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The field of Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) began in the early 1970s at Kresge College, University of California, Santa Cruz when Richard Bandler, then a fourth year undergraduate student with interests in Gestalt therapy, invited John Grinder, then an Assistant Professor of linguistics to visit his Gestalt therapy group. Between 1973-1979 they collaborated and further developed by "modeling" well-known gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir, and leading proponent of medical hypnosis Milton H. Erickson. NLP methodology includes contributions from Noam Chomsky's transformational linguistics, Gregory Bateson, Milton H. Erickson, automata theory, Turing machine, and logic. (Grinder & Bostic, 2001)

NLP was designed from the very beginning to be an epistemology (Grinder, 1986). Further, it asks the question, what is the difference that makes the difference between the top performers and average performers in the same niche? (Grinder, 2003) In this respect, NLP is considered a meta-discipline in that it can be applied to modeling people from many different fields (for example: psychotherapy, physics, business, sports, ...). (Grinder & Bostic, 2001).

Goals

NLP aims to discover how experts or superior performers, excel in a given niche, initially through observation and imitation and only when the skills can be replicated by the modeler explicitly coding "the difference that makes the difference", so that the difference can be taught to others (Bandler & Grinder, 1975). This process has been described by co-creator John Grinder as "an accelerated learning approach for modeling human excellence." Therefore, NLP modeling is considered by some practitioners to be at the heart of NLP. Other methods of acquiring knowledge including interview style questioning are not considered NLP by co-founder John Grinder. (Grinder, 2003)

One simple example is the application of NLP to improve people's spelling strategies. In this NLP model, excellent spellers use multiple representational systems (VAK) to codify and recall words. One NLP game designed to learn this strategy, requiring two people, involves holding up coloured flash cards with words to be remembered. The cards are held above line of sight (to promote visualisation). The eyes are then closed while internally visualising the letters of the words. When the internal visualisation of the word, matches the external flash cards, the strategy is tested by reading aloud the letters forwards and backwards. If there are any errors in the reading of letters, the entire process is repeated from the start with the same word. This game is designed to develop the key skills found in excellent spellers, and requires practise and repetition to integrate into daily life.

The History of NLP

The earliest influence on NLP was Alfred Korzybski and general semantics as a new perspective for looking at the world from altered realities and his complex methods of instilling mental hygiene. This was a departure from Aristotelian thought of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind such as was adopted by other financially successful self-help organizations and led the way to a viable human potential industry and the associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s self help organizations such as EST and had become hugely popular and financially successful and Esalen human potential seminars in California had begun to attract names such as Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, Gregory Bateson and Milton Erickson, all of whom, Grinder and Bandler modeled (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994). As time went by, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts and David Gordon would make their contributions, and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into book, Frogs into Princes. This became an NLP best seller and stirred up popularity for the seminars, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991). Following the influence of the Esalen Institute, NLP continues to be promoted in combination with New Age notions, biofeedback, neurofeedback, intuition development, and psychic development. It has both therapeutic and spiritual aspects and is nonjudgmental to all creeds and points of view (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994).

Meta-model and Milton Model

Put simply, the meta-model is a set of questions (from Virginia Satir, Fritz Perls and Transformational syntax) designed to challenge limits to a person's map of the world (Grinder & Bostic, 2001). Effectively the meta-model can be reduced to asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to challenge unspecified nouns or verbs. Other challenges are directed at distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a Ch3). The reverse set of the meta-model is the Milton-model; a collection of artfully vague language patterns elicited from the work of Milton Erickson (Bandler & Grinder, 1975b). Together these models form the basis for the all other NLP models.

NLP principles

In contrast to its numerous mini-models and techniques, NLP lacks a central theory for explanation, but there are a number of principles that have generally guided the development of NLP, many of them borrowed from other sources such as Ericksonian hypnosis and general semantics. Practitioners often explicitly formulate these principles as "presuppositions."

Practicality

NLP is not so much about discovering what is true as it is about discovering what is useful, what works in any given situation. But beyond mere utility, NLP aims for efficiency and elegance. Example: It's not uncommon for the turnaround on a phobia such as heights or spiders to be under 10 minutes. The work can be tested objectively afterwards for delivery of the client's desired result by asking the client to actually visit a tall building or find a spider, and report back on their experience. According to Bandler, when the technique ceases working, one can always go back for more treatment.

Experimentation, observation and feedback

Utility is measured strictly by subjective experimentation and observation. Observation skills are the first skills taught in basic NLP training. Practitioners and students of NLP are admonished not to take any model for granted, but rather are challenged to try them out in the real world and subjectively observe what happens.

A principle borrowed from cybernetics is that of a feedback loop. The NLP practitioner, when consciously engaged in some activity, especially one which involves one or more other people, is continually gathering information and using it as feedback to adjust his own behavior. One aspect of this is captured in the aphorism "The meaning of your communication is the response that you get." Also NLP practitioners are very keen to stress that some of the most important information is gathered from physiological cues and signals (gestures, posture, eye movement, breathing patterns, facial expressions, etc), the vast majority of which are given unconsciously, and that these signals must be calibrated to the individual who is providing them. These cues are said to give special information such as that of body language.

Client centered

According to the NLP presupposition that closely relates to human potential improvement, the client has the resources they need. The NLP practitioner leaves it up to the person to subjectively indicate what works and what does not. If they are observed subjectively and carefully, they will actually show it quite clearly in their words and body language, what the problem is, how they experience it, and which ways it will or will not work, or will be blocked. So the NLP practitioner will attempt to use their skills to help the client explore their 'map' (perceptions and preconceptions) of reality. The rest of NLP is then, in effect, an attempt to help the practitioner understand, work and communicate within another person's world view.

Structure

A key element is that NLP is very much based upon structure and sequence. As a structural discipline, NLP seeks to be strictly non-judgmental in its outlook, and accepts views and beliefs of all for interpretation and use in human improvement. This allows NLP to be used within the whole global range of philosophical and spiritual perspectives. Individual tools within NLP can be treated as building blocks, put together to most effectively communicate with each individual human being. It is syntax based, in that the order and structure of what is done is felt to have a significant impact on how effective it is.

• NLP assumes that human experience, behavior and skill themselves turn out to be highly structured. As structures, they can be sequenced (note: patterns can play out over a tiny fraction of a second) and worked with. There are ways in which pathological or sub-optimal aspects of these structures can be reworked by adapting from other existing skills or by developing and practicing new ones. Or indeed the entire pattern may be best changed for a better alternative.

Multiple perceptual positions (typically triple description)

The idea of multiple perceptual positions in NLP was originally inspired by Gregory Bateson's double description who purported that double (or triple) descriptions are better than one. By deliberately training oneself in moving between perceptual positions one can develop new choice of responses. (Bostic & Grinder, 2002 p.247)

One basic example in NLP training involves considering an experience (typically a relationship) from the perspective of self, other and a detached third person in that situation. It could be something that has occured already or something that will occur in the future. This type of exercise is useful in gathering information and often new choice in the world become available without a deliberate intervention.

Adaptation and Innovation

While students are taught set patterns and models during NLP trainings with very specialized terminology, once they have mastered the basic techniques, students are encouraged to try to use these to innovate new ways, without being tied to mere repetition of existing techniques. The principle here, again borrowed from cybernetics, is that the more flexible and adaptable a person is and the more options they have in their behavior, the more successful they are likely to be in their endeavors. Along these lines are statements such as "If what you are doing isn't working, try something -- anything -- else."; the view that there is no failure, only feedback; and the attitude that any skill, belief or behavior of one person can in principle be modeled and learned by another, who can use it to improve their own skill.?

Mind, body and spirit

NLP practitioners consider the mind, spirit and physical body as a system; that is, each influences the other. There are several important implications:

• The way that the body is moving and held can hold emotion, states and patterns in place. Also some memories are locked in place physiologically.
• Therefore some changes can be easier to make by working at a physical (body) level (letting the body inform the mind), as well as by dialog (mind informing emotions).
• Humans communicate by taking in information through the senses, but they also give out communication as energy, and this can be considered the spiritual side of communication. The connectivity between living beings makes communication more real, and this allows NLP to be used to enhance human potential far beyond the psychological level.

Subjectivity of experience

Other principles, borrowed from sources such as General Semantics, affirm the subjective nature of our experience, which never fully captures the objective world, and that this experience differs from one individual to the next, sometimes radically, and can even differ for the same individual when compared across different contexts. As a result, one needs to be aware of these differences when interacting with others, to make few assumptions about what the other person is experiencing, and to gather information as needed to verify one's understanding of the other's experience.

Empiricism and Idealism

"The two classic epistemological polar positions in the 18th century can be usefully presented by Hume, in the British empiricist tradition and Kant in the German idealist tradition." (Grinder & Delozier, 1987)

According to John Grinder, the NLP epistemology attempts to bridge the gap between the extremes of empiricism and idealism without appealing to mysticism. This view tends to agree with Einstein's saying, "I see on the side of totality of sense-experience, and, on the other, the totality of the concepts and propositions." (Albert Einstein, Autobiographical notes p. 13). The various NLP patterns are exploration in mapping our sensory impressions to concepts, knowing that there is a difference between in logical level and logical type between reality and representation of reality, or to quote Alfred Korzybski, "the map is not the territory." In NLP training sensory acuity and calibration exercises are used to enhance the five channels of our sensory system in an attempt to bring our internal representations (our maps), closer to reality (the territory). Typically, students observe demonstrations of the various NLP patterns, followed by exercises designed for experiential learning. (Grinder & Delozier, 1987)

Ecology

Ecology in NLP is about respecting the integrity of the system as a whole when assessing a change to that system; the 'system' in this case is a person's model of the world and the consequences of that model in the person's environment. Practically, this consideration entails asking questions like "What are the intended effects of this change? What other effects might this change have, and are those effects desirable? Is this change still a good idea?"

NLP and therapy

The first subjects of study were experts in the fields of family therapy, hypnosis, gestalt therapy and provocative therapy. As a result, a significant number of those who take NLP training do so because they are practitioners of psychotherapy, whether as psychologists, psychiatrists, MFCCs (i.e. Marriage, Family, and Child Counselors), social workers, pastors, or lay counselors.

Strictly speaking, NLP does not dictate a specific approach to therapy, instead relying on the practitioner's ability to observe what is effective. Therefore there is no specific approach or "NLP therapy".

There are various patterns (eg. phobia reduction process) for specific interventions and some patterns (eg. well-formed outcomes, and perceptual positions) that can be used in many different situations to achieve desired change.

In terms of self-help, most of the basic NLP-derived techniques can be applied to self. More complex change work requires the assistance of properly trained NLP practitioner.

Properly trained NLP practitioners can assist clients in;

• setting achievable outcomes and goals,
• making ecological changes;
• developing personal state management,
• creating generative beliefs,
• reducing phobias,
• resolving inner conflict,
• reducing some allergies,
• expressing emotions,
• handling grief,
• reducing unwanted habits

Example: Reducing Simple Phobias

For many simple phobias, the key problem is in fact a very powerful "once-off" learning experience which formed a "See X --> Feel Y" synaesthesia. In the absence of any underlying issue, where the sole problem is the discomfort and inconvenience of a phobia, NLP practitioner may use a method of double dissociation to reduce or remove this dysfunctional synaesthesia. Responsible NLP practice would explore carefully for any secondary gain or potential side effects (ecology), and deal with that before making an intervention.

Mechanistic toolbox or humanistic?

NLP has spawned a 'toolbox' of techniques and methods, a collection of observations and patterns to be aware of in human interaction. It is important to bear in mind that the tools and their use create issues to consider. NLP, by origin, is pragmatic and looks for "what works" but in addition it has a profound respect for the individual, their life and their wellbeing.

NLP tools, when taught as a set of techniques directed toward specific goals, and especially when divorced from their full background, become mechanistic ("this is how to do that") or manipulative ("this is how to make someone do something"). In full context, a broad approach should be used based upon clients' wishes with the principle of ecology playing an important role. The integrity and health of any system must be maintained and considered when making changes. The 'system' in this case is clients' model of the world and therefore health. It is essential to ensure that any changes do not have a negative effect on clients' long term wellbeing.

When taught as a "quick fix" or directed toward a goal such as sales or seduction, checks and balances integral to the core of NLP are often omitted. This disregards the health and integrity of the system and is therefore to the detriment of clients.

Criticism of NLP

NLP and Psychology

NLP is criticized for its lack of a unified personality theory and thus does not adequately explain how people come to think or behave. The NLP allusion to "what works" and delay in explaining "why it works" until after the event is generally viewed by scientists as unconvincing. Ethical standards bodies require that the client should have an explanation for why something works for it to be acceptable as a treatment.

Only recently has there been some attempt by NLP co-creator John Grinder to promote the view of NLP as an epistemology. Until the epistemology is properly backed up with peer-reviewed empirical research in Linguistics and Neuroscience the field of NLP will continue to be viewed as a pseudoscience.

The field of NLP began outside the academic mainstream in the human potential movement and it remains largely divorced from mainstream academic psychology in both theory and practice. NLP epistemology differs greatly from science, which places it outside the domain of psychology. Despite the disclaimers of NLP promoters and advertisers, they continue to call the originators "scientists", and to use such terms as "science", "technology" and "hi-tech psychology" in order to sell NLP (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996).

The Ineffectiveness of NLP

NLP has been empirically tested over many years, and although it has been found to be largely ineffective, the general behaviour of NLP advocates is one of wishful thinking and passing the buck that is often characteristic of quick fix schemes (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). The US National Committee was asked in 1984 to judge the various techniques, and they used 14 different judges in order to do so. The 1988 report said "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique" (Druckman & Swets, 1988).

Since then other objecive and empirical studies have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews and meta-analyses have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment (Bleimeister, 1988) (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001) (Bertelsen, 1987).

Commercialism

Some have criticized the manner in which NLP has been promoted. NLP trainers are often said to make unwarranted claims for the field in general or for the specific techniques that they teach. This is possibly due to the field being largely unregulated and because there are several conflicting associations or guilds, and as such it is argued that it is unlikely that members of the field will be able to hold each other to any respectable standards when practitioners behave incompetently or unethically.

NLP and dubious new age remedies

Some critics regard NLP as being similar to New Age Movements; NLP has consistently been unequivocally promoted as a technology that promises solutions for everyone, far beyond the specific application of psychotherapy. As such, NLP is promoted by some for dubious treatments such as hypnotic breast enhancement, penis enlargement, remote viewing, covert seduction, remote seduction, speed learning, speed reading, and the sale of expensive brain entrainment equipment. In close association with its New Age spiritual principles, it is often sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic or Huna witchcraft by original NLP developers such as Richard Bandler. Even John Grinder, the co-originator of NLP instills shamanic metaphors from Carlos Castenada into his NLP seminars.

Criticism about Unethical Use of NLP

Some believe that NLP as a technology for change is ethically neutral, and others complain that the ethics of NLP have been compromised. Some techniques originally intended for change work and hypnosis have been modified and packaged for arguably dubious courses (sales, marketing, seduction, ...). NLP makes no value judgement in this respect.

One well known example of this ethical neutrality is, "if an estranged boyfriend brings a knife to an ex-girlfriend's house, a legal perspective may see it as intention to harm. The boyfriend may "spin" the situation as an attempt to re-ignite an old flame." A properly trained NLP practitioner would recognise the conflict, and attempt to find out what is the positive intention of the boyfriend and the ex-girlfirned, and assist them in finding a equitable solution for both parties to resolve the conflict (Those familiar with NLP would recognise this intervention as a modificaton of the 6-step reframe).

While most of the NLP techniques have been published in books and videos. Some trainers modify or rename existing techniques and only make them available their "secrets" available through expensive training courses or products. Even scientists who found that NLP modalities did not work during research, have been accused of not being properly trained in NLP and have been invited to enroll in these courses to “correct their erroneous application” of NLP.

Criticism about NLP and Cult Activities

The term cult is sometimes used to describe the field of NLP as it is used as an ideological pigeonhole for contemporary writers because by definition cult depends on contrasts with an established orthodoxy or doctrines.

According to some views of orthodoxy, NLP is associated with modern day cults (Tippet, 1994) (Langone, 1993). NLP and hypnosis is seen as an intrinsic part of modern ritual mind control tactics (Crabtree, 2002). NLP has even been monitored by the Cult Awareness Network (Shupe & Darnell, 2000).

Critics claim that NLP and hypnotic techniques are used by both mild cults and very aggressive cults to induce dependence on the cult, and to further provide conditioning to induce compliance within the cult (Langone, 1993). This is stark contrast to NLP models such as the meta-model being promoted as a way to develop critical thinking, by asking question such as, "How do you know that?" to get sensory based evidence for claims of miracles without demonstrable evidence.

NLP has even been promoted by the originator, Bandler, in his shamanism teachings, and he often used anecdotes about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999).

Dubious Courses and Accreditation

The sale of private courses is unlikely to change until the subject is taught more widely in more publicly accessible venues, and until the innovators decide inventing gratuitous terminology is superfluous. There are only a few training establishments offering properly accredited courses in NLP, but a large percentage of these claim falsely to be registered as universities in their own right.

Issues with Buzzwords and Trademarks

Often existing patterns and processes are modified then rebranded for marketing purposes which does not assist NLP in becoming recognised as an academic discipline. Motivational speaker Anthony Robbins, for example, uses NLP technology under the banner 'neuroassociative conditioning' and promotes using gimmicks such as firewalking. Some terms or buzzwords, are invented such as anchoring (similar to conditioning), and eye accessing cues, which have been found to be ineffective. Other terms are used out of context from their originally intended areas such as applied psychology and linguistics.

The widespread trademarking of buzzwords is partly due to the failed attempt of Richard Bandler in the 1980s and early 1990s to acquire legal rights to the term 'NLP' or 'Neuro-linguistic Programming' through the courts. In 2000, Bandler and Grinder settled their court claims with each other. Additionally 'NLP' and 'Neuro-Linguistic Programming' were deemed to be a generic terms clearing the trademark issues. (Grinder & Bostic, Whispering 2001) so Bandler was unable to trademark it as a product.

Criticism from Scientists

Grinder often claims that NLP is both an art and a science. While Grinder encourages the use of intuition as a legitimate research methology, he also encourages NLP to work alongside researcher in other fields including Cognitive Grammar and Cognitive Science to make contributions to the study of modeling human excellence (Grinder & Bostic, 2001). To date, NLP advocates and other interested parties have been unconvincing in their efforts to work alongside researchers in neuroscience (Carroll, 2005).

The claim that NLP is empirical is highly questionable. The results of models and techniques of NLP are observable. NLP "models" have been tested with, at best, mixed results (eg. peer-review studies on the effectiveness of NLP modality matching techniques in psychotherapy). For example the conjecture that a person has a primary representational system (PRS) which is observed in the choice of words has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001). The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support (Morgan, 1993). The assertion that matching PRS will increase rapport with the client has also been found to be false. A good deal of solid research has even found that therapists who match their clients' language were rated by the client and external observers as being untrustworthy and ineffective, indicating that these NLP models may be largely impractical (Morgan, 1993). Regardless of the results of scientic studies NLP trainers and practitioners find PRS, predicate matching, and rapport building useful in teaching students the prerequisite patterns to be successful with clients, for example, to notice state shifts and indicators of internal processing.

Opposed to statistically approach, NLP prefers discrete analysis of individual systems, followed sensory grounded description and later formal mathematical models (Grinder & Bostic, 2002). In this respect NLP models contrast sharply with accepted psychological models of behavior, motivation or personality. Psychological modeling makes considerable effort to empirically and statistically measure the existence and strength of the parts of the model for distinguishable constructs or factors, and takes great care to measure the distinct association between each proposed construct (Michie et al, 2005).

Also, the modeling of deceased people (Disney, Einstein, Jesus Christ, ...) via their writings and biographies has been criticised (Grinder & Bostic, 2002). NLP modeling prefers direct experience, or video so with limited, or no high quality video available, the methods by Dilts to modeling the "thinking patterns of genius" is not strictly NLP modeling.

In sum, NLP promotes methods which are largely verifiable and have so far been found to be largely false, inaccurate or ineffective (Bleimeister, 1988) (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001). From these models it develops techniques which may have nothing to do with either the models or the sources of the "models". NLP makes claims about thinking and perception which do not seem to be supported by neuroscience (Carroll, 2005) (Platt, 2001) (Druckman & Swets, 1988) (Bertelsen, 1987). NLP has been marketed to the general public using a broad brush approach to solutions, and adopts conveniently broad and simple terms, popular psychology, and pseudoscience and myths about the brain to promote its claims. As such it has been widely extended to market an extremely diverse range of products from psychotherapy to breast enlargement and psychic seduction techniques, as it is likely to be used for the sale of other such products in the future.

The ever changing and uncertain nature of NLP’s concepts and theory (Platt, 2001), and the negative results of rigorous research, have led to distrust by conventional fields and the close association with dubious products (Morgan, 1993). Nevertheless, the use of pseudoscience and anecdotal promotion allows it to operate on a commercial scale with a disregard for objective proof of its efficacy (Bradley & Biedermann, 1985), and the “flavour of the month” trends and fads occurring within the NLP concern suggest that NLP will continue to be directed at customers or anyone willing to believe the buzzwords and claims (von Bergen et al, 1997).

References

See Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography for a fuller list of Books and articles not directly referenced on this page.

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• Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). The Skeptic's Dictionary: neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). Retrieved August 29, 2005.

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• Crabtree, Vexen (2002). Ritual Mind Control Tactics. Retrieved August 28, 2005.
  See about Vexen Crabtree Retrieved 28 Aug 2005

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  See On-line edition pages 138-149. Retrieved 25 Aug 2005

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• Howell, Tom (2001). Cults and Small Religions. Retrieved August 29, 2005.

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  See Dylan Morgan bio Retrieved 25 Aug 2005 and Scientific Assessment of NLP Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.

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  See NLP - Neuro Linguistic Programming or No Longer Plausible? Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.

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  See Margaret Singer and Excerpts from 'Cults in Our Midst' Retrieved 25 Aug 2005

• . 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

• Tippet, Gary (3 Apr 1994). "Inside the cults of mind control". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help) Retrieved 28 Aug 2005

• Template:Journal reference

See also

• List of NLP topics
• NLP map
• Psychology
• Humanistic psychology
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Communication
• Personal development
• Linguistics
• Hypnosis
• Persuasion
• General Semantics

External links

• Official Website of John Grinder; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Richard Bandler; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Robert Dilts
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming Research Database
• Reviews of NLP training and trainers
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP
• Criticism from Skeptic's Dictionary

• Psychology
• Psychotherapy
• NLP
• Human communication