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The Age of Pericles is the term used to define the historical period from the capture of Samos by the Athenians (439 BCE) to the defeat of the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE) at the hands of the Macedonian army under Philip_II_of_Macedon. Pericles - an Athenian general, politician and orator - distinguished himself above the other shining personalities of the era, men who excelled in politics, philosophy, architecture, sculpture, history and literature. He fostered arts and literature and gave to Athens a splendor which would never return throughout its history. He executed a large number of public works projects and improved the life of the citizens. Hence, this important figure gave his name to the Athenian Golden Age, the zenith of classical Greece.

Government

During this century, Athens was governed by 10 strategoi (or generals) who were elected each year by the 10 clans of citizens. These strategoi had duties which included planning military expeditions, receiving envoys of other states and directing political affairs. During the time of the ascendancy of Ephialtes as leader of the democratic faction, Pericles was his deputy. When Ephialtes was assassinated by personal enemies, Pericles stepped in and was elected strategos in 445 BCE, a post he held continuously until his death in 429 BCE, always by election of the Athenian Assembly.

Pericles was a great public speaker, which allowed him great success in the Assembly, expounding his vision of politics. One of his major achievements was to bring access to public jobs to the citizens called tetes (or thetes), those who lacked wealth. Another achievement of his government was the institution of the misthoforia (μισθoφoρια, which means salaried work); that is, a special salary for the citizen functionaries who assisted in the Assembly. In this way these citizens would not lose anything even though they had to dedicate themselves completely to these public offices. With this system, Pericles insured that the Assembly was always full of assistants. As governor of Athens he made sure that this city would become the first and the most imporant of the Greek world, acquiring a resplendant culture and democratic institutions.

Pericles was a great orator; this quality brought him great success in the Assembly, presenting his vision of politics. One of his best moves was to allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the mistoforia (μισθoφoρια, which literally means paid function), a special salary for the citizens that attended the Assembly. This way, these citizens were able to completely dedicate themselves to public service without facing financial hardship. With this system, Pericles succeeded in keeping the Assembly full of members. As Athens' ruler, he made the city the first and most important polis of the Greek world, acquiring a resplandecent culture and democratic institutions.

The sovereign people governed themselves, without intermediaries, deciding the matters of state in the Assembly. The Athenian citizens were free and only owed obedience to their laws and respect to their gods. They achieved equality of speech in the Assembly: the word of a poor person was the same worth as that of a rich person. The censorial classes did not disappear, but their power was more limited; they shared the fiscal and military offices but they did not have the power of distributing privileges.

The principal of equality granted to all citizens had the danger of constituting a fraud, since many of them were incapable of exercising the political rights, due to their extreme poverty or their ignorance. To avoid this, the Athenian democracy applied itself the task of helping the most poor in this manner:

• Concession of salaries for public functionaries.
• To seek for and supply work to the poor.
• To grant lands to dispossessed villagers.
• Public assistance for invalids, orphans and indigents.
• Other social helps.

These norms should have been carried out in great measure since the testimony has come to us (among others) from the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460 - 400 BCE), who comments: Everyone who is capable of serving the city meets no impediment, neither poverty, nor civic condition...

Institutions

The magistrates

The magistrates were those people who occupied a public post and formed the administration of the Athenian state. They were submitted to a rigorous public control. The magistrates were chosen by lot, using fava beans. Some black and white beans were put in a box and depending on which color the person drew out they obtained the post or not. This was a way of eliminating all personal influence of rich people and possible intrigues and use of favors. There were only two categories of posts which were chosen not by lot, but by election in the Popular Assembly, that of strategos, or general, and that of magistrate of finance. It was generally supposed that significant qualities were needed to exercise each of those two offices. A magistrate's post did not last more than a year, including that of the strategoi and in this sense the continued selection of Pericles year after year was an exception. At the end of every year, a magistrate would have to give an account of his administration and use of public finances.

The most honored posts were the ancient archontes, or archons in English In previous ages they had been the heads of the Athenian state, but in the Age of Pericles they lost their large influence and power. Although they still presided over tribunals.

The strategoi (generals) were the most important office holders in their capacity as army and navy officers and as diplomats. The Assembly elected 10 every year.

There were also more than 40 officials of the (hacienda) state and more than 60 to police the streets, the markets, to check weights and measures and to carry out arrests and executions.

The Assembly of the People

The Assembly (in Greek, εκκλησια, that is to say, an assembly by summons), was the first organ of the democracy. In theory it intended to bring together in assembly all the citizens of Athens, but the maximum number which came to congregate is estimated at 6,000 participants. The gathering place was a space situated on the hill called Pnyx, in front of the Acropolis. The sessions sometimes lasted at from dawn to dusK. They gathered forty times a year.

The Assembly decided on the laws and the decrees which were proposed but relying always on the ancient laws which were keeping up a good time in force. Bills were voted in two stages: first it the Assembly itself decided and afterwards the Council or βουλη, which gave definitive approval.

The Council or Boule

The Council or Boule (βουλη) consisted of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. These were chosen by chance, by the system described earlier, from which they were familiarly known as "councillors of the bean"; officially they were known as prytanes (πρυτανις, meaning "chief" or "teacher").

The council members examined and studied legal projects and, moreover, looked over the magistrates and saw that the daily administrative details were on the right path, así como de los asuntos exteriores. This council was like a prolongation of the Assembly.

They also met at Pnyx hill, in a place expressly prepared for the event.

(Se reunían también en la colina Pnyx, en un lugar expresamente preparado para el evento.) Los 50 prytanes en ejercicio se colocaban en unas gradas talladas en la roca. Había dos plataformas de piedra a las que se accedía por medio de una pequeña escalinata de tres peldaños. En la primera plataforma se situaban los secretarios y amanuenses. En la segunda se encaramaba el orador.

Finances

The economical resources of the Athenian State were not excessive. All of the glory of Athens in the Age of Pericles, its constructions, public works, religious buildings, sculptures, etc. would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League.

Other small incomes came from customs rights and fines. In times of war a special tax was added to the rich citizens. These citizens were also charged permanently with other taxes which benefited the city. This was called the system of liturgy. The taxes were used to maintain the triremes which gave Athens great naval power and also to pay and maintain a chorus for big religious festivals.

Athenians in the Age of Pericles

The Athenians lived modestly and without great luxuries. There were very few wealthy people. The economy was based on maritime commerce. Agriculture was also important, but it did not produce enough to feed the populace, necessitating the importation of food. Additionally, there existed an artisanal industry, whose products were sought after by natives and foreigners alike.

(Los atenienses vivían modestamente y sin grandes lujos. Eran muy pocas las grandes fortunas. La economía se basaba sobre todo en el comercio marítimo. También era importante la agricultura pero la producción era insuficiente para el consumo de la población y había que importar género alimentario. Existía, además, una industria artesanal de productos de calidad y muy solicitada por los propios habitantes y por los extranjeros.)

The state oversaw all the major religious festivals. The most important one was the Panathenaia in honor of the goddess Athena, a ritual procession carried out once a year in May and once every four years in July in which the town presented a new veil (peplos) to the old wooden statue of Athena Poliada. Phidias immortalized it in the frieze of the Parthenon, which is currently at the British Museum. In the July Panathenaia (Great Panathenaia), large competitions were organized which included gymnastics and horseback riding, the winners of which received an amphora full of sacred olive oil as a prize. The other important festival was that of Dionysus.

(El Estado se ocupaba de ofrecer al pueblo las grandes fiestas religiosas. La más importante era la fiesta de las Panateneas ofrecida a la diosa Atenea, una procesión de ritual que se celebraba en mayo cada año y en julio cada cuatro años, en la que el pueblo presentaba a los dioses el nuevo velo (llamado peplum) que sería ofrecido a la antigua estatua de Atenea Poliade, hecha en madera. Fidias inmortalizó en el friso del Partenón esta procesión de las panateneas. En la actualidad (siglo XXI) se conservan en el Museo Británico. En las panateneas de julio celebradas cada cuatro años (Magnas Panateneas) se organizaban grandes competiciones con pruebas gimnásticas e hípicas y los vencedores recibían como premio unas ánforas llenas de aceite obtenido de olivos sagrados. La otra fiesta importante era la que se celebraba en honor del dios Dioniso.)

Education

The education of boys began in their own home, up until the age of seven when they then had to attend school. There, they had several teachers who taught them to read and write, as well as subjects such as mathematics and music. Furthermore, boys were also obliged to take part in physical education classes where they were prepared for future military service with activities such as wrestling, racing, jumping and gymnastics. At the age of eighteen, they served in the army and were instructed on how to bear arms. Physical education was very intense and many of the boys ended up becoming true athletes. In addition to these compulsary lessons, the students had the chance to discuss and learn from the great philosophers, grammarians and orators of the time.

Women in Athenian society

The Athenian woman was dedicated only to the care of her home, which had a special place for her called a gynaeceum where they spent all day with their maids and their small children. Athenian society was a patriarchy in which men had all the rights and advantages and only they had access to education and power.

Nevertheless, some women were hetairai (sing. hetaira lit. "companion") who received an education so they could have more interesting conversations with their male customers. One hetaira, Aspasia of Miletus, was a friend of Pericles and impressed Socrates.

(La mujer ateniense se dedicaba únicamente al cuidado del hogar. Las casas de las familias acomodadas tenían un lugar especial para ellas llamado gineceo donde acostumbraban a pasar el día junto con sus sirvientas y sus hijos pequeños. La sociedad ateniense era un patriarcado en el que los hombres tenían todos los derechos y todas las ventajas y sólo ellos se beneficiaban del acceso a la educación y al poder.

Sin embargo, existían las hetairas que erán mujeres que recibían una educación esmerada para satisfacer a los hombres con platicas más elaboradas y menos familiares, entre estas destaca Aspacia de Mileto, de quien se dice que era amiga de Pericles y llegó a debatir con el mismo Sócrates.)

Arts and literature

Historians consider the Athenian V and VI century BC as the Golden Age of sculpture and arquitecture. In this period the ornamental elements and the technique employed did not vary from the previous period. What characterizes this period is the quantity of works and the refinement and perfection of the works. Most were religious in nature, mainly santuaries and temples. Some examples from this period are:

• The reconstruction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus.
• The reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, which was destroyed by an earthquake.
• The reconstruction of the Acropolis of Athens, the marble city for the glory of the gods. The site had suffered from a fire started by the Persians and lay in ruins for more than 30 years. Pericles initiated its reconstruction with white marble brought from the nearby quarry of Pentelicon. The best arquitects, sculpturers and workers were gathered to complete the Acropolis. The construction lasted 20 years. Financing came from the Delian League. When finished it was the grandest and most perfect monument in the history of greek art.

Sculptors

Se considera a Fidias como el más grande de todos ellos. Es el autor de dos inmensas estatuas crisoelefantinas (se llaman así por estar compuestas de marfil, generalmente cara y manos, y de planchas de oro; de chrysós=oro) que fueron muy celebradas y admiradas en su tiempo: Atenea, situada en el interior del Partenón, cuyo resplandor llegaba hasta los fieles a través de las puertas abiertas, y Zeus en el Santuario de Olimpia, considerada en su época y en épocas posteriores como una de las maravillas del mundo. Los atenienses aseguraban que después de haber contemplado esta estatua era imposible sentirse desgraciado nunca más.

Según la "Historia Natural" de Plinio, para poder conservar el marfil de estas esculturas, se colocaban en los templos, recipientes con aceite para que el marfil no se agrietase.

Los otros grandes escultores de este siglo fueron Mirón y Policleto

Ceramics

During this age, the production of ceramic pieces was abundant. Hasta nuestros días (siglo XXI) han llegado muchas, todas de gran calidad, que son el testimonio de la categoría del artista que trabajaba minuciosamente y dedicaba el tiempo necesario a cada objeto. Son, además, el testimonio de que existía una clientela dentro y fuera de Grecia muy exigente en cuanto a perfección y terminado de la obra.

Se sabe, asimismo, que hubo muchos y muy buenos pintores, pero sus obras se han perdido, tanto los frescos como los cuadros.

Theatre

The theatre reached its greatest height in the 5th century BC. Pericles promoted and favored the theatre with a series of practical and economic measures. The wealthiest families were obligated to care for and to sustain the choruses and actors. By this means, Pericles maintained the tradition according to which theater pieces served the moral and intellectual education of the people.

Athens became the great city of Greek theatre. Until the Age of Pericles, all theaters had been made of stone, but that period saw the beginning of performances in provisional theatres, made of wood, which existed only for the ten days of those productions. Theater session lasted eight consecutive hours and were a type of competition in which a jury proclaimed a winner. The best dramatists of the era entered their works into these competitions. The decor of these theatres was very simple. Each play would be performed by, at most, three actors, who wore masks to identify them with the personage they portrayed; they were accompanied by a chorus who sang, and by recitadores.

The dramatic writers from this era were:

• Aeschylus (525–456 BC), who wrote on mythological themes.
• Sophocles, whose work constituted a bitter criticism on religious and political problems.
• Aristophanes, who dominated the comic theatre with social criticism and caricature.

Philosophers and writers

Democritus (c. 460 BC-370 BC)was perhaps the most interesting of all, with his atomic theory of the Universe (the universe as an immense combination of atoms).

En la segunda mitad del siglo V se dio el nombre de sofistas (del griego sophi, experto, maestro, hombre de sabiduría) a los maestros que daban una instrucción sobre diversas ramas de la ciencia y el conocimiento a cambio de un salario.

Atenas fue en este siglo la "escuela de Grecia". Pericles y su esposa Aspasia se rodearon y tuvieron como huéspedes no sólo a grandes hombres atenienses sino a grandes personajes forasteros, los más cultivados de Grecia y de fuera de Grecia. Frecuentaron su casa el filósofo Anaxágoras, el historiador Herodoto y el arquitecto Hipódamo de Mileto, que fue quien reestructuró El Pireo.

Destacaron los historiadores Herodoto (484-425), que describió las Guerras médicas, Tucídides (460-395) que dejó escrita la obra más grande de la Antigüedad: Guerra del Peloponeso y Jenofonte (427-335), escritor parcial y mal documentado pero que en opinión de los estudiosos, dejó una obra útil para consulta sobre los primeros años del siglo IV adC.

Atenas fue también la capital de la elocuencia. Desde finales del siglo V la elocuencia se había elevado a la categoría de arte. Existían los así llamados 'logógrafos', que escribían los discursos y que crearon una forma literaria nueva caracterizada por la claridad y pureza del lenguaje. Llegó a ser una profesión lucrativa. Se sabe que el logógrafo Lisias (460-380 adC), hizo una gran fortuna gracias a su profesión. Más tarde, ya en el siglo IV se hicieron famosos los oradores Isócrates y Demóstenes.

End of the Age of Pericles

Pericles había gobernado Atenas a lo largo del siglo V y la había hecho alcanzar un esplendor y un nivel de vida nunca conocido. En el régimen interno todo marchaba bien pero el descontento de las ciudades de la Confederación de Delos iba en aumento. La política exterior seguida por Atenas no dio los mejores resultados; los miembros de la Liga o Confederación estaban bastante descontentos. Atenas era la ciudad-estado que dominaba y subyugaba al resto de Grecia y los ciudadanos sometidos querían la independencia.

Anteriormente, en el 550 adC, se había fundado una liga similar entre las ciudades del Peloponeso, dirigida y dominada por Esparta. Aprovechando el descontento general de las ciudades griegas, la Liga del Peloponeso empezó a enfrentarse a Atenas. En el año 431 adC saltó la chispa que derivó en una serie de guerras cruentas como no las había tenido Grecia en siglos pasados. El motivo fue porque la isla de Corcyra (Corfú) andaba en disputa con Corinto, ciudad aliada de Esparta y Atenas se metió por medio ofreciendo ayuda a dicha isla. Así comenzó la guerra del Peloponeso que duró 27 años. Las ciudades griegas entraron en el conflicto aunque el peso de la guerra recayó sobre las dos ciudades rivales: Atenas y Esparta. Atenas mostró su superioridad por mar mientras que Esparta demostró que por tierra era casi invencible. Los espartanos invadieron el Ática, territorio que pertenecía a Atenas. Pericles tuvo que proteger a su gente detrás de las grandes murallas donde hacinados y con malas condiciones higiénicas se desencadenó una epidemia de peste a causa de la cual murieron miles de personas, entre ellas el propio Pericles (año 429).

A Pericles no le sustituyó ningún gran estadista que hubiera podido continuar su labor. Nicias y Cleón pasaron sin pena ni gloria y más tarde el político y general Alcibíades (sobrino de Pericles), llevó una política poco afortunada, entre guerras contra Esparta y traiciones a Atenas, su ciudad. Fue ensalzado y destituido del mando varias veces y finalmente se refugió en Frigia donde murió asesinado.

El período clásico de Atenas llegaba a su fin. La devastadora guerra del Peloponeso que dio la victoria a Esparta, hizo estragos en la ciudad ateniense que perdió definitivamente su independencia en el 338 adC, cuando el rey de Macedonia Filipo II venció a los griegos y los sometió a su supremacía.

See also

• Confederation of Delos
• Pericles

References

• This article draws heavily on the article Siglo de Pericles in the Spanish-language Misplaced Pages, which was accessed in the version of August 28, 2005. That article, in turn, cites:
  • Maurice: Egypte, Orient, Grèce. Bordas, s/l, 1963.
  • Charles: Historia Universal Oriente y Grecia. Daniel Jorro, Madrid, 1930.

• Athens
• Ancient Greece