Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 02:27, 19 October 2008

Template:Infobox MLB retired Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was a baseball player for the Brooklyn Dodgers. He was the first African-American major league baseball player of the modern era in 1947. Although not the first African American professional baseball player in United States history, his Major League debut with the Brooklyn Dodgers ended approximately eighty years of baseball segregation, also known as the baseball color line, or color barrier. In the United States at this time, many white people believed that blacks and whites should be segregated or kept apart in many aspects of life, including sports.

The Baseball Hall of Fame inducted Robinson in 1962 and he played for six World Series teams. He earned six consecutive All-Star Game nominations and won several awards during his career. In 1947, Robinson won The Sporting News Rookie of the Year Award and the first Rookie of the Year Award. Two years later, he won the National League MVP Award—the first black player to do so. In addition to his accomplishments on the field, Robinson supported the early Civil Rights Movement. In the 1960s, he helped to establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American owned and controlled entity based in Harlem, New York. He wrote a syndicated newspaper column for several years that he used to support Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X.

Robinson campaigned for several politicians, including the Democrat Hubert Humphrey and the Republican Richard Nixon. In recognition of his accomplishments, Robinson was posthumously awarded a Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. On April 15, 1997, the 50 year anniversary of his debut, Major League Baseball retired the jersey number 42, the number he wore, across all MLB teams in recognition of his accomplishments both on and off the field in a ceremony at Shea Stadium. In 1950 he played himself in a film about his life—The Jackie Robinson Story. He became a political activist in his post-playing days. In 1946, Robinson married Rachel Annetta Isum, and in 1973, after Robinson died, she founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation.

Early life

Jackie Robinson, the youngest of five children, was born in Cairo, Georgia in 1919 during a Spanish flu and smallpox epidemic. His middle name was in honor of former President Theodore Roosevelt who had died 25 days before Robinson was born. In 1920, his family who were sharecroppers moved to Pasadena, California after their father had left them. Raised by a single mother, Robinson grew up in relative poverty and joined a local neighborhood gang that his friend Carl Anderson eventually persuaded Robinson to abandon.

In 1935, Robinson graduated from Dakota Junior High School and enrolled in John Muir High School ("Muir Tech"). There he played on various Muir Tech sport teams, and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track, and baseball. Robinson's older brother, Matthew Robinson, inspired Jackie to pursue his talent and love for athletics. He played as a shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, a quarterback on the football team, a guard on the basketball team, and a member of the tennis team and the track and field squad. He won awards in the broad jump.

In 1936, he won the junior boys' singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament, starred as quarterback, and earned a place on the annual Pomona baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Baseball Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon. The next year, Robinson played for the high school's basketball team. That year, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported on the young Robinson.

After leaving Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College, where he continued to excel in sports. He played basketball, football, and baseball. He played quarterback and safety for the football team, shortstop and leadoff batter for the baseball team, and participated in the broad jump. While at PJC, he was elected to the "Lancers,” a student run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities. He dated and made friends. However, on January 25, 1938, he was arrested for questionable reasons and sentenced to two years probation. In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College (baseball) Team and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player. On February 4, 1939, he played his last basketball game at Pasadena Junior College. Thereupon Robinson was awarded a gold pin and was named to the school's "Order of the Mast and Dagger" (Omicron Mu Delta).”

After leaving PJC in 1940, Robinson transferred to the nearby University of California, Los Angeles, where became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football and track. He was one of four African American players on the 1939 UCLA Bruins football team, the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson starred on the 1939 UCLA Bruins football team, in which they made up three of the four backfield players. This was a rarity—to have so many African Americans when only a few dozen at all played on college football teams. They played eventual conference and national champion USC to a 0-0 tie with the 1940 Rose Bowl on the line. It was the first game in the history of the rivalry with national implications. Despite many athletic achievements and having nearly completed the requirements for his degree, he withdrew from the university for financial reasons in 1941.

Robinson then briefly worked as an athletic director for the National Youth Administration before going to Honolulu that fall to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears. The season was brief, and he returned that December, shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that drew the United States into World War II. The army drafted him the following year.

Military career

Drafted into the United States Army and assigned to Fort Riley, Kansas, Robinson lobbied successfully to be sent to officers' training school. He was commissioned a second lieutenant, and re-assigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st "Black Panthers" Tank Battalion. While undergoing hospital tests on an injured ankle, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus's driver (who apparently believed that Robinson's companion was white) ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus, away from his companion. Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but when he reached the end of the line he summoned MPs, who took Robinson into custody. When Robinson confronted the white officers who arrived on the scene to "investigate" his behavior (and the stenographer summoned to take his statement), the officers recommended that he be court-martialled. After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion, where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with insubordination, disturbing the peace, drunkenness, conduct unbecoming an officer, insulting a civilian woman, and refusing to obey the lawful orders of a superior officer.

By the time of the court-martial, in August 1944, the charges had been reduced to include only Robinson's alleged insubordination during questioning; the actual incident on the bus that had inaugurated the episode was not mentioned in the charges or at the trial. Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers. He was transferred again, to Camp Breckenridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until he received an honorable discharge in November 1944. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, eventually become the first black tank unit to see combat, Robinson never saw combat action during World War II.

Baseball career

In 1946, Jackie Robinson came to Daytona Beach, FL for spring training with the Montreal Royals, the Brooklyn Dodgers Triple-A farm club. He was banned from playing in Jacksonville and Sanford, but not in Daytona. He played his first integrated game for a team in Organized Ball on March 17, 1946. His first plate appearance came in an exhibition game against the Royals' parent club, the Brooklyn Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first African-American to play in the Major Leagues since the baseball color line was implemented in 1889.

Dodgers

In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey was club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Dodgers began to scout Robinson who had joined the Negro League Kansas City Monarchs in 1945 after his discharge from the Army. He played shortstop and had a batting average of .387. Rickey eventually selected him from a list of promising African-American players.

Rickey wanted a man who could restrain himself from responding to the ugliness of the racial hatred that was certain to come. He reminded Robinson that he would face tremendous racial animus, and insisted that he not take the bait and react angrily. Robinson was aghast: "Do you want a player afraid to fight back?" Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with the guts not to fight back." Robinson agreed to abide by Rickey's terms for his first year.

In 1946, the Dodgers assigned Jackie Robinson to the Montreal Royals. Jackie proceeded to lead the International League in batting average with a .349 average, and fielding percentage with a 0.985 percentage. That winter he also married Rachel Isum, his former UCLA classmate. It was the first time an African-American had played Class AA baseball without being passed off as a Cuban, a Mexican, or an Indian. Montreal was forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, but in the first regular season game Robinson had four hits including a home run. Robinson played well for Montreal, and six days before the start of the season the Dodgers called him up. On April 15, 1947 he made his debut before a crowd of 26,623 spectator, 14,000 of whom were black. Although he didn't get a base hit, the Dodgers won 5-3. Robinson became the first player since 1887 to break the Baseball color line.

The nation was initially divided on whether Robinson should be allowed to play. Virtually all blacks and many whites felt applauded the decision as long overdue, but a large number of whites also objected. Many major league players also objected. Most newspapers supported the move. Robinson's integration and subsequent high level of play was a major blow to segregation and caused racial barriers to fall in other areas. Robinson criticized hotels that didn't allow him to stay with his teammates, and a number of hotels and restaurants that the Dodgers frequented integrated as a result.

During his first season with the Dodgers Robinson encountered racism from fans and players, some even from his own teammates. He anticipated that some pitchers would aim pitches at his head and that other players would try to hit, tackle, and even try to push him off the basepaths. Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodger management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded." When other teams, notably the Cardinals, threatened to strike if Robinson played, NL President Ford Frick let it be known that they would be suspended.

On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players called Jackie a "nigger" from their dugout, and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields." Rickey would later recall that the Phillies' manager, Ben Chapman, "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."

In front of KeySpan Park there is a statue of Dodgers shortstop Pee Wee Reese with his arm around Robinson. It commemorates a piece of baseball folklore: that in 1947 Reese put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who had shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Cincinnati. This story stood for decades as a symbol of racial tolerance, but later became a source of controversy. That Reese put his arm around Robinson is not in dispute, but this probably happened in 1948. Reese also once came to his friend's defense with the famous line "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them."

Blacks were not the only minority discriminated against in baseball. Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg also had to deal with racial epithets during his career. Greenberg and Robinson once collided at first base, and Greenberg whispered a few words into Robinson's ear. Asked by reporters what Greenberg said, Robinson replied "He gave me a few words of encouragement." Greenberg had advised him that the best way to combat the slurs from the opposing dugout was to beat them on the field. In the October 1948 issue of SPORT magazine, Robinson said he did not expect to see baseball's color barrier fall in his lifetime. "I thought it would take another war," he said.

That year, he played in 151 games, hit .297, led the National League in stolen bases and won the first-ever Rookie of the Year Award. Although Jackie played every game that season at first base, Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.

Two years later, Robinson won the 1949 Most Valuable Player award for the National League, leading the league with a .342 batting average and 37 stolen bases. By this point, he had galvanized fan support to the point that a popular song, Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?, reached the national Billboard R&B chart. By 1950, he had septupled his salary, and was paid the highest amount to that point in Dodgers history: $35,000. His promised silence had also elapsed, and by July 1949, Robinson was testifying on discrimination before the House Unamerican Activities Committee. In 1950, he appeared in a film biography, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which he played himself. Actress Ruby Dee played Rachael "Rae" (Isum) Robinson. In 1952, he blasted the Yankees as a racist organization for not having broken the color line five years after his own crosstown debut.

Robinson single-handedly kept the Dodgers in the race for the 1951 pennant. During the final game of the regular season against Philadelphia he made a season-saving defensive play in the 12th inning and then hit a game-winning home run in the 14th inning. This forced a three-game playoff against the Giants. Despite his regular season heroics, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run in the last at bat of Game 3 on Oct. 3, 1951. Robinson stood with hands on hips and watched Thomson's feet in case he failed to touch all of the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully felt that showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was".

Robinson would win his only championship ring when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series, and 1955 was the worst year of his career. Robinson hit .256 and stole only 12 bases in 1955. He was 37 years old, missed 49 games and didn't play in Game 7 of the 1955 World Series. After the 1956 season, Robinson was traded by the Dodgers to the archrival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash. Although this is frequently cited as the reason for Robinson's retirement, the situation was more complicated. Before the trade he had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become a top executive with the company. This, and an disagreement between his friend Rickey and team owner Walter O'Malley, led to Robinson's announcing his retirement through Look magazine instead of through the Dodgers.

Robinson was a disciplined hitter and a versatile fielder. He had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on base percentage and substantially more walks than strikeouts. He was a truly outstanding baserunner. No other player since World War I has stolen home more than Robinson, who did it 19 times in his career. Recent statistical analysis has also indicated that Robinson was an outstanding defensive player throughout his career. During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series and Jackie played in six All-Star games. He is a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame and a member of the All-Century Team.

Assessing himself, Robinson said "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being."

Career batting statistics

Post-baseball life

Robinson retired on January 5, 1957. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, his first year of eligibility, becoming the first African-American so honored. In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's Game of the Week telecasts. On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired his uniform number 42 alongside Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32). He became a vice-president for the Chock Full O' Nuts corporation, and served on the board of the NAACP until 1967, when he resigned. In 1964 he became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's Republican presidential campaign and later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966. In 1970, he established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for families with low incomes.

Robinson made his final public appearance on October 14, 1972, before Game 2 of the World Series. He used this chance to express his wish for a black manager to be hired by a Major League Baseball team. This wish was granted two years later, following the 1974 season, when the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson, a Hall of Fame bound slugger who was then still an active player, and no relation to Jackie Robinson. At the press conference to announce his hiring, Frank expressed his wish that Jackie had lived to see the moment. In 1971, his oldest son, Jackie, Jr., who had beaten back drug problems and was working as a Daytop Village counselor, was killed in an automobile accident.

Robinson's body, which had served him well as an athlete, failed early. Heart disease complications and Diabetes weakened him and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, he died of a heart attack at age 53 in Stamford, Connecticut.

Awards and recognition

Jackie Robinson contributions have been recognized in a number of ways. He has ranked highly in a number of polls and lists, received several awards, and has had buildings and events named in his honor. According to a poll conducted by Jimmie Fidler in 1947, Robinson was the second most popular man in the country, behind Bing Crosby. In 1999, he was named by Time Magazine on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. Also in 1999, he ranked number 44 on The Sporting News list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team as the top vote getter for second basemen. Baseball writer Bill James in the "The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract" ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time based strictly on his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.

Major League Baseball has honored Robinson several times since his death. In 1987, the Rookie of the Year Award was renamed the Jackie Robinson Award in honor of its first winner. On April 15, 1997, Jackie Robinson's #42 was retired by Major League Baseball, which meant no future player on any major league team could wear it. It was retired in ceremonies at Shea Stadium to mark the 50th anniversary of Robinson's first game with the Dodgers . A handful of players who wore #42 as a salute to Robinson, such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn, were allowed to continue to use the number.

Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized Robinson with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African American. In March 1984, President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Jackie Robinson is only the second baseball player to get the Congressional Gold Medal. The other was Roberto Clemente. On October 29, 2003, the United States Congress posthumously awarded Robinson the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award the Congress can bestow. Robinson's widow accepted the award in a ceremony in the Capitol Rotunda on March 2, 2005. On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced that Jackie Robinson would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame on December 5, 2007 located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.

Robinson has had a number of buildings named in his honor. The homes of the Daytona Cubs is the Jackie Robinson Ballpark, and the UCLA Bruins Baseball team plays in the Jackie Robinson Stadium. The Chicago Public School system has named an elementary school after Jackie Robinson, and Dorsey High School, in Los Angeles named their football stadium after him.

At the November 2006 ground-breaking for a new New York Mets ballpark, Citi Field, scheduled to open in 2009, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, will be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. Additionally, Mets owner Fred Wilpon said that the Mets and Citigroup would work with the Jackie Robinson Foundation to create a Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center in lower Manhattan, as well as fund scholarships for "young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals." Also, in 1976 his home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark

Jackie Robinson Day

Each year on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day is celebrated, commemorating and honoring the day Robinson made his major league debut. Jackie Robinson Day was initiated in 2004 and has been celebrated every year since.

On April 15, 2007, the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, Major League Baseball invited players to wear the number 42 just for that day to commemorate Robinson. The gesture was the idea of Cincinnati Reds outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr., who first sought Rachel Robinson's permission, and, after receiving it, asked Commissioner Bud Selig for permission. Selig extended the invitation to all major league teams. Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates. The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during the April 15 games, all members of the New York Mets, St. Louis Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's # 42.

See also

• List of first black Major League Baseball players by team and date
• DHL Hometown Heroes
• List of African-American firsts
• List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters
• Hitting for the cycle
• List of Major League Baseball batting champions
• List of Major League Baseball stolen base champions

Notes

1. Rothe, p544
2. Great Baseball Feats, Facts and Figures, 2008 Edition, p.201, David Nemec and Scott Flatow, A Signet Book, Penguin Group, New York, NY, ISBN 978-0-451-22363-0
3. ^ "Baseball, the Color Line, and Jackie Robinson". Library of Congress. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
4. ^ Williams, Michael W.- Editor. An African American Encyclopedia. 1993.
5. ^ "Baseball remembers Jackie Robinson - International Herald Tribune". International Herald Tribune. April 16, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-01.
6. ^ Jackie Robinson Star Ballplayer Stars in a Movie. Life Magazine, May 8, 1950 Cite error: The named reference "LIFE1950" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
7. Bigelow, p225
8. ^ Rampersad pp10-11 Cite error: The named reference "Rampersad" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
9. "White House Dream Team: Jackie Roosevelt Robinson". Whitehouse.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
10. ^ "Biography". The Official Site of Jackie Robinson. Retrieved 2008-10-12. Cite error: The named reference "JackieRobinson.com" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
11. Robinson, p9
12. Rampersad, p35
13. Rampersad, p36
14. "Jackie Robinson Biography (1919 - 1972)". biography.com. Retrieved 2008-10-08. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
15. Rampersad, pp 36-37
16. Rampersad, p37
17. Rampersad, pp37-39
18. Rampersad, pp40-41
19. Rampersad, p47
20. Rampersad, pp50-53
21. Rampersad, p54
22. Rampersad, pp59-61
23. Violett, B.J. (1997). "Teammates Recall Jackie Robinson's Legacy". UCLA Today. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
24. "Kenny Washington". Encyclopedia Brittanica. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
25. "Jackie Robinson withdraws from university". xtimeline.com. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
26. ^ "Gale - Free Resources - Black History - Biographies - Jackie Robinson".
27. "The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson," by Jules Tygiel, American Heritage Magazine, August/September 1984
28. "Jackie Robinson Papers (Library of Congress)".
29. ^ "Featured Baseball Personalities – Jackie Robinson – Historic Baseball Resources (Library of Congress)". loc.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
30. James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me, Simon & Schuster: New York, 1995, p. 163
31. Povich, Shirley (March 28, 1997). "The Ball Stayed White, but the Game Did Not". Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
32. Schwartz, Larry (2007). "Jackie changed face of sports". ESPN. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
33. ^ "Jackie Robinson". Baseball Library. 2006. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
34. TheJournalofSportsHistory.org
35. "Jackie Makes Good". Time Magazine. August 26, 1946. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
36. "The Dodgers Encyclopedia". William McNeil. Google Books. Retrieved 2008-10-08. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
37. "Myths in Sports: The Jackie Robinson Edition". The Sporting News. April 11, 2007. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
38. ^ "Jackie Robinson". Wormser, Richard. pbs.org. Retrieved 2008-10-08. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
39. ^ "Jackie Robinson breaks major league color barrier". History. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
40. Kirwin, 198
41. Eig, 95
42. Ken Burns' documentary, Baseball, Part 6, minute 120
43. Ken Burns' documentary, Baseball, Part 6, minute 122
44. Barra, Allen (April 24th 2007). "Debunkers Strike Out". Village Voice. Retrieved 2008-10-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
45. ^ Newman, Mark (04/13/2007). "1947: A time for change". MLB.com. Retrieved 2008-10-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
46. Mathews, Jack (January 12th 2000). "'Greenberg' A Home Run". New York Daily News. Retrieved 2008-10-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
47. Singer, Tom. "The pioneer". MLB.com. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
48. ^ Bloom, Barry (4/13/2007). "Robinson made impact on field, too". MLB.com. Retrieved 2008-10-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
49. Bloom, Barry (06/04/2007). "Jackie Robinson: Gone but not forgotten". MLB.com. Retrieved 2008-10-11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
50. "Jackie Robinson". Baseball Prospectus. Retrieved 2008-10-08. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
51. Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, p. 502-503 | Historical Abstract
52. "Historical Player Stats". MLB.com. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
53. "The Official Site of The Los Angeles Dodgers: History: Dodgers Retired Numbers".
54. "Robinson would have mixed view of today's game". Helyar, John. espn.com. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
55. "Frank Robinson Quotes". baseball-almanac.com. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
56. "Jackie Robinson Dies". The Bryan Times. October 24, 1972. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
57. Jackie changed face of sports, Larry (August 15, 2006). "Jackie changed face of sports". Retrieved 2008-10-11.
58. "Jackie Robinson". fulton.k12.ga.us. Retrieved 2008-10-08. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
59. "TIME 100: Jackie Robinson". time.com. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
60. "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". The Sporting News. 1999. Retrieved 2008-10-11. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
61. "All-Century Team final voting". ESPN. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
62. James, Bill (2003). The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. Free Press. p. 361. ISBN 0743227220.
63. "OPEN AND SHUT". sportsillustrated. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
64. Smith, Claire (April 16, 1997). "A Grand Tribute to Robinson and His Moment". New York TImes. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
65. "Congress Honors Jackie Robinson". CBS News. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
66. "Baseball in Wartime – Jackie Robinson". baseballinwartime.com. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
67. "Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver Announce the 2007 California Hall of Fame Inductees". ca.gov. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
68. "National Register of Historical Places". nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
69. "Jackie Robinson School". robinson.cps.k12.il.us. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
70. "Fearing Gang Violence, School Forfeits a Game". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-07. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
71. "METS HONOR ROBINSON AT NEW HOME". New York Daily News. 2006-11-14. Retrieved 2007-04-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
72. "Historic sports sites rarely take landmark status". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
73. "Griffey, Jr., others to wear No. 42 as part of Jackie Robinson Day Tribute". MLB. 2007-04-05. Retrieved 2007-04-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
74. "A Measure of Respect for Jackie Robinson Turns Into a Movement". The New York Times. 2007-04-13. Retrieved 2007-04-15. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
75. "Robinson's legacy celebrated at Shea". MLB.com. Retrieved 2008-10-07.

References

• Bigelow, Barbara Carlisle, ed. Contemporary Black Biography vol. 6. Gale Research Inc. 1994. ISBN 0-8103-8558-9
• Eig, Jonathan. Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson's First Season. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-07432-9460-7
• Frommer, Harvey. Jackie Robinson Watts Press, 1984.
• Journal of Sports History - http://thejournalofsportshistory.org/history-of-baseball/jackie-robinson-a-triple-threat.html
• Kirwin, Bill. Out of the Shadows: African American Baseball from the Cuban Giants to Jackie Robinson. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005. ISBN 978-08032-7825-7
• MLB.com - http://newyork.yankees.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/nyy/history/retired_numbers.jsp
• Moritz, Charles, ed. Current Biography Yearbook 1972, H.W. Wilson Co, New York, 1972. ISBN 0-8242-0493-X
• Rampersad, Arnold. Jackie Robinson, a Biography, Alfred A. Knopf (New York), 1997. ISBN 0-679-44495-5
• Robinson, Jackie. I Never Had It Made. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1972
• Robinson, Sharon. Promises To Keep: How Jackie Robinson Changed America Scholastic, 2004.
• Rothe, Anna, ed. Current Biography, Who's News and Why 1947, H.W. Wilson Co, New York, 1948.
• SPORT magazine, October 1948.
• Thorn, John. "Our Game" pp1-10 In Total Baseball: The Official Encyclopedia of Major League Baseball 7th ed. John Thorn et al eds. Total Sports Publishing, New York, 1992
• Tygiel, Jules. Baseball's Great Experiment, Oxford (USA), New York, ISBN 0195106199
• Williams, Michael W.- Ed. An African American Encyclopedia 1993.

External links

• jackierobinson.com Official Website
• jackierobinson.org Jackie Robinson Foundation Website
• archives.gov Correspondences with the White House
• Jackie Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame
• Career statistics from Baseball Reference, or Fangraphs
• Jackie Robinson at Find a Grave Retrieved on 2008-03-19
• Fangraphs stats
• Baseball Library
• New Georgia Encyclopedia Entry on Robinson

Template:Persondata Template:BD

• Jackie Robinson
• National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
• Major League Baseball second basemen
• Negro league baseball players
• Brooklyn Dodgers players
• Kansas City Monarchs players
• National League All-Stars
• Major League Baseball players from Georgia (U.S. state)
• African American baseball players
• National League batting champions
• National League stolen base champions
• Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
• Baseball players who have hit for the cycle
• Major League Baseball announcers
• International League Hall of Fame
• African Americans' rights activists
• Congressional Gold Medal recipients
• Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
• United States Army officers
• American military personnel of World War II
• UCLA Bruins football players
• UCLA Bruins men's basketball players
• University of California, Los Angeles alumni
• American Methodists
• Racism
• People from Pasadena, California
• People from Brooklyn
• People from New York City
• People from Stamford, Connecticut
• Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame
• People with diabetes
• Major League Baseball players with retired numbers