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Indian religions, also called Dharmic religions, are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism, inclusive of their sub-schools and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence.

The documented history of Indian religions begins with historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Vedas, four canonical collections of hymns or mantras. The language used, archaic Sanskrit, also stems from the same period. The period of the advent, spread, and eventual establishment of this religion lasted from 1,500 BCE to about 500 BCE.

The period from 1000-800 BCE onwards marked the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period, and which ended around 500 BC (though prolonged seminaries lasted at much dates). This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.

Jainism and Buddhism arose from the sramana culture. Buddhism was historically founded by Siddartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia. According to Jain religious beliefs Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE).

Most scholars believe that Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world., with origins perhaps as far back as to the prehistoric times, or 5000 years. Hinduism is divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta. Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi are more recent. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.

Sikhism was founded in the 15th century; its founder, Guru Nanak, was born in the town of Talwandi in present day Pakistan. The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region.

Common traits

Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions (even though the meaning of dharma/dhamma differs per religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals. Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three distinct traditions. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions. All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various yogas. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind.

Rama is a heroic figure in all religions. In Hinduism and Sikhism, he is the God-incarnate as a princely king, in Buddhism, he is a bodhisattva-incarnate, in Jainism, he is the perfect human. Buddhist Ramayanas are Vessantarajataka, Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama, etc. There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The Tai Ramayana another book retelling the divine story in Asom.

History

Prehistory

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.

The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility, a concept that has recently been challenged. Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice. About the spirituality of the IVC, Ronald Segal writes, "The Harappa civilization possessed numerous and striking similarities to aspects of contemporary popular Hinduism."

Vedic period

The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy and ritual of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the Vedic priesthood administering domestic rituals/rites and solemn sacrifices. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (such as BAU, ChU, JUB) are also placed in this period. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

• The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice (cf. the Iranian haoma ritual) .
• Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice (See Zoroastrianism):
  • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni.
  • The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice (including animal sacrifice) .
  • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the Uttara fire altar.
• The Darsapaurnamasa, the fortnightly New and Full Moon sacrifice
• The Caturmasya or seasonal sacrifices (every four months)
• a large number of sacrifices for special wishes (Kāmyeṣṭi)
• The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice.
• The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha and Ashvamedha
• The rites referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as some charms and sorcery (white and black magic).
• The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.

Vedanta

The period of Vedanta (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 900 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the Vedas, much as it also marked the end of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes as they formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period began in earnest with Brahmanas seeing the four canonical Vedas in a new light, and finally led to the Upanishads. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads sought to offer spiritual insights. At this time, the concepts of reincarnation, samsara, karma, and moksha were widely accepted in ancient India outside the sphere of the priestly establishment i.e. the Brahmana class, and were most probably developed by the class of aborigines outside the caste system often called Yogis or Kesins. They were eventually accepted by Brahmin orthodoxy, and were to form much of the core philosophies of the later epics, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism itself.

The Shramana tradition

Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India co-existed and closely interacted with the parallel non-Vedic Shramana traditions. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but separate movements that influenced it and were influenced by it. The Shramanas were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Shramana tradition, and the early Upanishadic movement was influenced by it. The 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment).

The historical Gautama Buddha, who was a Buddha, was born into the Shakya clan of Angirasa-and-Gautama Rishi lineage, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. The Ajivikas and Samkhyas belonged to another sramana tradtion, both of which did not survive.

Rise and spread of Jainism and Buddhism

Both Jainism and Buddhism in their present form, spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.

Scholars Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski write that "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism." Jainism derives its title from the Sanskrit verb root "ji", meaning to conquer. According to the Mahavamsa, Jainism was present in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Thera Mahinda. Early Tamil Brahmi Jain inscriptions in Tamil Nadu are dated to second century BCE. Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Certain scholarship holds that the practices, emblems and architecture now commonly associated with the Hindu pantheon and Jainism may go back as far as Late Harappan times to the period 2000-1500 BCE.

Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. Indian Buddhism started declining following the rise of Puranic Hinduism during the Gupta dynasty, but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century. Scholar James Bird writes, "But when primitive Buddhism originated from Hindu schools of philosophy, it differed as widely from that of later times, as did the Brahmanism of the Vedas from that of the Puranas and Tantras."

Period after 200 BCE

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

Some writers think, between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued. Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta, Pala, Malla, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana. Buddhism survived followed by Hindus. National Geographic edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings."

Sectarian Development

Several texts were being composed as tributaries to the Vedas. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesh). Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesh (including the forms/incarnations of these deities.)

Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti Movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status - whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. For example, some prominent or major figures of Bhakti Hinduism were from backward castes, Maharishi Ram Naval Maharaj and Sant Umaid Ram Maharaj were Bhangis, while Parsuram Ramnami and Ravidas were Chambars, and Sant Bhagu and Sant Chokha Mela were Mahars.

The movements were mainly centered around the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga.

Vaishnavism

The most well-known devotees are the Alwars from southern India. The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda.

Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men, and administration was many times composed mainly of women. Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.

Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479 - 1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought.

Shiavism

The most well-known devotees are the Nayanars from southern India.

The most popular Shiava teacher of the south was Swami Basava, while of the north it was Guru Gorakhnath.

Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.

Modern India

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states, the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi and other parts of India, and 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history. Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular, though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (punyabhumi) or Hindustan, its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.

The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence. For example, Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions. Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement, also international with many followers. Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has influenced many worldwide. Satya Sai Baba has his ashrams also, around the world, preeching the message of peace, brotherhood and worship. Through all these new Hindu denominations traveling international, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, vegetarianism have become absorbed by new coverts and others influenced. So as Hinduism is becoming better known within the world, Gavin D. Flood writes, "Global Hinduism is the kind of Hinduism which has wide appeal and which is becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for Westerners seeking their sense of belonging in non-western cultures and religions. This kind of Hinduism lays emphasis on what it regards as universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and the spiritual transformation of humanity."

Astika and Nastika categorization

Astika and nastika are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central actor in this world are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and actor are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view the Vedic religion (and Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions.

Another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nastika schools. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

All three religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, agree that Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism (as well as several Hindu denominations) do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Sikhism

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār . Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Although it began as a relatively neutral faith system that proposed to inculcate the best practices of Hinduism and Islam, over time, its Gurus led followers in various rebellions and battles against the Islamic Mughal rulers of the time, most notably against Aurangzeb.

Status in India

Societally, there is little distinction or separation of class between Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists owing to near congruence in beliefs and practices. Cross-worship and intermarriages are common.

In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold, and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold. Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities. In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.

However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be undisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate. However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.

Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism. Ultimately on July 31 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned back the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains as well as Supreme Court's extra-judicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court"

See also

• Ayyavazhi and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Jainism
• History of Hinduism
• History of Buddhism
• History of Yoga
• Indian philosophy
• Indology
• Jainism
• Religious thinkers of India
• Sikhism and Jainism
• Sikhism and Hinduism

Notes

1. Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5 2007
2. Indiana University "India Studies Program" Passage to India, Module 11. "Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The Brahmanas and Aranyakas are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century B.C.E."
3. Paul Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Pg. 51. "these treatises are not the work of a single genius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends approximately 1000 or 800 BC, to c.500 BC, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time."
4. Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141
5. P. 386 Transcultural Concepts in Nursing Care By Margaret M. Andrews, Joyceen S. Boyle
6. P. 484 Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions By Wendy Doniger, M. Webster, Merriam-Webster, Inc
7. P. 285 Communication for Development in the Third World By Srinivas R. Melkote, H. Leslie Steeves
8. P. xvi The Complete Idiot's Guide to Hinduism By Linda Johnsen
9. P. 951 Dancing With Siva By Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami
10. P. 219 Faith, Religion & Theology By Brennan Hill, Paul F. Knitter, William Madges
11. P. 186 Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook
12. P. 6 The World's Great Religions By Yoshiaki Gurney Omura, Selwyn Gurney Champion, Dorothy Short
13. P. 169 The Encyclopedia of Religion By Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams
14. P. 585 The New Encyclopaedia Britannica By Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc 1987
15. P. xxv The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions By Brandon Toropov, Luke Buckles
16. P. 22 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Geography By Joseph Gonzalez, Michael D Smith, Thomas E. Sherer
17. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
18. Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.
19. Encarta encyclopedia "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."
20. Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."
21. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
22. "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana
23. Pollock, P. 661 Literary Cultures in History:
24. Heehs 2002, p. 39 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
25. "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
26. Fowler 1997, p. 90 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFowler1997 (help).
27. Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007
28. P. 43 The Anguish of India By Ronald Segal
29. “This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith.” Masih, page 37.
30. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
31. Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
32. Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur
33. P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism"
34. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
35. Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature."
36. Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University - Press : UK ISBN 0521438780 - “The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions.” Page 86.
37. Padmanabh S. Jaini 2001 “Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies” Motilal Banarsidass Publ 576 pages ISBN 8120817761: "Yajnavalkya’s reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them." Page 51.
38. Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 8120811046 : Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma, Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. Page 135.
39. A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington 1982 Routledge ISBN 071009258X - "The Upanishads were like a breath of fresh air blowing through the stuffy corridors of power of the vedic brahminism. They were noticed by the Brahmin establishment because the yogis did not owe allegiance to any established religion or mode of thought.. So although, the Upanishads came to be noticed by Brahmin establishment, they were very largely saying what may well have been current among other sramanic groups at that time. It can be said that this atheistic doctrine was evidently very acceptable to the authors of Upanishads, who made use of many of its concepts." Page 27.
40. A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington 1982 Routledge ISBN 071009258X: "The idea of re-incarnation, so central to the older sramanic creeds is still new to many people throughout the world. The Aryans of the Vedic age knew nothing of it. When the Brahmins began to accept it, they declared it as a secret doctrine. It will be seen from this short account of Jains, that they had fully developed the ideas of karma and reincarnation very early in history. The earliest Upanishads were probably strongly influenced by their teachings. Jainism the religion, Samkhya the philosophy and yoga the way to self discipline and enlightenment dominated the spiritual life of Indian during the Dravidian times. They were to be overshadowed for over thousand years by the lower form of religion that was foisted on the local inhabitants by the invading Aryans, but in the end it was Sramanic disiplines that triumphed. They did so by surviving in their own right and by their ideas being fully adopted by the Brahmins who steadily modified their own vedic religion." Page 35.
41. The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas
42. P. 93 World Religions By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski
43. P. 103 Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani
44. http://www.lakehouse.lk/budusarana/2006/09/07/Budu23.pdf A comparative study in Jainism and Buddhism, Rohan Jayetilleke, September 07, 2006
45. Early Tamil Epigraphy. From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. by Iravatham Mahadevan; Chennai: A-Cref and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University
46. Indiana University, Module 9, "Passage to India" One is left largely with scholarly guesses, but it is intriguing to entertain the possibility that traditions of ritual bathing, some sort of tradition of meditation or Yoga, possible proto-types of Shiva and a mother goddess, and a cult of sacred animals, all of which are prominent features in later Hindu traditions, may indeed be traceable ultimately all the way back to the third millenium B.C.E., and possibly earlier to the Baluchistan and Sind village cultures that go back to time immemorial.
47. Indiana University "India Studies Program", Module 6 The passage to India: "As mentioned earlier in our brief summary of the religions of India, the Jain tradition is one of the oldest traditions in India and may go back as far as Indus Valley times, that is, to the second millenium Before the Common Era (2000-1500 BCE), although the precise origins of the tradition are not yet fully known"
48. Heehs 2002, p. 106 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
49. P. 66 Historical researches on the origin and principles of the Bauddha and Jaina religions: embracing the leading tenets of their system, as found prevailing in various countries; illustrated by descriptive accounts of the sculptures in the caves of western India, with translations of the inscriptions ... which indicate their connexion with the coins and topes of the Panjab and Afghanistan.by James Bird
50. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
51. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
52. Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChatterjeeDatta1984 (help).
53. "The rise of Buddhism and Jainism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
54. Durga Prasad, P. 116, History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D.
55. January 2008, VOL. 213, #1
56. Ramaswamy, P. 204 Walking Naked
57. Ramaswamy, P. 210 Walking Naked
58. Symonds 1950, p. 74 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSymonds1950 (help).
59. Ludden 1996, p. 253 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLudden1996 (help).
60. P. 265 An Introduction to Hinduism By Gavin D. Flood
61. Governor of Gujarat state, Mr. Naval Kishore "Although for the purpose of many personal laws, Jains and Hindus have been treated alike, it is not because they are denominations of Hinduism,"
62. Supreme court judicial observation, Dec 2004, Bal Patil vs. Union of India "Sikhs and Jains, in fact, have throughout been treated as part of the wider Hindu community which has different sects, sub-sects, faiths, modes of worship and religious philosophies."
63. Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post- Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains
64. Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."
65. The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.
66. Syed Shahabuddin. "Minority rights are indivisible". The Tribune.
67. Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."
68. (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India)
69. Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003
70. "Religious freedom Bill returned". The Indian Express. 2007-07-31. Retrieved 2007-09-15.
71. The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 In his letter dated July 27 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".

References

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External links

Statistics

• "Census of India 2001: Data on religion". Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). Retrieved 2007-05-28.

Constitution and law

• "Constitution of India". Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice). Retrieved 2007-05-28.

Reports

• "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2007-05-28.

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• Indian religions
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