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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is often described as "the study of the structure of subjective experience" (Dilts, Grinder, Bandler, Delozier, 1979) or an epistemology, with the primary focus on human patterning.

NLP is broadly focused on

1. modeling how a high performer does what he/she does, and
2. processes for change and communication

NLP teaches multiple ways of gathering information from someone, through their language and non-verbal behaviors, to find the patterns of how someone does what he/she does (whether to model them or help them change). They also teach processes for influencing patterns of thought, state management, changing beliefs (O'Connor and McDermot 1996), examining intentions and values, changing habits, and exploring the consequences of choices (for self and others).

The first NLP models were effective psychotherapists - processes for change were modeled on what they did, which when replicated produced the desired change in clients. NLP patterns are often used in therapy and personal development fields.

If a client goes to an NLP practitioner, the practitioner will gather information about what the client wants and what's going on for them by listening to what they say, interacting verbally and non-verbally, and looking for patterns the client is not aware of. They will challenge elements that may not be useful, explore congruency and ecology, and use various processes to effect a change.

NLP is highly interdisciplinary (Grinder & Bandler, 1975a) (ch.1, Grinder & Bostic, 2001)

• Modeling someone effective can be done in any field (including therapy, sports, business, sales, physics).
• Communication and change processes can be used personally and in business, sales, coaching, therapy, and so on.

Rather than focus on why a pattern developed or whether a pattern makes sense, NLP asks whether the pattern is useful in the context. If the pattern is not useful - NLP explores the existing pattern and system, and what can be done differently.

NLP modeling and processes can be applied in many fields, and practitioners have been encouraged to use what is effective. There is no central control of NLP. There are different approaches to where NLP processes are applied and for what purpose, and often what one person calls NLP is different to what another person calls NLP. This difference is not just internal - external groups also approach and understand NLP from various perspectives, as does research on NLP processes. Criticisms of NLP range from NLP processes having no proven effect (and being a pseudoscience), to the unethical use of NLP change processes to manipulate people (including sales and seduction).

Principles and Presuppositions of NLP

There are a number of principles of NLP, many of them borrowed from other fields (Noam Chomsky, Milton H. Erickson, and Gregory Bateson), and others modeled from therapists (Virginia Satir, Fritz Perls). These have generally guided the development of NLP.

Practitioners often explicitly formulate these principles as "presuppositions" (Presuppositions(background beliefs) are treated 'as if' they are true).

Two fundamental presuppositions are: (Dilts et al 1980)

• The map is not the territory. According to NLP “epistemology”, Alford Korzybski and Gregory Bateson there is no such thing as "objective experience." The subjective nature of our experience never fully captures the objective world - and an experience differs from one individual to the next, sometimes radically, and can even differ for the same individual when compared across different contexts or time frames. NLP studys the "maps of the world" from which we operate, that differ from person to person. See also, Subjectivity, The map is not the territory.
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and their environment are systemic. Our bodies, our societies, and our planet form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other. (see, Gregory Bateson).

The other most commonly related presuppositions are:

• Behind every behavior is a positive intention. This is a model taken from Virginia Satir's belief system, and means that whatever a person does, they're attempting to fulfill some positive intent (which they may not be conscious of). The current behaviour exhibited by a person represents the best choice available to them given their 'map' of the world (the information available to them at the time). Generating alternatives that fulfill the same adaptive function is thought by NLP proponents to be a useful way of helping people to change unwanted or undesirable behaviours. Note that "positive intention" is not related to whether the behavior is "good" or "evil."

• There is no failure, only feedback (in a learning context). If you think you've failed, find a way to get around it (Dilts et al 1980) (don't dwell unnecessarily on the failure). (a principle of feedback loop, borrowed from information theory. see, Asbby, Cybernetics).

• We already have all the resources we need to succeed. It is not argued that this is true, only that it is useful to believe 'as if' it is true when attempting a change. Christina Hall has argued that peoples resources are their sensory representation systems and the manner in which they are organised.

• Multiple descriptions are better than one. One basic example in NLP training involves considering an experience (typically a relationship) from the perspective of self, other and a detached third person in that situation. by deliberately training oneself in moving between perceptual positions one can develop new choice of responses (Bostic & Grinder, 2002 p.247).

• Given two equally predictive theories, choose the simpler. But beyond mere utility, NLP aims for efficiency and elegance using Occam's Razor (Bostic & Grinder, 2002 p.55) to get a minimal description of a model that works. A process may have elements that are not required - and the goal is to find the necessary and sufficient elements for the process to be effective, removing anything that's not useful.

NLP Modeling

"What do consistently high-performing “geniuses” do differently to “average” performers?" (Grinder, 2003).

NLP modeling is considered by some practitioners to be at the heart of NLP. NLP aims to discover how experts or superior performers excel in a given niche, initially through observation and imitation and only when the skills can be replicated by the modeler explicitly coding "the difference that makes the difference", so that the difference can be taught to others (Bandler & Grinder, 1975). Modeling can be thought of as the process of discovering relevant distinctions within these experiential components, as well as relevant sequencing of these components necessary to achieve a specific result.

Grinder specifically teaches implicit NLP modeling, which involves attempting to enter a filter free state, with no preconceptions of how the model does what they do, from which to model. Grinder describes the modelling process as "an accelerated learning approach for modeling human excellence".

There are limitations to what can and can not be successfully modelled. There are also several methods of modeling practicised within NLP that differ from Grinder's approach (he does not consider these NLP modeling). For instance, some practitioners have attempted modeling someone through their biographies and other descriptions - Robert Dilts published models of Albert Einstein's and Nikola Tesla’s internal strategies. With limited, or no high quality video available, it is almost impossible to test whether the model is accurate, and within the field of NLP the modeling of deceased experts is criticized.

Note that the term "model" in Psychological Models is unrelated to NLP modeling.

History of neuro-linguistic programming

The study of Neuro-linguistic programming began in 1973 at Kresge College, University of California, Santa Cruz when Richard Bandler, then a fourth year undergraduate student with interests in Gestalt therapy, invited John Grinder, then an Assistant Professor of linguistics to visit his Gestalt therapy group.

Between 1973-1979, under the mentorship of Gregory Bateson (the author of Steps to an Ecology of Mind), Grinder & Bandler collaborated (with a group of developers) to model:

• Fritz Perls (gestalt therapy)
• Virginia Satir (family systems therapy)
• Milton H. Erickson (developer of a form of hypnotherapy called Ericksonian hypnosis)

(source Andreas & Faulkner, 1994)

Less well-known NLP (4th & 5th) models were:

• Frank Farrelly (see eg. Provocative Therapy, a lesser known 4th model for NLP).
• Moshé Feldenkrais (see eg. Feldenkrais Method, Bandler & Grinder modeled Feldenkrais, some says this is the NLP for the body).

All were considered highly competent in their fields, and their patterns detected became the basis of NLP (including the meta-model, verbal predicates, and eye-accessing cues). Bandler and Grinder found patterns in how a client spoke, how the therapist responded to the client, and the new patterns adopted by the client.

Early seminars were transcribed and published in Frogs into Princes ISBN 0911226192). In 1979, "NLP Volume 1: The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience" was published by the group of NLP developers:

• Robert Dilts
• John Grinder
• Richard Bandler
• Leslie Cameron-Bandler
• Judith DeLozier, (contributor to the New Code of NLP)

Other members of the early development & practise groups included:

• Stephen Gilligan (left NLP group in to do PhD Psych.)
• Christina Hall (developed the swish pattern with Bandler)
• Steve and Connirae Andreas
• David Gordon, the author of Therapeutic Metaphors, 1978.

In 1980, members of the original development group took NLP in different directions as the co-creators and other practitioners applied NLP in their own way and with their own intentions.

Intellectual actecedents of NLP (based on bibliography of Structure of Magic Vol.1, 1975a):

• Noam Chomsky (Grinder considers Chomsky work the single most significant contributor to NLP, especially Transformational grammar and intuition as a legitimate form of study).
• Gregory Bateson (Bateson's take on these fields centers upon their relationship to epistemology, see also systems theory and cybernetics).
• Jay Haley (a prolific writer on family therapy and Milton H. Erickson).
• Alfred Korzybski (Korzybski influence entered NLP via Bateson: The map is not the territory and intensional/extensional distinctions).
• Alan Turing (influences include finite state automata & Turing Machines used in NLP modeling).
• George A. Miller (see eg. T.O.T.E. model, The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two, an important distinction in conscious/unconscious mind).
• Bertrand Russell (see eg. Russell's Type theory and logical positivism are consider fundamentals in theory of thinking and language).
• George Lakoff (Lakoff's conceptual metaphors were beginning to influence Linguistics at the time NLP was created. This work helped kick off the cognitive revolution in linguistics).
• William Ross Ashby (see eg. law of requisite variety, cybernetics, systems theory and, more recently, complex systems).
• Ronald Langacker (founder of cognitive linguistics movement and the creator of Cognitive Grammar, a type of construction grammar).

Basic Tenets or Early Patterns of NLP (1973-1979)

"The transforms of Bateson; the process tools of the 4-tuple, representation systems, synesthesia patterns, Meta-models of language: all are cornerstones in the exploration of this mapping between sense impression and concepts." (Grinder & Delozier, Turtles 1986)

Eye-accessing cues

John Grinder and Richard Bandler discovered eye accessing cues and body posture changes when people used sensory predicates. In the late 1970s they started incorporating various exercises into their seminars to teach people how to calibrate the internal thought sequences (or strategies). Students would ask questions and calibrate to the individual,

• A visual eidetic question (recall), "What colour are your mother's eyes?" to presuppose visual processing. (p. 24 of Frogs into Princes)
• A visual eidetic question (construct), "Can you imagine your mother with bright green hair?"

Key indicator:

• V / V visual recall/construct
• A / A auditory recall/construct
• K Kinesthetics internal processing
• A Auditory Internal Dialogue (or natural language).

Research (eye accessing cues and representational system)

Roberts Dilts studied NLP eye accessing cues and representational system at University of California, Santa Cruz using Electroencephalography (EEG), the results were published in Roots of NLP (Dilts, 1983). Other scientific studies have criticised the effectiveness of this model. In order to adequately test the eye-accessing hypothesis, it would important to correlate any movements with the internal sequence of representations that the person goes through in order to answer the question, eg repeating the question internally, accessing feelings about it etc. Much of the research into eye accessing has often not taken this into account.

Myths (primary representational systems and logical/creative hemispheres)

Some people connect "eye accessing cues" recall/construct distinctions with Pop psychology and popular myths about the brain. They simplify these distinctions into a very crude binary system whereby a person appears pre-dominantly "left-brained" (logical), or more "right-brained" (creative). Other popular NLP myths include crude labeling of people as "visual", "kinesthetic", or "auditory" thinkers based on pre-dominant eye accessing cues or sensory predicates. Dilts & Delozier (2000) says that William James, the founder of psychology, was the first to note Primary Representation Primacy in Principles of Psychology (1890) . This idea of PRS is no longer supported by the majority psychology, or NLP.

The neurological sciences teach us to be wary of simplistic pseudoscience claims about brain function, and debunk dubious products and services that are sold using such myths. Testing the functions of brain lateralization, neuropsychologists like Roger Sperry have studied split-brain patients. Sperry has also used tachistoscope to present visual information to one hemisphere or the other. Scientists have also studied people born without a corpus callosum to determine specialization of brain hemispheres (see also, Cerebral hemispheres).

Meta-model and Milton Model

The meta-model is a set of language patterns (from Virginia Satir, Fritz Perls and Transformational syntax) designed to challenge limits to a person's map of the world (Grinder & Bostic, 2001). Effectively the meta-model can be reduced to asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to challenge unspecified nouns or verbs. Other challenges are directed at distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a Ch3). The reverse set of the meta-model is the Milton-model; a collection of artfully vague language patterns elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson (Bandler & Grinder, 1975b). Together these models form the basis for the all other NLP models.

Energy, Spiritual Experience, & the New Age

for so many years people would say the NLP didn't have anything to do with spirituality and yet the title of NLP Vol.1 is "The study of the structure of subjective experience", ... well if spiritual is a subjective experience how could it not be part of NLP." (Dilts, 1997)

Grinder and Bateson alike are intolerant of fuzzy concepts of psychic energy separating this from technical language of analysis. Bandler also states that "spiritualism" and "psychic energy" are purely poetic or metaphoric, (see example, Richard Bandler, foreward - p.xi, Therapeutic Metaphor, David Gordon, 1978)....

"Shaman, philosophers, and prophets alike have intuitively known and used the power of metaphor. From Plato's allegory of the cave right through to Valitaire's Zagdig, from the teaching of Jesus and Buddha to the teachings of Don Juan, metaphor is ever present as a tool for changing ideas and effectiing behavior." .

Bandler & Grinder ideas on energy tends to agree with Gregory Bateson stating that there is no significance of energy in human communication or behaviour (see example, Steps to ecology of mind, p.xxixi)...

"The nineteenth century scientists (notably Freud) who tried to establish a bridge between behavioral data and the fundamentals of physical and chemical science were, surely, correct in insisting upon the need for such a bridge, but, I believe, wrong in choosing "energy" as the foundation for that bridge.

If mass and length are inappropriate for the describing of behavior, then energy is unlikely to be more appropriate. After all, energy is Mass x Velocity, and no behavioral scientist really insists that "psychic energy" is of these dimensions."

Bandler often uses shamanistic type metaphors in his seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999) and Grinder uses terms such as "first attention/second attention" (conscious/unconscious) and "stop the world states", terms borrowed from Carlos Castenada's fictional character, Don Juan Matus (see for example, Grinder & Delozier, 1987). Some people have taken the metaphors as "truth" and this has partly attributed to NLP's New Age spiritual appeal (Lilienfeld 2003).

Even though psychic energy and such is not strictly part of NLP, it is still popular as a metaphor with a some NLP trainers, and practitioners. For more information on this see, New Age, psychic energy, energy psychology.

NLP, Science, and Psychology

Even though Grinder and Bandler were both at UC Santa Cruz, the field of NLP began outside the academic mainstream their hypotheses, conjectures and epistemology differ greatly from typical western science of the time, and remain largely divorced form mainstream academic psychology in both theory and practice. Despite the difference, NLP is still promoted as a "science", & described as a "technology" (Singer & Lalich, 1996). NLP co-developer, Grinder (and other trainers) say that NLP is both an art and a science, that differs in many ways from typical western science.

"...from the very beginning NLP was designed as an epistemology" (p.15, Grinder, 1986).

More specifically, NLP is primary concern is the study of the linguistically mediated maps of experience, that have already been subject to neurological transforms (Grinder & Bandler, 1975a)(Grinder & Bostic, 2001).

Science is defined as reasoned investigation or study of nature, aimed at finding out the truth. A scientific investigation is normally methodical, or according to scientific method. A less formal definition of science is any systematic field of study, or the knowledge gained from it. While the modeling in NLP is systematic, it does not use the scientific method.

NLP Modeling attempts to avoid a priori knowledge (removing beliefs and expectations) during initial stage of modeling an expert. In contrast, a hypothesis is a proposed explanation, to be confirmed or disproved - and NLP classifies this as a filter on our experience, something which may mask or distort the pattern being modeled (see modeling steps). Once a pattern is explicit, someone is trained in it and their performance is compared against the original model. Although psychological statistical methods of performance measurement can be applied to a group trained in the pattern, the performance of the original model is a single person. The goal in modeling is to perform the pattern in the same manner as the original model - not just to the same performance level. Carroll (2005) says that from models NLP develops techniques which may have nothing to do with either the models or the sources of the "models".

Typical statistical modeling (common in western science) reduces everything to averages, whereas NLP prefers discrete analysis of individual systems, and intuition (Grinder & Bostic, 2001).

When NLP was created, John Grinder was assistant professor of linguistics at UC Santa Cruz, and he provides a desription of the NLP modelling methodology in linguistics terms. Grinder & Bandler were mentored by Gregory Bateson and influenced by Noam Chomsky, who have preferred mathematical approach (formal systems) for modeling human language and behavior.

NLP and Psychology

Although NLP Modeling is not testable in this manner, once a process is explicitly modelled, it can be considered a hypotheses for testing against average performance by whatever field the pattern relates to. Lilienfield et al (2003) notes that generating a hypotheses can be achieved easily, it is the testing of hypotheses that needs to be more scientific.

Various NLP processes (eg. Eye Accessing Cues, Primary Representation Systems) have been tested and the results are inconsistent (see "Peer reviewed research", below). Several psychologists interpret the mixed results as indicative against all NLP.

• "NLP has been empirically tested over many years, and it has been found to be largely ineffective (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996)."
• "A review of research showed that NLP is scientifically unsupported (Heap 1988)."

Psychologists are clear that the onus of proof or disproof should be on the people making the claim - from their perspective the NLP patterns should be presented as a study they can reproduce. NLP practitioners are producing their patterns with a different methodology - and sometimes Psychologists aren't testing the same thing - the fields may require more overlap. NLP Practitioners criticise the methodology and hypotheses of many psychological studies. For example, some studies of eye-accessing cues hypothesized that all people were organised the same way ("normally organised") instead of calibrating for each individual - other patterns are tested in inappropriate situations. NLP practitioners also argue that the processes chosen vary depending on the client and situation, and any restriction to one pattern will remove effectiveness.

Within NLP, Grinder (2001, p.351) is now recommending that patterns be presented more effectively by a relatively sensory grounded description of the pattern, consequences of the use of the pattern, and the selection criteria for the pattern (the conditions and contexts in which it is appropriate) - this may close this gap. NLP researchers have also been asked to familiarise themselves with advances in Cognitive Linguistics and neuroscience so that they can work alongside researches in other disciplines (Grinder & Bostic, 2001).

Beyond NLP, many psychotherapies have the same criticisms of psychological research, and there are moves to improve the relationship (the "scientist-practitioner gap" (Lilienfield 2003). These includes a better communication, and a push for evidence received from clinical contexts via outcome-based (or evidence-based) research - allowing greater freedom in the processes used, and measuring client outcomes and (McKergow 2000)

In this overall context, some psychologists call NLP a "pseudo-science" as they do not consider it backed up sufficiently by peer-reviewed empirical research. NLP practitioners and psychologists are slowly responding to this criticism.

Peer-reviewed Research

There is much peer-reviewed research which is inconclusive on the effectiveness of NLP. This has lead to critics saying NLP has no basis, and NLP proponents claiming that the results are inconclusive due to the research often testing out of context or otherwise inappropriately. Better research is required.

• Between 1984 and 1988, at the reqest of the US Army Research Institute, the National Reseearch Council formed a US National Committee on Techniques for the Enhancement of Human Performance. They defined the key elements of NLP simply as the "matching on verbal (preferred predicates) and nonverbal (eye movements) dimensions". They found that evidence for a PRS (preferred representational system) was weak as was evidence for matching on preferred predicates only. They found that matching on all predicates produced significant effects on perception which could allow "potentially more effective vertical (and horizontal) communication", and they also noted that modeling experts was "a possible basis for enhanced motor or cognitive performance" (pg 242, Druckman & Swets, 1988 , see also the background social processes paper ). They also noted problems with the research and noted that more research was required. Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute stated "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work” (Squires 1988).

• Einspruch & Forman (1985) studied 39 empirical studies of NLP. They found methodological errors in all - including common inadequate control of the context, unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, a lack of understanding of the concepts of pattern recognition (and inadequate interviewer training), and logical mistakes.

• Heap (1988) studied 70 NLP studies, and specificall focusses on primary representation system studies (like the US Army study above which he refers to). Although the results have been mixed, he states that the hypothesis that a person has a PRS (primary representation system) which is observed in the choice of words has been found not to hold by the great majority of researchers.

"This verdict on NLP is .... an interim one. Einsprech and Forman are probably correct in insisting that the effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated. If it turns out to be the case that these therapeutic procedures are indeed as rapid and powerful as is claimed, no one will rejoice more than the present author. If however these claims fare no better than the ones already investigated then the final verdict on NLP will be a harsh one indeed." (Heap, cited in Morgan, 1993)

The concern for more and better research was (and is) valid. The lack of acknowledgement of other key aspects of NLP at that time (eg: meta-model) may reflect an even greater need for research. Both books also refer principally to the primary representation system - where this is now taught as an "NLP myth" (most people use all representation systems and may favor one system, though the system most used can change even within a sentence).

The US Army study above (Druckman & Swets) was a very broad study on human performance and is well known. There are several negative assessments of NLP and an indicator of better research being required. Several websites and books refer principally to Druckman & Swets, and Heap (1988)

• Objective and empirical studies and review papers have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews and meta-analyses have given NLP a negative assessment (Bertelsen, 1987) (Bleimeister, 1988) (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001).

(note that Morgan is simply refering to the Heap study)

(note Platt refers to Morgan, Heap, the Scetic's dictionary , and an NLP research database of abstracts showing mixed results)

• NLP has been empirically tested over many years, and it has been found to be largely ineffective. Research on NLP have not supported either the assumptions of NLP or the efficacy (Singer & Lalich, 1996), but ... the NLP community continues to claim their assumptions and methods are powerful, relying only on testimonials and anecdotal evidence to support their claims.
• NLP is often criticised for being a pseudoscience (Lilienfeld et al 2003).

No extensive review has recently been done. Platt (2001) summarised 68 abstracts from a research website . Some of this research was published in respected journals, others not. From the abstracts, Platt says only 1/4 were supportive of the representation systems (PRS, eye accessing cues), as researched. Platt does not say how many of these overlap with the 70 studied by Heap or 39 studied by Einspruch, nor does he refer to the studies themselves, meaning no checking of methodology etc as requested by Einspruch and accepted by Heap.

Critics says that NLP prefers to ignore Hume's dictum: "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence". NLP practitioners agree that better research is required. In more recent years, there have been fewer studies but some have been better quality, and the studies have expanded beyond PRS studies, such as studies on language patterns and the meta-model bases (there are still no studies on 6-step reframe, parts negotiation, perceptual positions, etc).

Psychotherapies in general (including practicing clinical psychologists) are being criticised for lacking quality scientific research and there is movement to correct this - to bridge between research and practice. Several psychotherapies criticise studies as they restrict the study to one process for intervention - now outcome-based (evidence-based) research is increasingly being used within Psychotherapy to allow for flexibility of processes and real-world studies. One such NLP study in Austria involved 55 clients (plus a control group) and found significant improvements both subjectively and in medical diagnoses after undergoing a full range of NLP techniques (Genser-Medlitsch and Schütz, 1996).

What is Pseudoscience

In "Science & Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology", Lilienfield et at (2003) wrote on many practices widely used in clinical practice but lacking a solid grounding in research. This includes guidance for clinical practices (to make them accountable), and skills for better psychological research.

The fallacies and characteristics of pseudoscience include Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of de-validated claims (Winn and Wiggins 2001).

The characteristics of pseudoscience include: (Lilienfeld et al 2003):

• The absence of connectivity (Levelt 1995)
• The use of obscurantist language
• Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence
• Emphasis on confirmation rather refutation
• Absence of boundary conditions
• The mantra of holism
• An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses designed to immunize claims from falsification
• Evasion of peer review
• Reversed burden of proof

This book is critical of the unsupported practices in clinical psychology practice and psychotherapy, including NLP. Lilienfield understands NLP as a "self help development in the same mould as that of Dianetics and EST", and includes it in his list of pseudosciences.

No 'truth'

Another criticism of NLP is that it is concerned with the patterns people use which are effective, not whether they are 'true'. In modeling someone, what NLP considers important is that they are high performers, and duplicating how they do what they do. Whether what they say and do is true, or fits with other theories of the mind, is not part of modeling.

It is not surprising that many scientists are critical of this approach.

• NLP makes claims about thinking and perception which do not seem to be supported by neuroscience (Carroll, 2005) (Platt, 2001) (Druckman & Swets, 1988) (Bertelsen, 1987).
• "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming. NLP developers are not interested in the question as to how neurological processes take place, or in serious research" (Levelt 1995).

Does NLP claim to be a science?

Grinder & Delozier quote Einstein and other great philosophers such as Hume and Kant when describing the difference between typical western epistemology of science and the epistemology of NLP...

"The two classic epistemological polar positions in the 18th century can be usefully presented by Hume, in the British empiricist tradition and Kant in the German idealist tradition."(p.xiv, Grinder & Delozier, 1987)

According to John Grinder, the NLP epistemology attempts to bridge the gap between the extremes of empiricism (observation and the scientific method) and idealism (our internal representations, concepts, and subjective experience) without appealing to mysticism (the dualism theory of a body and separate soul). This view tends to agree with one thing Einstein said, "I see on the side of totality of sense-experience, and, on the other, the totality of the concepts and propositions." (Albert Einstein, Autobiographical notes p. 13).

The various NLP patterns are exploration in mapping our sense impressions to concepts, knowing that there is a difference between in logical level and logical type between reality and representation of reality, or to quote Alfred Korzybski, "the map is not the territory." In NLP training sensory acuity and calibration exercises are used to enhance the five channels of our sensory system in an attempt to bring our internal representations (our maps), closer to reality (the territory). Typically, students observe demonstrations of the various NLP patterns, followed by exercises designed for experiential learning. (Grinder & Delozier, 1987)

Criticism of NLP

There have been many criticisms of NLP from psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups. Critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudo-science that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a bunch of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions (Sanghera 2005). The criticisms range from the fact that it is ineffective, ethically questionable, pseudoscientific, full of unwarranted claims that lead to the sale of further dubious products, inconsistent, unscientific, and cult-like.

NLP and dubious new age remedies

Although NLP has been found to be largely ineffective, the general behavior of NLP advocates is one of wishful thinking and passing the buck that is often characteristic of quick fix schemes (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). NLP has consistently been unequivocally promoted as a technology that promises solutions for everyone, far beyond the specific application of psychotherapy. As such, NLP is promoted by some for dubious treatments such as hypnotic breast enhancement, penis enlargement, remote viewing, covert seduction, and remote seduction. In close association with its New Age spiritual principles, it is often sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic or Huna witchcraft by original NLP developers such as Richard Bandler. Although Grinder claims that NLP epistemology does not encourage mysticism (Grinder & Delozier, 1987), shamanic metaphors from Carlos Castenada are used in his NLP seminars. NLP has also been promoted by the originator, Bandler, in his shamanism teachings, and he often used anecdotes about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999). This is partly attributable to NLP's New Age spiritual appeal (Lilienfeld 2003).

Also, the modeling of deceased experts has been criticized even within the field of NLP. Robert Dilts published models of Albert Einstein's and Nikola Tesla’s internal strategies. With limited, or no high quality video available, it is almost impossible to test within the NLP modeling framework.

Unethical use of NLP

Some have criticized the manner in which NLP has been promoted. NLP trainers are often said to make unwarranted claims for the field in general or for the specific techniques that they teach. Ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands (Beyerstein 1997). However, NLP claims are as yet unsubstantiated and the efficacy has not been seriously proven by NLP practitioners. Also, some trainers are secretive about their techniques, referring to them as "secrets" and only make them available through expensive training courses or products, making it hard to for customers to assess the validity of the techniques.

Ethical concerns of manipulation have also been voiced: “so long as the influenced party's outcome is achieved at the same time as the influencer, this is "influencing with integrity." However, "Achieving your own outcome at the expense of or even without regard for the other party constitutes manipulation. What makes this particular 'informed manipulation' so frightening is that people with these skills acquire such personal power that they are able to affect people deeply, and their capacity to misguide others is thereby increased to the point of evil." (Seitz and Cohen 1992). Concerns have also been raised over NLP's use in “speed seduction” methods proposed by NLP proponents such as Ross Jeffries in that may encourage manipulation and coercion.

NLP and cult characteristics (cult entry and exit)

A leading exit-counselor, Steve Hassan, studied the foundational models of NLP (Bateson, Satir, Perls). This enabled him to create a model of how people successfully enter and exit from cult mind control (p.33 Hassan, 1988).

So NLP modeling can be used to model how people 'enter' a cult and how people 'exit' a cult successfully. NLP patterns can be identified in both cult exit-counselors and cult leaders. Cult leader usually leave out the meta model which is designed to encourage independant thought, but asking questions such as "How specifically" and "What specifically" to get sensory based evidence for dubious claims. In this respect it is ethically neutral. NLP foundational theory of language and thought (especially logic) is heavily influenced by Bertrand Russell's theory of logical types.

Langone says (1993) that NLP hypnotic processes are used to induce dependence on the cult, and to further induce compliance within the cult.

Crabtree, (2002) says, for example, that NLP processes are seen as an intrinsic part of modern ritual mind control tactics. Langone says (1993) that NLP hypnotic processes are used to induce dependence on the cult, and to further induce compliance within the cult. Other, (mainly Christian Orthodoxy) have listed NLP with modern day cults (Tippet, 1994) (Langone, 1993)(Singer 2003),

Issues with buzzwords and trademarks

Some developers use technical terminology (especially from epistemology and transformational grammar), and is strict (especially Grinder and early work by Dilts) about the difference between the language used for analysis and the language of poetry, metaphor and story.

Some trainers and promoters of NLP modify existing patterns, processes rebranding them for commerical purposes (trademarking, etc). Motivational speaker Anthony Robbins, for example, promotes NLP technology under the banner 'neuroassociative conditioning' on infomercials around the world. Anchoring was given a unique name to keep it distinct from exiting conditioning theory.

Critics claim that NLP lacks a coherent theory that would explain its terminology and mechanisms of action, it uses anecdotal stories and testimonials as "evidence" and lacks empirical support. It is not surprising that NLP has many characteristics of other pseudosciences: scientific-sounding jargon, reliance on anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated claims of rapid cures, absence of a sound theoretical basis, and over-promotion for financial gains (Krugman et al 1985).

References

See Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography for a fuller list of Books and articles not directly referenced on this page.

• . ISBN 0688146198. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

• Bandler, R. (1993) Time for a change. . Publisher Cupertino, Calif. : Meta Publications.

• Barrett, D. (1997) Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions: A World Survey and Sourcebook. Pub Blandford.

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Beyerstein. B.L. (1997) Why Bogus Therapies Seem to Work. Skeptical Inquirer magazine. September/October 1997

• Beyerstein, B. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70-79.

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• Robert Todd Carroll, Robert T. Carroll (2003) The Skeptic's Dictionary Publisher: Wiley; The Skeptic's Dictionary: neuro-linguistic programming (NLP).

• . ISBN 0-9717223-0-7. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

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• Brothers B.J. (1992) Spirituality and couples : heart and soul in the therapy process New York : Haworth Press.

• Clarkson, P, Mackewn, J SAGE Publications

Fritz Perls (Key Figures in Counselling) (1993) • ISBN: 0803984537

• Crabtree, Vexen (2002). Ritual Mind Control Tactics. Retrieved August 28, 2005.
  See about Vexen Crabtree Retrieved 28 Aug 2005

• . ISBN 0-9701540-0-3. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help) Two volumes, 1600 pages of "history, biography & related knowledge the steps to techniques and procedures".

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• Drenth, J.D. (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science. Studia Psychologica, 2003, 45, 5-13

• . ISBN 0309037921. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  See On-line edition pages 138-149. Retrieved 25 Aug 2005

• Gallo, F, (2001) Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Norton and Company publishers.

• . ISBN 0-916990-04-4. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

• Griffin, N., & Goldsmith, L. (1985, March). The charismatic kid: Tony Robbins, 25, gets rich peddling a hot self-help program. Life, 8, 41-46.

• . ISBN 1555520227. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

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  See

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• Howell, Tom (2001). Cults and Small Religions. Retrieved August 29, 2005.
• Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
• . ISBN 0393313212. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)

• Leikind, B. J., & McCarthy, W. J. (1991). An investigation of firewalking. In K. Frazier (Ed.)., The hundredth monkey and other paradigms of the paranormal (pp.182-193). Buffalo, NY

• Levelt W. (1995) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguistisch Programmeren! Intermediair 17 Nov pp113

• Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr (Eds.)(2003) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press, New York. ISBN: 1-57230-282-1,.

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  See Dylan Morgan bio Retrieved 25 Aug 2005 and Scientific Assessment of NLP Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.

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• Christopher, P. (2004) New Religions: A Guide : New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. Oxford University Press ISBN: 0195220420

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  See NLP - Neuro Linguistic Programming or No Longer Plausible? Retrieved 24 Aug 2005.

• Sala, S.D, editor (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain. Wiley.

• Sanghera,S (2005) Financial Times. London (UK): Aug 26, 2005. pg. 9

• Seitz, V A., Cohn, W A. (1992) Using the Psychology of Influence in Job Interviews. Business Forum. Los Angeles: Summer 1992.Vol.17, Iss. 3; pg. 14, 4 pgs

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• Sinclair. J. (1992) An ABC of NLP. Publisher: ASPEN ISBN: 0951366017

• Squires. S. (1988) The Pentagon's Twilight Zone. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. : Apr 17, 1988

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  See Margaret Singer and Excerpts from 'Cults in Our Midst' Retrieved 25 Aug 2005

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• Tippet, Gary (3 Apr 1994). "Inside the cults of mind control". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help) Retrieved 28 Aug 2005

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• Williams,W F. general editor.(2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience /

Publisher Facts On File New York.

• Winn, C.M , and Wiggins,A.W (2001) QUANTUM LEAPS..in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.

See also

• List of NLP topics
• NLP map
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Communication
• General Semantics
• Hypnosis
• Humanistic psychology
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Linguistics
• Logical Positivism
• Personal development
• Persuasion
• Transformational-Generative Grammar
• Syntax

Developers

• Richard Bandler*
• John Grinder*
• Robert Dilts
• Leslie Cameron-Bandler
• Judith DeLozier
• Stephen Gilligan
• David A. Gordon
• Carmen Bostic St Clair

(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.

People that NLP claims to have developed and borrowed from

• Noam Chomsky
• Gregory Bateson
• Milton H. Erickson
• Alan Turing
• George A. Miller
• Bertrand Russell
• George Lakoff
• William Ross Ashby
• Ronald Langacker
• Jay Haley
• Frank Farrelly
• Moshe Feldenkrais

External links

• Official Website of John Grinder; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Richard Bandler; co-creator of NLP
• Official Website of Robert Dilts
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming Research Database
• Reviews of NLP training and trainers
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP
• Criticism from Skeptic's Dictionary

• NLP
• Parapsychology
• Human communication
• Pseudoscience