, which eventually fell under the domination of ], ], and ] (]), would remain the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until the ]. | |||
| ===Usage of the name===<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| In reference to the Jewish peoples of Northern Europe and particularly the ], the word ''Ashkenazi'' is often found in medieval ]. References to Ashkenaz in ] and ]'s letter to the king of the ] would date the term as far back as the tenth century, as would also ]'s commentary on Daniel 7:8. | |||
| The word ''Ashkenaz'' first appears in the genealogy in the ] (Genesis 10) as a son of ] and grandson of ]. It is thought that the name originally applied to the ] (Ishkuz), who were called ''Ashkuza'' in Assyrian inscriptions, and lake ] and the region ] in ] derive their names from this group. | |||
| ''Ashkenaz'' in later ] tradition became identified with the peoples of Germany, and in particular to the area along the Rhine where the '']'' tribe once lived (compare the French and Spanish words ''Allemagne'' and ''Alemania'', respectively, for Germany). | |||
| The ] was usually '']n'', however. | |||
| Ashkhenaz is also recorded as being an ancient Armenian kingdom,{{Fact|date=October 2007}} and Armenians speak of themselves in their literature as “the Ashkenazi nation” as putative descendants of Noah’s grandson Ashkenaz.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Jewish literature, too, sometimes equates the geographic place Ashkenaz with Armenia.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| The "Ashkuza" have also been linked to the ] branch of Turks including nearly all Turkic peoples today from Turkey to Turkmenistan.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} | |||
| ===Medieval references=== | |||
| In the first half of the 11th century, ] refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means ]. '']'' in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz<ref>Commentary on Deuteronomy 3:9; idem on ] tractate Sukkah 17a</ref> and the country of Ashkenaz.<ref>Talmud, Hullin 93a</ref> During the 12th century the word appears quite frequently. In the ], the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.<ref>ib. p. 129</ref> | |||
| In the literature of the 13th century references to the land and the language of Ashkenaz often occur. See especially ]'s Responsa (vol. i., No. 395); the Responsa of ] (pp. 4, 6); his ''Halakot'' (Berakot i. 12, ed. Wilna, p. 10); the work of his son ], ''Tur Orach Chayim'' (chapter 59); the Responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet (numbers 193, 268, 270). | |||
| In the '']'' compilation ''Genesis Rabbah'', Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as ] tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a ] word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Palestinian Jews, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica." This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by ''Germamia'', which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound. | |||
| In later times the word Ashkenaz is used to designate southern and Western Germany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of Eastern Germany and ]. Thus the prayer-book of ], and many others, give the ] according to the ] of Ashkenaz and Poland. | |||
| According to 16th century mystic ], Ashkenazi Jews lived in ] during the 11th century. The story is told that a German-speaking ] Jew saved the life of a young German man ]d Dolberger. So when the ]s of the ] came to siege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger’s family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to ] to repay the favor.<ref>Seder ha-Dorot", p. 252, 1878 ed.</ref> Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of ] questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the eleventh century.<ref>Epstein, in "Monatsschrift," xlvii. 344; </ref> | |||
| == Customs, laws and traditions == | |||
| The '']'' practices of Ashkenazi Jews may differ from those of ], particularly in matters of custom. Differences are noted in the '']'' itself, in the gloss of ]. Well known differences in practice include: | |||
| *Observance of '']'' (Passover): Ashkenazi Jews traditionally refrain from eating ], ], ], and ] (], however, has become accepted as foodgrain in the North American communities), whereas Sephardi Jews typically do not prohibit these foods. | |||
| *Ashkenazi Jews freely mix and eat fish and milk products; some Sephardic Jews refrain from doing so. | |||
| *Ashkenazim are more permissive toward the usage of ] as a hair covering for married and widowed women. | |||
| *In the case of '']'' for meat, conversely, Sephardi Jews have stricter requirements—this level is commonly referred to as '']''. Meat products which are acceptable to Ashkenazi Jews as kosher may therefore be rejected by Sephardi Jews. Notwithstanding stricter requirements for the actual slaughter, Sephardi Jews permit the rear portions of an animal after proper ] removal of the ], while many Ashkenazi Jews do not. This is not because of different interpretations of the law; rather, slaughterhouses could not find adequate skills for correct removal of the sciatic nerve and found it more economical to separate the hindquarters and sell them as non-kosher meat. | |||
| *Ashkenazi Jews frequently name newborn children after deceased family members, but not after living relatives. Sephardi Jews, on the other hand, often name their children after the children's grandparents, even if those grandparents are still living (See ]). A notable exception to this generally reliable rule is among ], where Ashkenazim for centuries used the naming conventions otherwise attributed exclusively to Sephardim (See ]). | |||
| *Ashkenazi ] bear some differences from ] ]. In the traditional Ashkenazic rite the tefillin are wound towards the body, not away from it. Ashkenazim traditionally don ] while standing whereas other Jews generally do so while sitting down. | |||
| *Ashkenazic traditional pronunciations of ] differ from those of other groups. The most prominent consonantal difference from Sephardic and Mizrahic Hebrew dialects is the pronunciation of the Hebrew letter ] in certain Hebrew words (historically, in postvocalic undoubled context) as an /s/ and not a /t/ or /θ/ sound. | |||
| * The prayer shawl, or talit (or talis in ashkenazi Hebrew) is worn over the shoulders in Ashkenazi Judaism. In Sephardi or Mizrahi Judaism, the prayer shawl is commonly worn over the head. | |||
| == Relationship to other Jews == | |||
| {{Jews and Judaism}} | |||
| The term ''Ashkenazi'' also refers to the ''] Ashkenaz'' (], "liturgical tradition", or rite) used by Ashkenazi ]s in their '']'' (prayer book). A ''nusach'' is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are Nusach Sphard (not to be confused with Sephardi), which is the same as the general Polish (Hasidic) Nusach; and Nusach Chabad, otherwise known as Lubavitch Chasidic, Nusach ] or Nusach ha'Ari. | |||
| This phrase is often used in contrast with ] Jews, also called Sephardim, who are descendants of Jews from ] and ]. There are some differences in how the two groups pronounce certain Hebrew letters and in points of ritual. | |||
| Several famous people have ], such as ]. Ironically, most people with this surname hail from within Sephardic communities, particularly from the ]ish community. The Sephardic carriers of the surname would have some Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted by families who were initially of Ashkenazic origins who move to ] countries and joined those communities. Ashkenazi would be formally adopted as the family surname having started off as a nickname imposed by their adopted communities. Some have shortened the name to Ash. Other spellings exist, such as Eskenazi or Esquenazi by the Syrian Jews who relocated to ] and other ] Jewish communities. | |||
| Literature about the alleged Turkic origin of the Ashkenazi population, as descendants of the Jewish population, converts or otherwise, appeared mainly after 1950. Although it has been speculated that the peaceful life lived by the Jews of Khazaria was contrived or exaggerated, and publicized primarily in an effort to shame European leaders into treating their Jewish populations better, the Jewish-Khazar thesis is used today primarily as a whipping horse for ] claiming that the Ashkenazim are actually not ]. This dubious theory holds that Ashkenazim should be hated for pretending to be "real" Jews, instead of because they are actually Jewish. In any case, most scholarship on the subject dismisses the Khazar-Ashkenazi relationship, if not rejecting the portrayed Jewish golden age of Khazaria altogether. | |||
| See also: ], ], ] | |||
| == Population genetics == | |||
| There are many references to Ashkenazi Jews in the literature of medical and population genetics. Indeed, much awareness of "Ashkenazi Jews" as an ethnic group or category stems from the large number of genetic studies of disease, including many that are well reported in the media, that have been conducted among Jews. According to Daphna Birenbaum Carmeli at the ], Jewish populations have been studied more thoroughly than most other human populations, for a variety of reasons: | |||
| * Jewish populations, and particularly the large Ashkenazi Jewish population, are ideal for such research studies, because they exhibit a high degree of ], yet they are sizable. | |||
| * Geneticists are intrinsically interested in Jewish populations, and a disproportionate percentage of genetics researchers are Jewish. {{Fact|date=January 2008}} Israel in particular has become an international center of such research. | |||
| * Jewish populations are overwhelmingly urban, and are concentrated near biomedical centers where such research has been carried out. Such research is especially easy to carry out in Israel, where cradle-to-grave medical insurance is available, together with universal screening for genetic disease. | |||
| * Jewish communities are comparatively well informed about genetics research, and have been supportive of community efforts to study and prevent genetic diseases. | |||
| * Participation of Jewish scientists and support from the Jewish community alleviates ethical concerns that sometimes hinder such genetic studies in other ethnic groups. | |||
| The result is a form of ]. This has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more susceptible to genetic disease than other populations. Carmeli writes, "Jews are over-represented in human genetic literature, particularly in mutation-related contexts." <ref>{{cite journal| author=Carmeli, Daphna Birenbaum| journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics| year=2004| title=Prevalence of Jews as subjects in genetic research: Figures, explanation, and potential implications| vol=130A| issue=1| pages=76–83 | volume=130a| doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.20291}}</ref> | |||
| === Specific diseases === | |||
| Diseases that are inherited in an ] pattern often occur in ] populations. Among Ashkenazi Jews, a higher incidence of specific ] ]s has been reported: | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ] and ] (due to higher distribution of ] and ]){{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ] due to ] (HNPCC){{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ] (non-classical form){{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ] (the ''NOD2/CARD15'' locus appears to be implicated){{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ] (Riley-Day Syndrome){{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ] (chronic form){{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ].<ref name = "taysachs">{{cite web |url= http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/taysachs/taysachs.htm | | |||
| title= Tay-Sachs Disease Information Page |publisher= ] | date = ] ] | accessdate = 2008-05-25}}</ref> | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| * ]{{Fact|date=October 2007}} | |||
| ] and ] are recommended for couples where both partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry. Some organizations, most notably ], organize screening programs to prevent ] for the ]s that cause these diseases. See for more information on testing programmes. | |||
| ==Modern history== | |||
| In an essay on ] Jewry, ] at the ]<ref name="sephardic"/> summarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years, noting that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; in the mid-17th century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two", but by the end of the 18th century, "Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe versus the Ottoman Muslim world."<ref name="sephardic"/> By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry.<ref name="sephardic"/> | |||
| Ashkenazi Jews developed the ] movement as well as major Jewish academic centers across Poland, Russia, and Lithuania in the generations after emigration from the west. After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 1800s and 1900s in response to ]s and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the ]ish community since 1750.<ref name="Ashkenazim"/> | |||
| Ashkenazi cultural growth led to the '']'' or Jewish Enlightenment, and the development of ] in modern Europe. | |||
| ===Ashkenazi Jews and the Holocaust=== | |||
| Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning of ], the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million — more than two-thirds — were systematically slaughtered in ]. These included 3 million of 3.3 million Polish Jews (91%); 900,000 of 1.1 million in ] (82%); and 50–90% of the Jews of other Slavic nations, Germany, France, Hungary, and the Baltic states. Sephardi communities suffered similar depletions in a few countries, including Greece, the Netherlands and the former Yugoslavia.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/killedtable.html| title=Estimated Number of Jews Killed in The Final Solution| publisher=Jewish Virtual Library| accessdate=2006-05-24}}</ref> Many of the surviving Ashkenazi Jews ] to countries such as ], ], and the ] after the war. | |||
| ===Ashkenazi Jews in Israel=== | |||
| Today, Ashkenazi Jews constitute the largest group among Jews,<ref name="sephardic"/> but probably about a half of ] (see ]). However, they have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and politics of Israel since its founding. Tensions have sometimes arisen between the traditional Jews of the Middle East (the ] and ]) and the mostly European Ashkenazim who founded Israel. Later ] hailing from the various non-Ashkenazi groups sometimes claim that they are ] against in terms of education, jobs/income, housing and in other areas. | |||
| ===Achievement=== | |||
| Ashkenazi Jews have a noted history of achievement in western societies.<ref>{{cite news |first= Charles |last=Murray |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title=Jewish Genius |url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Jewish-Genius-10855?page=all |format= |work= |publisher=Commentary Magazine |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date=April 2007 |accessdate=2007-12-23 |language= |quote=Disproportionate Jewish accomplishment in the arts and sciences continues to this day. |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> They have won a disproportionate share of the Nobel awards.<ref>{{cite news |first= Charles |last=Murray |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title=Jewish Genius |url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Jewish-Genius-10855?page=all |format= |work= |publisher=Commentary Magazine |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date=April 2007 |accessdate=2007-12-23 |language= |quote=In the first half of the 20th century...Jews won 14 percent of Nobel Prizes in literature, chemistry, physics, and medicine/physiology. |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Steven |last= Pinker |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title=THE LESSONS OF THE ASHKENAZIM:Groups and Genes |url=http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/media/2006_06_17_thenewrepublic.html |format= |work= |publisher=The New Republican |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date= ] |accessdate=2007-12-23 |language= |quote=Though never exceeding 3 percent of the American population, Jews account for 37 percent of the winners of the U.S. National Medal of Science, 25 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in literature, 40 percent of the American Nobel Prize winners in science and economics, and so on. |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> In those societies where they have been free to enter any profession, they have a record of high occupational achievement, entering professions and fields of commerce where higher education is required.<ref>{{cite news |first= Charles |last=Murray |authorlink= |author= |coauthors= |title=Jewish Genius |url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/Jewish-Genius-10855?page=all |format= |work= |publisher=Commentary Magazine |location= |id= |pages= |page= |date=April 2007 |accessdate=2007-12-23 |language= |quote=From 1870 to 1950, Jewish representation in literature was four times the number one would expect. In music, five times. In the visual arts, five times. In biology, eight times. In chemistry, six times. In physics, nine times. In mathematics, twelve times. In philosophy, fourteen times. |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref> | |||
| {{more|Ashkenazi intelligence}} | |||
| == Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis in the Yishuv and Israel == | |||
| * ] : (23 Feb 1921 - 1 Sep 1935) | |||
| * ] : (1937 - 25 Jul 1959) | |||
| * ] : (1964 - 1972) | |||
| * ] : (1972 - 1983) | |||
| * ] : (1983 - 1993) | |||
| * ] : (1993 - 3 Apr 2003) | |||
| * ] (acting): (3 Apr 2003 - 14 Apr 2003) | |||
| * ] : (14 Apr 2003 - present) | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| <div class="references-small"><references/> | |||
| ==References for "Who is an Ashkenazi Jew?"== | |||
| * {{cite book| last=Goldberg| first=Harvey E.| year=2001| title=The Life of Judaism| publisher=University of California Press| id=ISBN 0-520-21267-3}} | |||
| *{{cite book| last=Silberstein| first=Laurence| year=2000| title=Mapping Jewish Identities| publisher=New York University Press| id=ISBN 0-8147-9769-5}} | |||
| *{{cite book| last=Wettstein| first=Howard| year=2002| title=Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity| publisher=University of California Press| id=ISBN 0-520-22864-2}} | |||
| *{{cite book| last=Wex| first=Michael|authorlink=Michael Wex| year=2005| title=]: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods| publisher=St. Martin's Press| id=ISBN 0-312-30741-1}} | |||
| ==Other References== | |||
| * Beider, Alexander (2001): ''A Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pronunciations, and Migrations''. Avotaynu. ISBN 1-886223-12-2. | |||
| * Biale, David (2002): ''Cultures of the Jews: A New History''. Schoken Books. ISBN 0-8052-4131-0 | |||
| * Brook, Kevin Alan (2003): "The Origins of East European Jews" in ''Russian History/Histoire Russe'' vol. 30, nos. 1-2, pp. 1-22. | |||
| * Gross, N. (1975): ''Economic History of the Jews''. Schocken Books, New York. | |||
| * Haumann, Heiko (2001): ''A History of East European Jews''. Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9241-26-1. | |||
| * Lewis, Bernard (1984): ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05419-3 | |||
| * Vital, David (1999): ''A People Apart: A History of the Jews in Europe''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821980-6 | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * | |||
| * by Ellen Levy-Coffman | |||
| * {{PDFlink||2.02 ]<!-- application/pdf, 2125380 bytes -->}} | |||
| * (''European Journal of Human Genetics'' - 2007) | |||
| * | |||
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