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| Julius Caesar was da man! | |||
| ''<!--Please refrain from using the "BCE" notation within this article without first discussing an era change at the talk page. Per consensus, users have decided that the anno Domini era of numbering is appropriate for this article. If adding a new section and you prefer to use "BCE", it will be reverted for consistency - see ].--> | |||
| {{otheruses}} | |||
| {{Infobox Emperor | |||
| |name =Gaius Julius Caesar | |||
| |title=] of the ]<br /> | |||
| |image =] | |||
| |caption =Bust of Julius Caesar | |||
| |full name =Gaius Julius Caesar | |||
| |imperial name =Caesar Divi Filius Augustus | |||
| |reign =October 49 BC – March 15, 44 BC | |||
| |predecessor =] (as Dictator of the Roman Republic) | |||
| |successor =] (as ]) | |||
| |consort =1) ] 84–68 BC <br />2) ] 68–63 BC <br />3) ] 59–44 BC | |||
| |issue=1) ] 85/84-54 BC<br />2) ] 47-30 BC | |||
| |royal house =] | |||
| |father =] | |||
| |mother =] | |||
| |date of birth =July 13 100 BC or 102 BC | |||
| |place of birth =], ] | |||
| |date of death =March 15, 44 BC | |||
| |place of death =], ] | |||
| |place of burial= | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Gaius Iulius Caesar'''<ref name="name">Official name after 42 BC, '' Gaius Iulius Caesar Divus'' (Latin script: GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR) (in inscriptions <small>IMP•C•IVLIVS•CAESAR•DIVVS</small>), in English, "Imperator and God Gaius Julius Caesar". Also in inscriptions, ''Gaius Iulius Gaii Filius Gaii Nepos Caesar'', in English, "Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius".</ref> or '''Gaius Julius Caesar''' ({{pronounced|ˈgaːius ˈjuːlius ˈkaɪsar}} in Classical ]; conventionally {{pronounced|ˈgajəs ˈdʒuːliəs ˈsiːzɚ}} in ]), July 13, 100 BC<ref>There is some dispute over the date of Caesar's birth. The day is sometimes stated to be be July 12, when his feast-day was celebrated after deification, but this was because his true birthday clashed with the '']''. Some scholars, based on the dates he held certain magistracies, have made a case for 101 or 102 BC as the year of his birth, but scholarly consensus favours 100 BC. Goldsworthy, 30</ref> – March 15, 44 BC,<ref>After Caesar's death the leap years were not inserted according to his intent and there is uncertainty about when leap years were observed between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive; the dates in this article between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive are those observed in Rome and there is an uncertainty of about a day as to where those dates would be on the ]. See Blackburn, B and Holford-Strevens, L. (1999 corrected 2003). ''The Oxford Companion to the Year''. Oxford University Press. p. 671.</ref>) was a ] ] and ] leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the ] into the ]. | |||
| A politician of the '']'' tradition, he formed an unofficial ] with ] and ] which dominated Roman politics for several years, opposed in the ] by '']'' like ] and ]. His conquest of ] extended the Roman world to the ], and he also conducted the first ] in 55 BC. The collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a stand-off with Pompey and the ]. Leading his legions across the ], Caesar began a ] in 49 BC from which he became the undisputed master of the Roman world. | |||
| After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He was proclaimed "] in perpetuity" ('']''), and heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic. A group of senators, led by Caesar's former friend ], assassinated the dictator on the ] (March 15) in 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. However, the result was another ], which ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent ] by Caesar's adopted heir, ]. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the ]. | |||
| Much of Caesar's life is known from his own ] (''Commentarii'') on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival ], the historical writings of ], and the poetry of ]. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| {{TOClimit|limit=2}} | |||
| == Early life == | |||
| Caesar was born into a ] family, the ''] ]'', which claimed descent from ], son of the legendary ] prince ], supposedly the son of the goddess ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Froude|first=James Anthony|authorlink=James Anthony Froude|title=Life of Caesar|publisher=Project Gutenberg e-text|date=1879|page=67|url=http://www.mirrorservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext05/8cesr10.txt}} See also: ], '']'': ''Julius'' ; ], ''Roman History'' ; ], '']''</ref> The '']'' "Caesar" originated, according to ], with an ancestor who was born by ] (from the Latin verb to cut, ''caedere'', ''caes-'').<ref>], ''Natural History'' . The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century ('']'' ). Julius wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother, ], lived long after he was born.</ref> The '']'' suggests three ]: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin ''caesaries''); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin ''oculis caesiis''); or that he killed an elephant (''caesai'' in Moorish) in battle.<ref>'']'': ''Aelius'' .</ref> Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.aol.com/dkaplan888/jcae.htm|title=Coins of Julius Caesar}}</ref> | |||
| Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, having produced only three ]. Caesar's father, also called ], reached the rank of ], the second highest of the Republic's elected magistracies, and governed the province of ], perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother-in-law ].<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; ], ''Caesar'' , ''Marius'' ; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'' ; ''Inscriptiones Italiae'', 13.3.51-52</ref> His mother, ], came from an influential family which had produced several consuls. ], an orator and grammarian of ]ish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor.<ref>Suetonius, ''Lives of Eminent Grammarians'' ]</ref> Caesar had two sisters, both called ]. Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood. ] and ]'s biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost.<ref name="plutsuet1">Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. The ] was fought from 91 to 88 BC between Rome and her Italian allies over the issue of ], while ] of ] threatened Rome's eastern provinces. Domestically, Roman politics was divided between politicians known as '']'' and '']'', neither of which had a common agenda and so cannot be considered a political party or even a faction. The ''optimates'' were those politicians who pursued their agendas through traditional, constitutional routes in the ]; the ''populares'' those who preferred to bypass traditional procedure and pursue their agendas by appealing directly to the electorate. Caesar's uncle Marius was a ''popularis'', Marius' protégé ] was an ''optimas''<!-- not "optimus", as one would think! -->, and in Caesar's youth their rivalry led to civil war. | |||
| Both Marius and Sulla distinguished themselves in the Social War, and both wanted command of the war against Mithridates, which was initially given to Sulla; but when Sulla left the city to take command of his army, a ] passed a law transferring the appointment to Marius. Sulla responded by marching on Rome, reclaiming his command and forcing Marius into exile, but when he left on campaign Marius returned at the head of a makeshift army. He and his ally ] seized the city and declared Sulla a public enemy, and Marius's troops took violent revenge on Sulla's supporters. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his followers remained in power.<ref>], ''Civil Wars'' ; Plutarch, ''Marius'' , ''Sulla'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History ; ] ; ], ''Epitome of Roman History'' ], ]</ref> | |||
| In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly while putting on his shoes one morning, without any apparent cause,<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'' </ref> and at sixteen, Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new '']'', high priest of ], as ], the previous incumbent, had died in Marius's purges.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'' ]</ref> Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a girl of wealthy ] family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna's daughter ].<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to finish the civil war against Marius' followers. After a campaign throughout Italy he seized Rome at the ] in November 82 BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of ]; but whereas a dictator was traditionally appointed for six months at a time, Sulla's appointment had no term limit. Statues of Marius were destroyed and Marius' body was exhumed and thrown in the Tiber. Cinna was already dead, killed by his own soldiers in a mutiny.<ref>Appian, ''Civil Wars'' ; Plutarch, ''Sulla'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Eutropius, ''Abridgement of Roman History'' ; Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'' ]</ref> Sulla's ]s saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the ]. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.<ref name="plutsuet1" /> | |||
| ==Early career== | |||
| Rather than returning to Rome, Caesar joined the army, serving under ] in ] and ] in ]. He served with distinction, winning the ] for his part in the siege of ]. On a mission to ] to secure the assistance of King ] fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which would persist for the rest of his life.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; ], ''Roman History'' </ref> Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the ''Flamen Dialis'' was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.<ref>William Smith, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'': ''''</ref> | |||
| In 80 BC, after two years in office, ] resigned his dictatorship, re-established consular government and, after serving as consul, retired to private life.<ref>Appian. ''Civil Wars'' </ref> Caesar later ridiculed Sulla's relinquishing of the dictatorship—"Sulla did not know his political ABC's".<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' .</ref> He died two years later in 78 BC and was accorded a state funeral.<ref>Plutarch, ''Sulla'' </ref> Hearing of Sulla's death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in the ], a lower class neighbourhood of Rome.<ref name="suet46">Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> His return coincided with an attempted anti-Sullan coup by ], but Caesar, lacking confidence in Lepidus's leadership, did not participate.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Appian, ''Civil Wars'' </ref> Instead he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for ] and ]. Even ] praised him: "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?"<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Aiming at ]al perfection, Caesar travelled to ] in 75 BC to study under ], who had previously taught Cicero.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' . Plutarch (''Caesar'' ) reports the same events but follows a different chronology.</ref> | |||
| On the way across the ],<ref>Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (''Julius'' ). Plutarch (''Caesar'' ) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (''Roman History'' says merely that it happened when he was a young man.</ref> Caesar was kidnapped by ]n ] and held prisoner in the ] islet of ].<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 1-2</ref> He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty ] of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty.<ref>{{cite book |title=Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator |author=Thorne, James |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2003 |page=15}}</ref><ref>Freeman, 39</ref> After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in ]. ], the governor of ], refused to execute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves,<ref>Freeman, 39-40</ref> but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised to when in captivity<ref>Freeman, 40</ref>—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. He then proceeded to Rhodes, but was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of ] to repel an incursion from Pontus. | |||
| On his return to Rome he was elected military ], a first step on the '']'' of Roman politics. The ] against ] took place around this time (73 - 71 BC), but it is not recorded what role, if any, Caesar played in it. He was elected ] for 69 BC,<ref>Freeman, 51</ref> and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, widow of Marius, and included images of Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His own wife Cornelia also died that year.<ref>Freeman, 52</ref> After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in ] under Antistius Vetus.<ref>Goldsworthy, 100</ref> While there he is said to have encountered a statue of ], and realised with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. He requested, and was granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to Roman politics. On his return in 67 BC,<ref>Goldsworthy, 101</ref> he married ], a granddaughter of Sulla.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' </ref> He was elected ] and restored the trophies of Marius's victories; a controversial move given the Sullan regime was still in place. He also brought prosecutions against men who had benefited from Sulla's proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borrowed money on public works and games, outshining his colleague ]. He was also suspected of involvement in two abortive coup attempts.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' , </ref> | |||
| ===Coming to prominence=== | |||
| ], ]]] | |||
| 63 BC was an eventful year for Caesar. He persuaded a tribune, ], to prosecute the optimate senator ] for the political murder, 37 years previously, of the tribune ], and had himself appointed as one of the two judges to try the case. Rabirius was defended by both ] and ], but was convicted of '']'' (treason). While he was exercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor ] adjourned the assembly by taking down the military flag from the Janiculum hill. Labienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar's point had been made, and the matter was allowed to drop.<ref>], ''''; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> Labienus would remain an important ally of Caesar over the next decade. | |||
| The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of ], chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of ], who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He ran against two powerful ''optimates'', the former consuls ] and ]. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he would return as Pontifex Maximus or not at all, expecting to be forced into exile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign. In any event he won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing, possibly because the two older men split their votes.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> The post came with an official residence on the ].<ref name="suet46" /> | |||
| When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed ]'s conspiracy to seize control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.<ref>], ''Catiline War'' </ref> Caesar, who had been elected praetor for the following year, took part in the debate in the Senate on how to deal with the conspirators. During the debate, Caesar was passed a note. ], who would become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding with the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud. Caesar passed him the note, which, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato's half-sister ]. Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators were executed.<ref>Cicero, ''Against Catiline'' ; Sallust, ''Catiline War'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Cicero'' , ''Cato the Younger'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> The following year a commission was set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar was again accused of complicity. On Cicero's evidence that he had reported what he knew of the plot voluntarily, however, he was cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, were sent to prison.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| While praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported Metellus Celer, now tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair were so obstinate they were suspended from office by the Senate. Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving way when violence was threatened. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| That year the festival of the ] ("good goddess") was held at Caesar's house. No men were permitted to attend, but a young patrician named ] managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar's wife ]. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege. Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most powerful patrician families of Rome, and Clodius was acquitted after rampant bribery and intimidation. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that "my wife ought not even to be under suspicion."<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern ] (Outer ]), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to ], one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of ], Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania he conquered the ] and ], being hailed as '']'' by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| Being hailed as ''imperator'' entitled Caesar to a ]. However, he also wanted to stand for ], the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand ''in absentia'', but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.<ref>Plutarch, ''Julius'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ==First consulship and triumvirate== | |||
| {{main|First Triumvirate}} | |||
| Three candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had been aedile with Caesar several years earlier, and ]. The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius </ref> | |||
| Caesar was already in ] political debt, but he also made overtures to ], who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the ] (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter ].<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Crassus'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> Caesar also married again, this time ], daughter of ], who was elected to the consulship for the following year.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His ]s had their '']'' broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ], ], ], ], ]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Cato the Younger'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern ] (northern Italy) and ] (the western Balkans), with ] (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. His term of office, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Crassus'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Cato the Younger'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ===Conquest of Gaul=== | |||
| {{Main|Gallic Wars}} | |||
| Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortion<ref>See Cicero's speeches ] for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense.</ref> or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces, ] and ], bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the ] had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of ] ] under ], who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the ] were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ]; Julius Caesar, '']'' ]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| ] with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Caesar.]] | |||
| He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the ] tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the ].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern ]) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and ] populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to his brother Quintus'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Crassus'' , ''Pompey'' </ref> The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the ] in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the ] of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the ] and ] of the coastal Low Countries still held out.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic ] and ], and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing ] of the ] as a friendly king and bringing his rival, ], to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by ] of the ], forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to friends'' ], ], ], ], ]; ''Letters to his brother Quintus'' ], ], ]; ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ]; Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece ] in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband ], but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed ] of ]. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married ], daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Crassus'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| ].|left]] | |||
| In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by ] of the ]. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the ], but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the ] finally forced his surrender.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> Despite scattered outbreaks of ] the following year,<ref>], ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> Gaul was effectively conquered. | |||
| ] was Caesar's most senior ] during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of ].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> Other prominent men who served under him included his relative ],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> Crassus' sons Marcus<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> and Publius,<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> Cicero's brother ],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ] &f.</ref> ],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> and ].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ] &f.</ref> | |||
| Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the ], of whom 1 million died, and another million were ]. 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/lives/chapter48.html|title=Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, by Plutarch (chapter48)}}</ref> Almost the entire population of the city of ] (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered.<ref>{{citebook|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10657/10657.txt|title="De Bello Gallico" & Other Commentaries of Caius Julius Caesar|chapter=Chapter 28|edition=Translated by ]}}</ref> Julius Caesar reports that 368,000 of the ] left home, of whom 92,000 could bear arms, and only 110,000 returned after the campaign.<ref>{{citebook|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10657/10657.txt|title="De Bello Gallico" & Other Commentaries of Caius Julius Caesar|chapter=Chapter 29|edition=Translated by ]}}</ref> However, in view of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common gross exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting Helvetii extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants.<ref>Furger-Gunti, 102.</ref> Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000 men.<ref>H. Delbrück ''Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte'', Vol. 1, 1900, pp. 428 and 459f.</ref> | |||
| ==Military career== | |||
| {{main|Military career of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| Historians place the generalship of Caesar as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians who ever lived, along with ], ], ], ], and ]. Caesar suffered occasional tactical defeats, such as Battle of Gergovia during the Gallic War and the Battle of Dyrrhachium during the Civil War. However, his tactical brilliance was highlighted by such feats as his circumvallation of Alesia during the Gallic War, the rout of Pompey's numerically superior forces at ] during the Civil War, and the complete destruction of Pharnaces' army at Battle of Zela. | |||
| Caesar's successful campaigning in any terrain and under all weather conditions owes much to the strict but fair discipline of his legionaries, whose admiration and devotion to him were proverbial due to his promotion of those of skill over those of nobility. Caesar's infantry and cavalry were first rate, and he made heavy use of formidable Roman artillery and his army's superlative engineering abilities. There was also the legendary speed with which he manoeuvred his troops; Caesar's army sometimes marched as many as {{convert|40|mi|km|0}} a day. His ''Commentaries on the Gallic Wars'' describe how, during the siege of one Gallic city built on a very steep and high plateau, his engineers tunnelled through solid rock, found the source of the spring from which the town was drawing its water supply, and diverted it to the use of the army. The town, cut off from their water supply, capitulated at once. Caesar also used a cipher system to communicate with his generals which has now come to be known as the ]. | |||
| ==Civil war== | |||
| {{Main|Caesar's civil war}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In 50 BC, the Senate, led by ], ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as Proconsul had finished.<ref name=Sue28>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship ''in absentia''.<ref name=Sue28/> Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the ] river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only ] and ignited ]. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Plutarch reports that Caesar quoted the Athenian playwright ] in Greek, saying ''ἀνερρίφθω κύβος'' (let the die be thrown).<ref name=Plu65>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> Suetonius gives the Latin approximation '']'' (the die is thrown).<ref name=Sue32>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily surrendered. An attempted stand by a consulate legion in Samarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the ] surrendering without significant fighting. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his ] with him, Pompey had no intention of fighting. Caesar pursued Pompey to ]um, hoping to capture Pompey before the trapped Senate and their legions could escape.<ref name=Plu35>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> Pompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbour before Caesar could break the barricades. | |||
| Lacking a ] since Pompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for Hispania saying "I set forth to fight an army without a leader, so as later to fight a leader without an army." Leaving ] as prefect of Rome, and the rest of Italy under ] as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to ], rejoining two of his Gallic legions, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in ] where on July 10, 48 BC at ] Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. He decisively defeated Pompey, despite Pompey's numerical advantage (nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry), at ] in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> | |||
| In Rome, Caesar was appointed ],<ref name=Plu37>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> with ] as his ]; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after 11 days and was elected to a second term as consul with ] as his colleague.<ref name=Plu37/> | |||
| ] | |||
| He pursued Pompey to ], where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of ].<ref name=PluPom77>Plutarch, ''Pompey'' </ref> Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the ] ]. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head,<ref>Plutarch, ''Pompey'' </ref> which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain ] as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the ] and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he is suspected of fathering a son, ]. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. | |||
| Caesar and Cleopatra never married: they could not do so under Roman Law. The institution of marriage was only recognised between two Roman citizens; Cleopatra was Queen of Egypt. In Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery, and Caesar is believed to have continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the ]. | |||
| After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the ], where he annihilated King ] in the ]; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory at ] in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide).<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> Nevertheless, Pompey's sons ] and ], together with ], Caesar's former propraetorian legate (''] ]'') and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the ] in March 45 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with ]) and 45 BC (without colleague). | |||
| ===Aftermath of the civil war=== | |||
| <!-- Please do not restore the previous text to this section, which was here in violation of copyright from the original source. On the other hand, please do expand this section to restore the information lost (just not in the same words!) --> | |||
| While he was still campaigning in ], the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar ''in absentia''. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. | |||
| Great games and celebrations were held on April 21 to honour Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grand-nephew ] (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his title. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, ] would be the next heir in succession. | |||
| Caesar tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History | author = Mackay, Christopher S. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2004 | page = 254}}</ref> From 47-44 he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Roman Army, 31 BC-AD 337 | author = Campbell, J. B. | publisher = Routledge | year = 1994 | page = 10}}</ref> | |||
| In 63 BC Caesar had been elected ], and one of his roles as such was settling the calendar. A complete overhaul of the old ] proved to be one of his most long lasting and influential reforms. In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year with a leap year every fourth year.<ref name=Sue40>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> (This ] was subsequently modified by ] in 1582 into the modern ].) As a result of this reform, a certain Roman year (mostly equivalent to 46 BC in the modern calendar) was made 445 days long, to bring the calendar into line with the seasons.<ref name=Sue40/> The month of July is named after Julius in his honour.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| The ], with its ], was built among many other public works. | |||
| All of the pomp, circumstance, and public taxpayers' money being spent incensed certain members of the Roman Senate. One of these was Caesar's closest friend, ]. | |||
| ==Health== | |||
| Based on remarks by Plutarch,<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, ''Julius'' 45.</ref> Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from ]. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and it is more certain that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.<ref>Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla," ''Historia'' 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty," ''Glasgow Medical Journal'' 77 (1912) 428-432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness,” ''Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine'' 51 (1957) 27-30, who prefers ]; and O. Temkin, ''The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology'' (Baltimore 1971), p 162. </ref> | |||
| Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had ]s in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer ] who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of ], which can cause epileptic-like seizures.<ref name="Hughes2004Caesar">{{cite journal|author=Hughes J|title=Dictator Perpetuus: Julius Caesar--did he have seizures? If so, what was the etiology?|journal=Epilepsy Behav|volume=5|issue=5|pages=756–64|year=2004|pmid=5380131 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.05.006}}</ref><ref name="Gomez1995">{{cite journal|author=Gomez J, Kotler J, Long J|title=Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to a brain tumor?|journal=The Journal of the Florida Medical Association|volume=82|issue=3|pages=199–201|year=1995| pmid = 7738524}}</ref><ref name="epilepsiemuseumCaesar">{{cite web|url=http://www.epilepsiemuseum.de/alt/caesaren.html|title=Gaius Julius Caesar|accessdate=2008-08-28|author=H. Schneble|date=]|publisher=German Epilepsy Museum}}</ref> | |||
| ==Assassination== | |||
| ===Assassination plot=== | |||
| {{main|Assassination of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| ]]]Ancient biographers describe the tension between Caesar and the Senate, and his possible claims to the title of king. These events would be the principal motive for Caesar's assassination by his political opponents in the Senate. | |||
| ] records that at one point, Caesar informed the Senate that his honours were more in need of reduction than augmentation, but withdrew this position so as not to appear ungrateful. He was given the title '']'' ("Father of the Fatherland").<ref>Alternate title: ''Parens patriae''</ref> He was appointed dictator a third time, and then nominated for nine consecutive one-year terms as dictator, effectually making him dictator for ten years. He was also given censorial authority as ''praefectus morum'' (prefect of morals) for three years. | |||
| The Senate named Caesar '']'' ("dictator in perpetuity"). Roman mints printed a ] coin with this title and his profile on one side, and with an image of the goddess ] and Caesar's title of ''Augur ]'' on the reverse. While printing the title of dictator was significant, Caesar's image was not, as it was customary to print consuls and other public officials on coins during the Republic. | |||
| According to ], a senatorial delegation went to inform Caesar of new honours they had bestowed upon him in 44 BC. Caesar received them while sitting in the ], rather than rising to meet them. According to Dio, this was a chief excuse for the offended senators to plot his assassination. He wrote that a few of Caesar's supporters blamed his failure to rise on a sudden attack of diarrhoea, but his enemies discounted this in observing that he had walked home unaided. | |||
| ] wrote that Caesar failed to rise in the temple either because he was restrained by Cornelius Balbus or that he balked at the suggestion he should rise.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Suetonius also gave the account of a crowd assembled to greet Caesar upon his return to Rome. A member of the crowd placed a ] on the statue of Caesar on the ]. The ]s ] and ] ordered that the wreath be removed as it was a symbol of Jupiter and royalty. Caesar had the tribunes censored from office through his official powers.<ref name=Plu61>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> According to Suetonius, he was unable to disassociate himself with the title of monarch from this point forward.<ref name=Sue79.2>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> His biographer also gives the story that a crowd shouted to him "''rex''", the Latin word for king. Caesar replied, "I am Caesar, not Rex",<ref name=Sue79.2/> a pun on the Roman name coming from the title. Also, at the ] of the ], while he gave a speech from the Rostra, ], who had been elected co-consul with Caesar, attempted to place a crown on his head several times. Caesar put it aside to be used as a sacrifice to ''] Opitimus Maximus''.<ref name=Plu61/> | |||
| Plutarch and Suetonius are similar in their depiction of these events, but Dio combines the stories writing that the tribunes arrested the citizens who placed diadems or wreaths on statues of Caesar. He then places the crowd shouting ''"rex"'' on the Alban Hill with the tribunes arresting a member of this crowd as well. The plebeian protested that he was unable to speak his mind freely. Caesar then brought the tribunes before the senate and put the matter to a vote, thereafter removing them from office and erasing their names from the records. | |||
| Suetonius adds that Lucius Cotta proposed to the Senate that Caesar should be granted the title of "king" for it was prophesied that only a king would conquer ].<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Caesar intended to invade Parthia, a task which would later give considerable trouble to Mark Antony during the second triumvirate. | |||
| ] began to conspire against Caesar with his friend and brother-in-law ] and other men, calling themselves the '']'' ("Liberators"). Many plans were discussed by the group, as documented by ]: | |||
| {{cquote|The conspirators never met openly, but they assembled a few at a time in each other's homes. There were many discussions and proposals, as might be expected, while they investigated how and where to execute their design. Some suggested that they should make the attempt as he was going along the ], which was one of his favorite walks. Another idea was for it to be done at the elections during which he had to cross a bridge to appoint the magistrates in the ]; they should draw lots for some to push him from the bridge and for others to run up and kill him. A third plan was to wait for a coming gladiatorial show. The advantage of that would be that, because of the show, no suspicion would be aroused if arms were seen prepared for the attempt. But the majority opinion favoured killing him while he sat in the ], where he would be by himself since only Senators would be admitted, and where the many conspirators could hide their ]s beneath their ]s. This plan won the day.}} | |||
| Nicolaus also writes that in the days leading up to the assassination, Caesar was told by doctors, friends, and even his wife, Calpurnia, not to attend the Senate on the Ides for various reasons, including medical concerns and troubling dreams had by Calpurnia: | |||
| {{cquote | |||
| |...his friends were alarmed at certain rumors and tried to stop him going to the Senate-house, as did his doctors, for he was suffering from one of his occasional dizzy spells. His wife, Calpurnia, especially, who was frightened by some visions in her dreams, clung to him and said that she would not let him go out that day. But Brutus, one of the conspirators who was then thought of as a firm friend, came up and said, 'What is this, Caesar? Are you a man to pay attention to a woman's dreams and the idle gossip of stupid men, and to insult the Senate by not going out, although it has honoured you and has been specially summoned by you? But listen to me, cast aside the forebodings of all these people, and come. The Senate has been in session waiting for you since early this morning.' This swayed Caesar and he left.}} | |||
| Caesar planned to leave Rome for the East in the latter half of March, which forced a timetable onto the conspirators. Two days before the actual assassination, Cassius met with the conspirators and told them that, should anyone discover the plan, they were to turn their knives on themselves. | |||
| ===Assassination=== | |||
| {{see also|Assassination of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| On the ] (March 15; see ]) of 44 BC, a group of senators called Caesar to the forum for the purpose of reading a petition, written by the senators, asking him to hand power back to the Senate. However, the petition was a fake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/web/webpages.nsf/WebFiles/ASPG+2007+-+Palmieri/$FILE/Palmieri.pdf|title=Petition effectiveness: improving citizens’ direct access to parliament|format=PDF|publisher=Parliament of Western Australia|accessdate=2008-08-28}}</ref> ], having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified ''Liberator'' named ], and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off at the steps of the forum. However, the group of senators intercepted Caesar just as he was passing the ], located in the ], and directed him to a room adjoining the east portico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Theatrum_Pompei.html|title=Theatrum Pompei|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=2008-08-28}}</ref> | |||
| ] bust of Caesar.]] | |||
| As Caesar began to read the false petition, ], who had handed him the petition, pulled down Caesar's ]. According to ], Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("''Ista quidem vis est!''").<ref name = "suetonius">Suetonius, ''Life of the Caesars, Julius'' trans. J C Rolfe </ref> At the same time, the aforementioned ] produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to ], he said in Latin, "Casca, you ], what are you doing?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Caesar'', ch. 66: "{{polytonic|ὁ μεν πληγείς, Ῥωμαιστί· 'Μιαρώτατε Κάσκα, τί ποιεῖς;}}'"</ref> Casca, frightened, shouted "Help, brother!" in Greek ("{{polytonic|ἀδελφέ, βοήθει!}}", "''adelphe, boethei!''"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to ], around sixty or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.<ref>Woolf Greg (2006), ''Et Tu Brute? - The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination'', 199 pages - ISBN 1-8619-7741-7 </ref> According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'', c. 82.</ref> | |||
| The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the ] phrase "{{polytonic|καὶ σύ, τέκνον;}}"<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> (transliterated as "''Kai su, teknon?''": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius himself says Caesar said nothing.<ref name = "suetonius" /> Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> The version best known in the English-speaking world is the ] phrase "'']''" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus");<ref>{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Jon R.|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2005|pages=250|isbn=0415969093}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Morwood|first=James|title=The Pocket Oxford Latin Dictionary (Latin-English)|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|date=1994|chapter=|isbn=0198602839 }}</ref> this derives from Shakespeare's '']'', where it actually forms the first half of a ] line: "''Et tu, Brute?'' Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assumption that Caesar would have been using the language, but because the phrase was already popular at the time the play was written.<ref> It appears, for example, in Richard Eedes' Latin play ''Caesar Interfectus'' of 1582 and ''The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke &tc'' of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. {{cite book |title=The Works of William Shakespeare |last=Dyce |first=Alexander |authorlink= Alexander Dyce|coauthors=(quoting ]) |year= 1866|publisher=Chapman and Hall |location= London|isbn= |pages= p 648|url= }}</ref> | |||
| <!-- Greek and Latin translation by J C Rolfe of Harvard University Press. Et can also mean too, when it is used as an adverb. see Lewis & Short Latin dictionary--> | |||
| According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'', 67</ref> Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!". They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. | |||
| A wax statue of Caesar was erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had amassed there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. In the ensuing chaos ], ], and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire. | |||
| ===Aftermath of the assassination=== | |||
| ] of Julius Caesar'' as represented in a 16th century ].]] | |||
| The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of high-browed aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony did not give the speech that Shakespeare penned for him more than 1600 years later ("]"), but he did give a dramatic eulogy that appealed to the common people, a reflection of public opinion following Caesar's murder. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the ], perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. But, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius ] his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name as well as making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Gaius Octavian became, for all intents and purposes, the son of the great Caesar, and consequently also inherited the loyalty of much of the Roman populace. Octavian, aged only 19 at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with ] in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. | |||
| In order to combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against. With the passage of the ''lex Titia'' on November 27, 43 BC,<ref>{{cite book | title = Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire | author = Osgood, Josiah | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | page = 60}}</ref> the ] was officially formed, comprised of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander ].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' ; Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> It formally deified Caesar as ] Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became ''Divi filius'' ("Son of a god").<ref>{{cite book | title = Roman Religion | author = Warrior, Valerie M. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | page = 110 | isbn = 0521825113}}</ref> Seeing that Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back the horror of ], abandoned since ].<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> It engaged in the legally-sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents in order to secure funding for its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient Rome: An Introductory History | author = Zoch, Paul A. | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | year = 200 | page = 217-218| isbn = 0806132876}}</ref> Antony and Octavius defeated them at ].<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' ; Appian, ''The Civil Wars'' </ref> | |||
| Afterward, Mark Antony married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at ], resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to status of a deity.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> | |||
| Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade ], the ] and ], and then swing back onto ] through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. | |||
| ==Literary works== | |||
| Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.<ref>Cicero, ''Brutus'', 252.</ref> Among his most famous works were his funeral oration for his paternal aunt ] and his '']'', a document written to blacken ] reputation and respond to Cicero's ''Cato'' memorial. Unfortunately, the majority of his works and speeches have been lost. | |||
| ===Memoirs=== | |||
| ]'', an account written by Julius Caesar about his nine years of war in Gaul.]] | |||
| * The '']'' (''Commentaries on the ]''), campaigns in Gallia and Britannia during his term as ]; and | |||
| * The '']'' (''Commentaries on the ]''), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt. | |||
| Other works historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are: | |||
| * '']'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria; | |||
| * '']'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa; and | |||
| * '']'' (''On the Hispanic War''), campaigns in the Iberian peninsula. | |||
| These narratives were written and published on a yearly basis during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's ''Commentarii'' are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact highly sophisticated and subtly slanted advertisements for his political agenda, aimed most particularly at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats in Rome, Italy, and the provinces. | |||
| ==Name== | |||
| {{main|Etymology of the name of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| Using the ] as it existed in the day of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or "U"), Caesar's name is properly rendered "GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR". The form "CAIVS" is also attested using the old Roman pronunciation of letter C as G; it is an antique form of the more common "GAIVS". It is often seen abbreviated to "C. IVLIVS CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a ], which is often encountered in Latin ]s where it was used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters "ae".) In Classical Latin, it was {{pronounced|ˈgaːius ˈjuːlius ˈkaisar}}.<ref>Note that the first name, like the second, is properly pronounced in three syllables, not two. See ].</ref> In the days of the late ], many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to ] for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, ]. In ], during Caesar's time, his family name was written ''Καίσαρ'', reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German ]. This German name was phonemically but not phonetically derived from the ] ], in which the familiar part "Caesar" is {{IPA|}}, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived, as well as the title of ]. His name is also remembered in ], where he is manifested as the legendary king ].<ref name="carlaz">{{PDFlink||308 KB}}</ref> | |||
| ==Family== | |||
| {{main|Julio-Claudian family tree}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Parents=== | |||
| * Father ] | |||
| * Mother ] (related to the ]) | |||
| ===Sisters=== | |||
| *] (the elder) | |||
| *] (the younger) | |||
| ===Wives=== | |||
| * First marriage to ], from 83 BC until her death in childbirth in 69 or 68 BC | |||
| * Second marriage to ], from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC | |||
| * Third marriage to ], from 59 BC until Caesar's death | |||
| ===Children=== | |||
| * ] with Cornelia Cinnilla, born in 83 or 82 BC | |||
| * ], with ], born 47 BC. He would become ] with the name Ptolemy Caesar and was killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavian | |||
| * '''Adopted''': son, ] (his great-nephew by blood), who later became Emperor Augustus. | |||
| * ]: The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.<ref>"Considering that Brutus was | |||
| born about that time in which their loves were at the highest, Caesar had a belief that he was his own child": {{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/plivs10.txt|title=Marcus Brutus|last=Plutarch|coauthors=Translated A. H. Clough|date=1996|work=The Project Gutenberg Etext of Plutarch's Lives|publisher=Project Gutenberg|accessdate=2008-07-14}}</ref> | |||
| ===Grandchildren=== | |||
| * Grandson from ] and ], dead at several days, unnamed. | |||
| ===Lovers=== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] mother of Brutus | |||
| * Eunoë, queen of ] and wife of ]es | |||
| ===Notable relatives=== | |||
| * ] (married to his Aunt Julia) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ], a ] of the ] at the time of the ] of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the Gallic war.<ref>], '']'' ]</ref> | |||
| ===Political rivals and rumours of homosexual activity=== | |||
| Roman society viewed the passive role during sex, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."<ref name=""Seut.1.49>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> According to Cicero, ], ], and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with ] early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate and degrade him. It is possible that the rumors were spread only as a form of character assassination. Caesar himself, according to ], denied the accusations under oath.<ref name="Seut.1.2">Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek & Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than the conservative traditions of the Romans. | |||
| ] wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer ] were lovers,<ref>], ''Carmina'' , </ref> but later apologised.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ] charged that ] had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political ]. The boy Octavian was to become the first Roman emperor following Caesar's death.<ref name="Seut.2.68">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' , </ref> | |||
| ==Chronology of his life== | |||
| {{Timeline Julius Caesar}} | |||
| ==Honours and titles== | |||
| As a young man he was awarded the Corona Civica (]) for valour while fighting in ] and went on to receive many honours. These included titles such as ] (Father of the Fatherland), and ]. He was also elected ] in ]. The many titles bestowed on him by the Senate are sometimes cited as a cause of his assassination, as it seemed inappropriate to many contemporaries for a man to be awarded so many honours. | |||
| He was voted the title ] ("god") after his death. He was included as one of the ] by Jacques de Longuyon in his Voeux du Paon (1312). These were nine historical, scriptural, mythological or semi-legendary figures who, in the Middle Ages, were believed to personify the ideals of chivalry. | |||
| Caesar's ] would become a title; it was greatly promulgated by the ], by the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s". The title became the German ] and Slavic ]/Czar. The last tsar in nominal power was ] whose reign ended in 1946; for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. | |||
| ==Depictions== | |||
| {{main|Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| ''For the marble bust from Arles discovered in 2007-8 alleged to be Caesar's likeness, and the ensuing controversy, see ].'' | |||
| <gallery> | |||
| Image:Hw-caesar.jpg|Bust in ], photograph published in 1902 | |||
| Image:C. Julius-Caesar (British Museum).gif|Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Museum | |||
| Image:Rimini083.jpg|Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, ], Italy | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ===Primary sources=== | |||
| {{sisterlinks}} | |||
| ====Own writings==== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * in Latin and translation | |||
| * Hypertext of Caesar's De Bello Gallico | |||
| * {{gutenberg author|id=Julius+Caesar | name=Julius Caesar}} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ====Ancient historians' writings==== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * (English translation, Dryden edition) | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * . (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe) | |||
| * (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified) | |||
| </div> | |||
| ===Secondary sources=== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| *{{citebook|author=Canfora, Luciano|title=Julius Caesar: The People's Dictator|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-748-61936-4}} | |||
| *{{citebook |title=Julius Caesar |author=Freeman, Philip |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2008 |isbn=0-743-28953-6}} | |||
| *{{citebook|author=Goldsworthy, Adrian|title=Caesar: Life of a Colossus|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-300-12048-6}} | |||
| *{{citebook|author=Holland, Tom|title=Rubicon: The Last Years Of The Roman Republic|publisher=Anchor Books|year=2003|isbn=1-4000-7897-0}} | |||
| *{{citebook|author=Jiménez, Ramon L.|title=Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War|publisher=Praeger|year=2000|isbn=0-275-96620-8}} | |||
| *{{citebook|author=Kleiner, Diana E. E.|title=Cleopatra and Rome|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01905-9}} | |||
| *{{citebook|author=Meier, Christian|title=Caesar: A Biography|publisher=Fontana Press|year=1996|isbn=0-006-86349-3}} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Spoken Misplaced Pages-3|2007-01-10|Jcaesar-pt1.ogg|Jcaesar-pt2.ogg|Jcaesar-pt3.ogg}} | |||
| * Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius. Org) | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * at | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Succession table== | |||
| {{start box}} | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of the ]|before=] and <br />]||after=] and ]|years=''with ]''<br />59 BC | |||
| }} <!-- End of 8th up/ 1st counting down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of the ]|before=] and ]||after=] <br />and ]|years=''with ]''<br />48 BC | |||
| }} <!-- End of 7th up/ 2nd down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of the ]|before=] <br />and ]||after=Gaius Julius Caesar <br /></b>''alone without colleague<b>''|years=''with ]''<br />46 BC | |||
| }} <!-- End of 6th up/ 3rd down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of the ]|before=Gaius Julius Caesar <br />and ]||after=Gaius Julius Caesar <br />and ]|years=''alone without colleague''<br />45 BC | |||
| }} <!-- 5th up/ 4th down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of the ]|before=Gaius Julius Caesar <br /></b>''alone without colleague''<b> ||after=] and <br />]|years=''with ]''<br />44 BC | |||
| }}<!--End of 4th up/ 5th down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box | |||
| |title=] of the ] | |||
| |before=], then lapsed||after=none, term limited <br />to 6 months normally|years=46 BC-44 BC | |||
| }} <!--End of 3rd up/ 6th down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=(military title— see note following)<br />] of the ]|before=||after= (Imperium 'ends' with ])| |years=60 BC | |||
| }} <!-- 2nd up/ 7th down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of the ]|before=||after= |years=45 BC | |||
| }} <!-- 1st counting up/ 8th counting down | |||
| ---> | |||
| {{succession box|title=] of ] |before=]|after=] |years=63-44 BC}} | |||
| {{end box}}<small> | |||
| ;Note on Imperator "honor" and title. In the ], ''imperator'' was the title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander ''imperator'', an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the ] for a ]. After being acclaimed ''imperator'', the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his ], where he would relinquish the title as well as his ].</small></div> | |||
| {{Roman religion}} | |||
| {{Plutarch}} | |||
| {{Rulers known as "the Great"}} | |||
| {{Ancient Greek and Roman Wars}} | |||
| <!-- Metadata: see ] --> | |||
| {{Persondata | |||
| |NAME=Caesar, Gaius Julius | |||
| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Julius Caesar | |||
| |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Roman dictator | |||
| |DATE OF BIRTH=July 12, 100 BC | |||
| |PLACE OF BIRTH=], ] | |||
| |DATE OF DEATH=March 15, 44 BC | |||
| |PLACE OF DEATH=], ] | |||
| }} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Caesar, Julius}} | |||
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Revision as of 15:11, 8 January 2009
Julius Caesar was da man!