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{{Campaignbox Texas Revolution}} {{Campaignbox Texas Revolution}}


The '''Battle of the Alamo''' (February 23 – March 6, 1836) is the most famous battle of the ]. After an insurgent army of ] settlers and adventurers from the United States drove all Mexican troops out of ], Mexican President ] led an invasion to regain control of the area. Mexican forces arrived in ] on February 23 and initiated ] of the Texian forces garrisoned at the ]. The '''Battle of the Alamo''' (February 23 – March 6, 1836) is the most famous battle of the ]. After an insurgent army of ] settlers and adventurers from the United States drove all Mexican troops out of ], Mexican President ] led an invasion to regain control of the area. Mexican forces arrived in ] on February 23 and initiated ] of the Texan forces garrisoned at the ].


In the early morning hours of March 6 the Mexican army launched an assault on the Alamo. The outnumbered Texians repulsed two attacks, but were unable to fend off a third. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texian soldiers retreated into the long barracks or the chapel. Several small groups who were unable to reach these points attempted to escape and were killed outside the walls by the waiting Mexican cavalry. The Mexican soldiers fought room-to-room and soon had control over the Alamo. Between five and seven Texians may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed on Santa Anna's orders. Most eyewitness accounts reported between 182 and 257 Texian dead, while most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. Of the Texians who fought during the battle, only two survived: Joe, spared because he was a slave, and Brigido Guerrero, a Mexican Army deserter who convinced Mexican soldiers he had been imprisoned. Women and children, primarily family members of the Texian soldiers, were questioned by Santa Anna and then released. In the early morning hours of March 6 the Mexican army launched an assault on the Alamo. The outnumbered Texans repulsed two attacks, but were unable to fend off a third. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texan soldiers retreated into the long barracks or the chapel. Several small groups who were unable to reach these points attempted to escape and were killed outside the walls by the waiting Mexican cavalry. The Mexican soldiers fought room-to-room and soon had control over the Alamo. Between five and seven Texans may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed on Santa Anna's orders. Most eyewitness accounts reported between 182 and 257 Texan dead, while most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. Of the Texans who fought during the battle, only two survived: Joe, spared because he was a slave, and Brigido Guerrero, a Mexican Army deserter who convinced Mexican soldiers he had been imprisoned. Women and children, primarily family members of the Texan soldiers, were questioned by Santa Anna and then released.


On Santa Anna's orders, three of the survivors were sent to ] to spread word of the Texian defeat. After hearing this news, Texian army commander ] ordered a retreat; this sparked the ], a mass exodus of citizens and the Texas government towards the east (away from the Mexican army). News of the Alamo's fall prompted many Texas colonists to join Houston's army. On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's forces in the ]. During the battle many Texians shouted "Remember the Alamo!" Santa Anna was captured and forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the area, which subsequently became the ]. On Santa Anna's orders, three of the survivors were sent to ] to spread word of the Texan defeat. After hearing this news, Texan army commander ] ordered a retreat; this sparked the ], a mass exodus of citizens and the Texas government towards the east (away from the Mexican army). News of the Alamo's fall prompted many Texas colonists to join Houston's army. On the afternoon of April 21 the Texan army attacked Santa Anna's forces in the ]. During the battle many Texans shouted "Remember the Alamo!" Santa Anna was captured and forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the area, which subsequently became the ].


By March 24 a list of names of the Texians who died at the Alamo had begun to be compiled. The first history of the battle was published in 1843, but serious study of the battle did not begin until after the 1931 publication of Amelia W. Williams's ] attempting to identify all of the Texians who died at the Alamo. The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was published in 1948. The battle was first depicted in film in the 1911 silent film '']'', and has since been featured in numerous movies, including one directed by ]. The Alamo church building has been designated an official Texas state shrine, with the ] acting as permanent caretakers. By March 24 a list of names of the Texans who died at the Alamo had begun to be compiled. The first history of the battle was published in 1843, but serious study of the battle did not begin until after the 1931 publication of Amelia W. Williams's ] attempting to identify all of the Texans who died at the Alamo. The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was published in 1948. The battle was first depicted in film in the 1911 silent film '']'', and has since been featured in numerous movies, including one directed by ]. The Alamo church building has been designated an official Texas state shrine, with the ] acting as permanent caretakers.


==Background== ==Background==
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In 1835 ] across Mexico began to revolt against the increasingly dictatorial reign of President ].<ref name=todish6>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 6.</ref> In October, settlers in ] launched an armed uprising against the Mexican government.<ref name=barr56/> Santa Anna immediately began preparations to invade Texas and end the ].<ref name=hardin98>Hardin (1994), p. 98.</ref> His invasion force, named the Army of Operations in Texas, was comprised primarily of raw recruits,<ref name=hardin99>Hardin (1994), p. 99.</ref> including ]s and convicts.<ref name=todish20>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 20.</ref> In 1835 ] across Mexico began to revolt against the increasingly dictatorial reign of President ].<ref name=todish6>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 6.</ref> In October, settlers in ] launched an armed uprising against the Mexican government.<ref name=barr56/> Santa Anna immediately began preparations to invade Texas and end the ].<ref name=hardin98>Hardin (1994), p. 98.</ref> His invasion force, named the Army of Operations in Texas, was comprised primarily of raw recruits,<ref name=hardin99>Hardin (1994), p. 99.</ref> including ]s and convicts.<ref name=todish20>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 20.</ref>


As Santa Anna assembled his forces in Mexico, the ]s systematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. After the surrender of Santa Anna's brother-in-law, General ], on December 9, no Mexican troops remained in Texas.<ref name=barr56>Barr (1990), p. 56.</ref> Unprepared for a long campaign, many Texas settlers had left the ]; by the time Cos surrendered, the Texian Army was dominated by recent arrivals to the region, primarily adventurers from the United States. According to historian Alwyn Barr, their presence "contributed to the Mexican view that Texian opposition stemmed from outside influences".<ref name=barr63>Barr (1990), p. 63.</ref> As Santa Anna assembled his forces in Mexico, the ]s systematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. After the surrender of Santa Anna's brother-in-law, General ], on December 9, no Mexican troops remained in Texas.<ref name=barr56>Barr (1990), p. 56.</ref> Unprepared for a long campaign, many Texas settlers had left the ]; by the time Cos surrendered, the Texan Army was dominated by recent arrivals to the region, primarily adventurers from the United States. According to historian Alwyn Barr, their presence "contributed to the Mexican view that Texan opposition stemmed from outside influences".<ref name=barr63>Barr (1990), p. 63.</ref>


Angered by what he perceived as American interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Anna directed the Mexican Congress to authorize the army to treat any foreigners found fighting in Texas as ]s. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war; in this time period, captured pirates were executed immediately.<ref name=scott71>Scott (2000), p. 71.</ref> Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States President ]. The letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the American recruits serving in the Texian Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war.<ref name=scott74and75>Scott (2000), pp. 74&ndash;5.</ref> Angered by what he perceived as American interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Anna directed the Mexican Congress to authorize the army to treat any foreigners found fighting in Texas as ]s. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war; in this time period, captured pirates were executed immediately.<ref name=scott71>Scott (2000), p. 71.</ref> Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States President ]. The letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the American recruits serving in the Texan Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war.<ref name=scott74and75>Scott (2000), pp. 74&ndash;5.</ref>


When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Bexar (now ]), Texian soldiers established a garrison at the ], a former ] now used as a makeshift fort.<ref name=edmondson129/> Described by Santa Anna as an "irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name",<ref name=edmondson129>Edmondson (2000), p. 129.</ref> the Alamo had been designed to withstand an attack by native tribes, not artillery.<ref name=edmondson128>Edmondson (2000), p. 128.</ref> The complex sprawled across {{convert|3|acre|ha}}, providing almost {{convert|1320|ft|m}} of perimeter to be defended.<ref name=edmondson131/> An interior plaza was bordered on the west by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks.<ref name=myers181/> A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings.<ref name=todish10>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 10.</ref> The east side of the plaza contained the two-story Long Barracks, formerly the convent.<ref name=myers181>Myers (1948), p. 181.</ref> At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen, with a horse corral between it and the plaza.<ref name=edmondson364>Edmondson (2000), p. 364.</ref> The walls surrounding the complex were at least {{convert|2.75|ft|m}} thick and ranged from 9&ndash;12&nbsp;ft (2.7&ndash;3.7&nbsp;m) high.<ref name=myers180>Myers (1948), p. 180.</ref><ref group=Note>The plaza covered an area {{convert|75|ft|m}} long and {{convert|62|ft|m}} wide. The Low Barracks was {{convert|114|ft|m}} long, and the Long Barracks was {{convert|186|ft|m}} long and {{convert|18|ft|m}} wide. (Myers (1948), pp. 180&ndash;1.)</ref> When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Bexar (now ]), Texan soldiers established a garrison at the ], a former ] now used as a makeshift fort.<ref name=edmondson129/> Described by Santa Anna as an "irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name",<ref name=edmondson129>Edmondson (2000), p. 129.</ref> the Alamo had been designed to withstand an attack by native tribes, not artillery.<ref name=edmondson128>Edmondson (2000), p. 128.</ref> The complex sprawled across {{convert|3|acre|ha}}, providing almost {{convert|1320|ft|m}} of perimeter to be defended.<ref name=edmondson131/> An interior plaza was bordered on the west by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks.<ref name=myers181/> A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings.<ref name=todish10>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 10.</ref> The east side of the plaza contained the two-story Long Barracks, formerly the convent.<ref name=myers181>Myers (1948), p. 181.</ref> At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen, with a horse corral between it and the plaza.<ref name=edmondson364>Edmondson (2000), p. 364.</ref> The walls surrounding the complex were at least {{convert|2.75|ft|m}} thick and ranged from 9&ndash;12&nbsp;ft (2.7&ndash;3.7&nbsp;m) high.<ref name=myers180>Myers (1948), p. 180.</ref><ref group=Note>The plaza covered an area {{convert|75|ft|m}} long and {{convert|62|ft|m}} wide. The Low Barracks was {{convert|114|ft|m}} long, and the Long Barracks was {{convert|186|ft|m}} long and {{convert|18|ft|m}} wide. (Myers (1948), pp. 180&ndash;1.)</ref>


Texian engineer Green B. Jameson made many improvements to the fortifications.<ref name=todish31/> To compensate for a lack of firing ports, Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, would leave the shooter's upper body exposed.<ref name=edmondson131>Edmondson (2000), p. 131.</ref> Mexican forces had left behind 19&nbsp;cannon, including an 18-pounder, which Jameson installed along the walls. He boasted to Texian army commander ] that the Texians could "whip 10 to 1 with our artillery".<ref name=hardin111>Hardin (1994), p. 111.</ref> Texan engineer Green B. Jameson made many improvements to the fortifications.<ref name=todish31/> To compensate for a lack of firing ports, Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, would leave the shooter's upper body exposed.<ref name=edmondson131>Edmondson (2000), p. 131.</ref> Mexican forces had left behind 19&nbsp;cannon, including an 18-pounder, which Jameson installed along the walls. He boasted to Texan army commander ] that the Texans could "whip 10 to 1 with our artillery".<ref name=hardin111>Hardin (1994), p. 111.</ref>


The Texian garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100&nbsp;soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836.<ref name=todish29>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 29.</ref> Colonel ], the acting Alamo commander, wrote to the ]: "If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it".<ref name=todish29/> Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely unable to withstand a siege greater than four days.<ref name=todish29/><ref name=todish30>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 30.</ref> The Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance.<ref name=todish31>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 31.</ref><ref group=Note> A week after Neill sent his letter, the Texian provisional legislature impeached ], who in turn disbanded the legislature. The interim constitution had given neither party the authority to take those actions, and no one in Texas was entirely sure who was in charge. (Todish ''et al'' (1998), pp. 30&ndash;1.)</ref> Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army;<ref group=Note> Houston, ], ], and Dr. James Grant (Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 30.)</ref> on Janury 14 Neill approached Houston for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition.<ref name=todish31/> The Texan garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100&nbsp;soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836.<ref name=todish29>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 29.</ref> Colonel ], the acting Alamo commander, wrote to the ]: "If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it".<ref name=todish29/> Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely unable to withstand a siege greater than four days.<ref name=todish29/><ref name=todish30>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 30.</ref> The Texan government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance.<ref name=todish31>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 31.</ref><ref group=Note> A week after Neill sent his letter, the Texan provisional legislature impeached ], who in turn disbanded the legislature. The interim constitution had given neither party the authority to take those actions, and no one in Texas was entirely sure who was in charge. (Todish ''et al'' (1998), pp. 30&ndash;1.)</ref> Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army;<ref group=Note> Houston, ], ], and Dr. James Grant (Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 30.)</ref> on Janury 14 Neill approached Houston for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition.<ref name=todish31/>


==Prelude to battle== ==Prelude to battle==
] arrived at the ] on January 19 with orders to destroy the complex.<ref name=hopewell112>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;112.</ref> He instead became the garrison's co-commader.]] ] arrived at the ] on January 19 with orders to destroy the complex.<ref name=hopewell112>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;112.</ref> He instead became the garrison's co-commader.]]
Realizing that it would be difficult for the Texians to hold the Alamo, Houston ordered Colonel ] to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex.<ref name=todish31/> Bowie soon discovered that the Alamo garrison lacked draft animals, making it impossible to transport the artillery. Neill was unwilling to abandon the fortress and persuaded Bowie of the location's strategic importance.<ref name=hopewell114>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;114.</ref> In a letter to Governor ], Bowie argued that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Bexar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine."<ref name=hopewell115/><ref group=Note>The ] marked the eastern border of Mexican Texas.</ref> The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy."<ref name=hopewell115>Hopewell (1994), p. 115.</ref> Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder".<ref name=hopewell115/> Smith ordered a cavalry officer, ], to reinforce the Alamo. Travis arrived in Bexar with 30&nbsp;men on February 3. Five days later, ] arrived.<ref name=hardin117>Hardin (1994), p. 117.</ref> Realizing that it would be difficult for the Texans to hold the Alamo, Houston ordered Colonel ] to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex.<ref name=todish31/> Bowie soon discovered that the Alamo garrison lacked draft animals, making it impossible to transport the artillery. Neill was unwilling to abandon the fortress and persuaded Bowie of the location's strategic importance.<ref name=hopewell114>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;114.</ref> In a letter to Governor ], Bowie argued that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Bexar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine."<ref name=hopewell115/><ref group=Note>The ] marked the eastern border of Mexican Texas.</ref> The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy."<ref name=hopewell115>Hopewell (1994), p. 115.</ref> Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder".<ref name=hopewell115/> Smith ordered a cavalry officer, ], to reinforce the Alamo. Travis arrived in Bexar with 30&nbsp;men on February 3. Five days later, ] arrived.<ref name=hardin117>Hardin (1994), p. 117.</ref>


On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, likely to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies for the garrison.<Ref name=todish32>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 32.</ref> He transitioned command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison.<ref name=hopewell115/> Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader.<ref group=Note>Volunteers in the Texian Army asserted the right to choose their own leaders; most were unwilling to serve under officers in the regular army.</ref> The men instead elected Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated his election by getting very drunk and creating havoc in Bexar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis.<ref name=todish32/><ref name=hopewell116>Hopewell (1994), p. 116.</ref><ref name=hardin120>Hardin (1994), p. 120.</ref> On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, likely to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies for the garrison.<Ref name=todish32>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 32.</ref> He transitioned command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison.<ref name=hopewell115/> Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader.<ref group=Note>Volunteers in the Texan Army asserted the right to choose their own leaders; most were unwilling to serve under officers in the regular army.</ref> The men instead elected Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated his election by getting very drunk and creating havoc in Bexar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis.<ref name=todish32/><ref name=hopewell116>Hopewell (1994), p. 116.</ref><ref name=hardin120>Hardin (1994), p. 120.</ref>


] led Mexican troops into Texas in 1836.]] ] led Mexican troops into Texas in 1836.]]
The Texians were unaware that Santa Anna had begun invasion preparations the year before.<ref name=meyers131>Meyers (1948), p. 131.</ref> By late December, however, the Mexican Army of Operations had begun marching north;<ref name=hardin102>Hardin (1994), p. 102.</ref> on February 12 they crossed the ].<ref name=lord73>Lord (1961), p. 73.</ref> Progress was slow, and rations ran short.<ref name=hardin103>Hardin (1994), p. 103.</ref> Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15&ndash;16&nbsp;inches (38&ndash;41&nbsp;cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, and ] raiding parties took a large toll on the Mexican soldiers.<ref name=hardin105>Hardin (1994), p. 105.</ref> The Texans were unaware that Santa Anna had begun invasion preparations the year before.<ref name=meyers131>Meyers (1948), p. 131.</ref> By late December, however, the Mexican Army of Operations had begun marching north;<ref name=hardin102>Hardin (1994), p. 102.</ref> on February 12 they crossed the ].<ref name=lord73>Lord (1961), p. 73.</ref> Progress was slow, and rations ran short.<ref name=hardin103>Hardin (1994), p. 103.</ref> Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15&ndash;16&nbsp;inches (38&ndash;41&nbsp;cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, and ] raiding parties took a large toll on the Mexican soldiers.<ref name=hardin105>Hardin (1994), p. 105.</ref>


As early as February 16, residents of Bexar began warning the Texians of the Mexican approach.<ref name=lord86and87>Lord (1961), pp. 86&ndash;7.</ref> Travis disregarded the rumors.<ref name=hardin121>Hardin (1994), p. 121.</ref> On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of the ], {{convert|25|mi|km}} from Bexar.<ref name=lord89>Lord (1961), p. 89.</ref><ref name=todish36/> With no idea that the Mexican army was so close, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Bexar residents at a fiesta on February 22 to celebrate ] birthday.<ref name=nofi76>Nofi (1992), p. 76.</ref> After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered General Ramirez y Sesma to seize the unprotected Alamo; sudden rains halted the raid.<ref name=todish36>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 36.</ref> As early as February 16, residents of Bexar began warning the Texans of the Mexican approach.<ref name=lord86and87>Lord (1961), pp. 86&ndash;7.</ref> Travis disregarded the rumors.<ref name=hardin121>Hardin (1994), p. 121.</ref> On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of the ], {{convert|25|mi|km}} from Bexar.<ref name=lord89>Lord (1961), p. 89.</ref><ref name=todish36/> With no idea that the Mexican army was so close, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Bexar residents at a fiesta on February 22 to celebrate ] birthday.<ref name=nofi76>Nofi (1992), p. 76.</ref> After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered General Ramirez y Sesma to seize the unprotected Alamo; sudden rains halted the raid.<ref name=todish36>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 36.</ref>


==Siege== ==Siege==
{{main|Siege of the Alamo}} {{main|Siege of the Alamo}}
===Investment=== ===Investment===
Unlike Travis, Bexar residents believed that the Mexican army would arrive imminently. On February 23, the town emptied as residents fled. Travis stationed one of his soldiers in the ] bell tower to watch for any signs of the Mexican army. Several hours later, he sent several men to scout the surrounding area; they returned quickly, having seen Mexican troops {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} outside the town.<ref name=nofi76/> The garrison was completely unprepared for the Mexican army arrival.<ref name=edmondson299>Edmondson (2000), p. 299.</ref> The Texians quickly herded cattle into the Alamo and scrounged for food in some of the recently abandoned houses.<ref name=edmondson301>Edmondson (2000), p. 301.</ref> A few members of the garrison brought their families into the Alamo for safety. Among these were Alamaron Dickinson, who fetched his wife ] and their daughter Angelina, and Bowie, who brought his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro and ] and Alsbury's young son into the fort.<ref name=lord95>Lord (1961), p. 95.</ref> Unlike Travis, Bexar residents believed that the Mexican army would arrive imminently. On February 23, the town emptied as residents fled. Travis stationed one of his soldiers in the ] bell tower to watch for any signs of the Mexican army. Several hours later, he sent several men to scout the surrounding area; they returned quickly, having seen Mexican troops {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} outside the town.<ref name=nofi76/> The garrison was completely unprepared for the Mexican army arrival.<ref name=edmondson299>Edmondson (2000), p. 299.</ref> The Texans quickly herded cattle into the Alamo and scrounged for food in some of the recently abandoned houses.<ref name=edmondson301>Edmondson (2000), p. 301.</ref> A few members of the garrison brought their families into the Alamo for safety. Among these were Alamaron Dickinson, who fetched his wife ] and their daughter Angelina, and Bowie, who brought his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro and ] and Alsbury's young son into the fort.<ref name=lord95>Lord (1961), p. 95.</ref>


{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0" {| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0"
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| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ” | style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ”
|- |-
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{ndash}}response of Jose Bartres to Texian requests for an honorable surrender, as quoted in the journal of ]<ref name=todish40and41>Todish ''et al'' (1998), pp. 40&ndash;41.</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{ndash}}response of Jose Bartres to Texan requests for an honorable surrender, as quoted in the journal of ]<ref name=todish40and41>Todish ''et al'' (1998), pp. 40&ndash;41.</ref>
|} |}


Travis quickly dispatched couriers to ] and ] with pleas for reinforcements.<ref name=nofi78>Nofi (1992), p. 78.</ref> By late afternoon Bexar was occupied by about 1500 Mexican troops, who immediately raised a blood-red flag signifying ].<ref name=nofi78/><ref name=todish40>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 40.</ref> Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon.<ref name=nofi78/> Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna.<ref name=todish40and41/> Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own emissary.<ref name=edmondson308>Edmondson (2000), p. 308.</ref> The men met with Colonel ] and Jose Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texians asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional.<ref name=todish40and41/> On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again.<ref name=edmondson308/><ref group=Note>Although Santa Anna later reported that the cannon fire killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others, no other Mexican officer reported fatalities from that day. (Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 40., Edmondson (2000), p. 304.)</ref> Travis quickly dispatched couriers to ] and ] with pleas for reinforcements.<ref name=nofi78>Nofi (1992), p. 78.</ref> By late afternoon Bexar was occupied by about 1500 Mexican troops, who immediately raised a blood-red flag signifying ].<ref name=nofi78/><ref name=todish40>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 40.</ref> Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon.<ref name=nofi78/> Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna.<ref name=todish40and41/> Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own emissary.<ref name=edmondson308>Edmondson (2000), p. 308.</ref> The men met with Colonel ] and Jose Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texans asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional.<ref name=todish40and41/> On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again.<ref name=edmondson308/><ref group=Note>Although Santa Anna later reported that the cannon fire killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others, no other Mexican officer reported fatalities from that day. (Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 40., Edmondson (2000), p. 304.)</ref>


The first night of the siege was relatively quiet. The Mexican cavalry was stationed to the north and east of the Alamo to prevent the arrival of Texian<!-- Please note that 'Texian' is the correct contemporary spelling--> reinforcements.<ref name=edmondson310>Edmondson (2000), p. 310.</ref> The next day, 600 more troops arrived,<ref name=lord107>Lord (1961), p. 107.</ref> allowing Santa Anna to post a company of soldiers east of the Alamo, on the road to Gonzales.<ref name=todish43/> Days later, Santa Anna stationed Almonte and 800&nbsp;]s along the road to Goliad to intercept rumored Texian reinforcements.<ref name=scott102>Scott (2000), p. 102.</ref> The first night of the siege was relatively quiet. The Mexican cavalry was stationed to the north and east of the Alamo to prevent the arrival of Texan<!-- Please note that 'Texan' is the correct contemporary spelling--> reinforcements.<ref name=edmondson310>Edmondson (2000), p. 310.</ref> The next day, 600 more troops arrived,<ref name=lord107>Lord (1961), p. 107.</ref> allowing Santa Anna to post a company of soldiers east of the Alamo, on the road to Gonzales.<ref name=todish43/> Days later, Santa Anna stationed Almonte and 800&nbsp;]s along the road to Goliad to intercept rumored Texan reinforcements.<ref name=scott102>Scott (2000), p. 102.</ref>


In the first few days of the siege, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1000&nbsp;feet (300&nbsp;m) from the south and east walls of the Alamo.<ref name=nofi81>Nofi (1992), p. 81.</ref> A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.<ref name=todish43/> In the first few days of the siege, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1000&nbsp;feet (300&nbsp;m) from the south and east walls of the Alamo.<ref name=nofi81>Nofi (1992), p. 81.</ref> A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.<ref name=todish43/>


===Skirmishes=== ===Skirmishes===
The Mexican army kept up a consistent barrage of artillery shells. During the first week of the siege over 200 Mexican cannon shots landed in the Alamo plaza. The Texians often picked up the cannonballs and reused them.<ref name=petite34>Petite (1999), p. 34.</ref> At first the Texians matched Mexican artillery fire, but on February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot.<ref name=hardin132>Hardin (1994), p. 132.</ref> The Mexican army kept up a consistent barrage of artillery shells. During the first week of the siege over 200 Mexican cannon shots landed in the Alamo plaza. The Texans often picked up the cannonballs and reused them.<ref name=petite34>Petite (1999), p. 34.</ref> At first the Texans matched Mexican artillery fire, but on February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot.<ref name=hardin132>Hardin (1994), p. 132.</ref>


The first fatality of the siege occurred on February 24, when Texians killed a Mexican scout.<ref name=todish42>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 42.</ref> The following morning, 200&ndash;300 Mexican soldiers crossed the ] and took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls.<ref name=todish42/><ref name=todish43>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 43.</ref><ref name=tinkle118>Tinkle (1985), p. 118.</ref> Several Texians ventured out to burn the huts,<ref name=tinkle118/> and Texians within the Alamo provided cover fire.<ref name=lord109>Lord (1961), p. 109.</ref><ref name=tinkle119/> After a two-hour skirmish the Mexican troops retreated to Bexar.<ref name=todish43/><ref name=tinkle119>Tinkle (1985), p. 119.</ref> Two Mexican soldiers were killed and four wounded;<ref name=todish43/> no Texians were injured.<ref name=tinkle120>Tinkle (1985), p. 120.</ref> The first fatality of the siege occurred on February 24, when Texans killed a Mexican scout.<ref name=todish42>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 42.</ref> The following morning, 200&ndash;300 Mexican soldiers crossed the ] and took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls.<ref name=todish42/><ref name=todish43>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 43.</ref><ref name=tinkle118>Tinkle (1985), p. 118.</ref> Several Texans ventured out to burn the huts,<ref name=tinkle118/> and Texans within the Alamo provided cover fire.<ref name=lord109>Lord (1961), p. 109.</ref><ref name=tinkle119/> After a two-hour skirmish the Mexican troops retreated to Bexar.<ref name=todish43/><ref name=tinkle119>Tinkle (1985), p. 119.</ref> Two Mexican soldiers were killed and four wounded;<ref name=todish43/> no Texans were injured.<ref name=tinkle120>Tinkle (1985), p. 120.</ref>


A ] blew in that evening and dropped the temperature to {{convert|39|F}}.<ref name=hardin132/> Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures.<ref name=nofi83>Nofi (1992), p. 83.</ref> Several Texians ventured out to gather firewood but returned empty-handed after encountering Mexican troops.<ref name=hardin132/> On the evening of February 26, the Texians burned more huts.<ref name=todish44>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 44.</ref> Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Bringas to engage the Texians, and according to Edmondson, one Texian was killed.<ref name=edmondson325>Edmondson (2000), p. 325.</ref> A ] blew in that evening and dropped the temperature to {{convert|39|F}}.<ref name=hardin132/> Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures.<ref name=nofi83>Nofi (1992), p. 83.</ref> Several Texans ventured out to gather firewood but returned empty-handed after encountering Mexican troops.<ref name=hardin132/> On the evening of February 26, the Texans burned more huts.<ref name=todish44>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 44.</ref> Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Bringas to engage the Texans, and according to Edmondson, one Texan was killed.<ref name=edmondson325>Edmondson (2000), p. 325.</ref>


===Texian troop movements=== ===Texan troop movements===
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| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{ndash}}excerpt from ]'s letter ].<ref>Lord (1961), p. 14</ref> | colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{ndash}}excerpt from ]'s letter ].<ref>Lord (1961), p. 14</ref>
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The sudden arrival of the Mexican army caught several Texians outside the fort. Most did not try to sneak past Mexican lines,<ref name=lindley89>Lindley (2003), p. 89.</ref> but on the night of February 23, Gregorio Esparza and his family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel to join the Texians.<ref name=lord105>Lord (1961), p. 105.</ref> At some point on Wednesday, February 24, Bowie collapsed from illness,<ref name=nofi80>Nofi (1992), p. 80.</ref> leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison.<ref name=nofi80/> That afternoon Travis wrote a letter addressed ], which is, according to historian Mary Deborah Petite, "considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism".<ref name=petite88>Petite (1998), p. 88.</ref> Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas,<ref name=petite90>Petite (1998), p. 90.</ref> and it was eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.<ref name=todish42/> The sudden arrival of the Mexican army caught several Texans outside the fort. Most did not try to sneak past Mexican lines,<ref name=lindley89>Lindley (2003), p. 89.</ref> but on the night of February 23, Gregorio Esparza and his family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel to join the Texans.<ref name=lord105>Lord (1961), p. 105.</ref> At some point on Wednesday, February 24, Bowie collapsed from illness,<ref name=nofi80>Nofi (1992), p. 80.</ref> leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison.<ref name=nofi80/> That afternoon Travis wrote a letter addressed ], which is, according to historian Mary Deborah Petite, "considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism".<ref name=petite88>Petite (1998), p. 88.</ref> Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas,<ref name=petite90>Petite (1998), p. 90.</ref> and it was eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.<ref name=todish42/>


Travis sent multiple other letters pleading for reinforcements.<ref name=myers200>Myers (1948), p. 200.</ref> As news of the siege spread throughout the colonies, settlers gathered in Gonzales to wait for Colonel ], commander of the only other garrison of Texian troops, to arrive with more troops.<ref name=tinkle162>Tinkle (1985), p. 162.</ref> Impatient with waiting, on February 27, some of the men from Gonzales began their march towards Bexar.<ref name=lindley130>Lindley (2003), p. 130.</ref> That same night, Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales "to hurry up reinforcements".<ref name=lindley130/> According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian soon found the group from Gonzales and volunteered to lead them to the Alamo. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving off four of the men, including Bastian.<ref group=Note>Colonel ]'s journal did not mention any skirmishes that evening. In 1837, Santa Anna's secretary Roman Martinez Caro did report "two small reinforcements from Gonzales that succeeded in breaking through our lines and entering the fort. The first consisted of four men who gained the fort one night, and the second was a party of twenty-five". (Lindley (2003), p. 131.)</ref><ref name=lindley131>Lindley (2003), p. 131.</ref> In the darkness, the Texians fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the defenders to open the gates.<ref group=Note>These Texian reinforcements were later dubbed the Immortal 32.</ref><ref name=edmondson340>Edmondson (2000), p. 340.</ref> Travis sent multiple other letters pleading for reinforcements.<ref name=myers200>Myers (1948), p. 200.</ref> As news of the siege spread throughout the colonies, settlers gathered in Gonzales to wait for Colonel ], commander of the only other garrison of Texan troops, to arrive with more troops.<ref name=tinkle162>Tinkle (1985), p. 162.</ref> Impatient with waiting, on February 27, some of the men from Gonzales began their march towards Bexar.<ref name=lindley130>Lindley (2003), p. 130.</ref> That same night, Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales "to hurry up reinforcements".<ref name=lindley130/> According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian soon found the group from Gonzales and volunteered to lead them to the Alamo. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving off four of the men, including Bastian.<ref group=Note>Colonel ]'s journal did not mention any skirmishes that evening. In 1837, Santa Anna's secretary Roman Martinez Caro did report "two small reinforcements from Gonzales that succeeded in breaking through our lines and entering the fort. The first consisted of four men who gained the fort one night, and the second was a party of twenty-five". (Lindley (2003), p. 131.)</ref><ref name=lindley131>Lindley (2003), p. 131.</ref> In the darkness, the Texans fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the defenders to open the gates.<ref group=Note>These Texan reinforcements were later dubbed the Immortal 32.</ref><ref name=edmondson340>Edmondson (2000), p. 340.</ref>
]'s attempt to reinforce the Alamo garrison was unsuccessful.]] ]'s attempt to reinforce the Alamo garrison was unsuccessful.]]
After days of indecision, Fannin had finally decided to offer assistance. On the morning of February 26, he led 320&nbsp;men, 4&nbsp;cannon, and several supply wagons on the {{convert|90|mi|km}} march from Goliad to the Alamo. By the end of the day, they had traveled less than {{convert|1|mi|km}}.<ref name=edmondson324>Edmondson (2000), p. 324.</ref><ref name=nofi95>Nofi (1992), p. 95.</ref> The following day the group returned to ]. Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers, claiming they requested the journey's cancellation after learning that General Urrea's army was marching towards Goliad.<ref name=scott100>Scott (2000), p. 100.</ref> The officers and men in the expedition maintained that Fannin decided on his own to abort the mission.<ref name=scott101>Scott (2000), p. 101.</ref> After days of indecision, Fannin had finally decided to offer assistance. On the morning of February 26, he led 320&nbsp;men, 4&nbsp;cannon, and several supply wagons on the {{convert|90|mi|km}} march from Goliad to the Alamo. By the end of the day, they had traveled less than {{convert|1|mi|km}}.<ref name=edmondson324>Edmondson (2000), p. 324.</ref><ref name=nofi95>Nofi (1992), p. 95.</ref> The following day the group returned to ]. Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers, claiming they requested the journey's cancellation after learning that General Urrea's army was marching towards Goliad.<ref name=scott100>Scott (2000), p. 100.</ref> The officers and men in the expedition maintained that Fannin decided on his own to abort the mission.<ref name=scott101>Scott (2000), p. 101.</ref>


According to Lindley, after Fannin's aborted rescue mission up to 50 of his men, most of whom had belonged to the ], left Goliad to rescue their former mates in the Alamo.<ref name=lindley137>Lindley (2003), p. 137.</ref> On March 3, these men joined a group waiting at Cibolo Creek for Fannin.<ref name=lindley138>Lindley (2003), p. 138.</ref> After Mexican reinforcements arrived in Bexar that day, Travis sent three men, including Davy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which they still believed was en route.<ref group=Note>Susannah Dickinson mentioned this party in an interview in 1876.</ref><ref name=lindley140>Lindley (2003), p. 140.</ref> Lindley stated that just before midnight, Crockett reached Cibolo Creek and found the force of Texians waiting {{convert|20|mi|km}} from the Alamo. Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force managed to break through the Mexican lines and enter the Alamo. A second group was driven across the prairie by Mexican soldiers.<ref name=lindley142>Lindley (2003), p. 142.</ref> Almonte's journal reported that there was an engagement that night, but that the Mexican troops had repulsed the assault.<ref name=lindley143>Lindley (2003), p. 143.</ref> According to Lindley, after Fannin's aborted rescue mission up to 50 of his men, most of whom had belonged to the ], left Goliad to rescue their former mates in the Alamo.<ref name=lindley137>Lindley (2003), p. 137.</ref> On March 3, these men joined a group waiting at Cibolo Creek for Fannin.<ref name=lindley138>Lindley (2003), p. 138.</ref> After Mexican reinforcements arrived in Bexar that day, Travis sent three men, including Davy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which they still believed was en route.<ref group=Note>Susannah Dickinson mentioned this party in an interview in 1876.</ref><ref name=lindley140>Lindley (2003), p. 140.</ref> Lindley stated that just before midnight, Crockett reached Cibolo Creek and found the force of Texans waiting {{convert|20|mi|km}} from the Alamo. Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texan force managed to break through the Mexican lines and enter the Alamo. A second group was driven across the prairie by Mexican soldiers.<ref name=lindley142>Lindley (2003), p. 142.</ref> Almonte's journal reported that there was an engagement that night, but that the Mexican troops had repulsed the assault.<ref name=lindley143>Lindley (2003), p. 143.</ref>


===Assault preparations=== ===Assault preparations===
On March 3, The Texians watched from the walls as approximately 1000 Mexican troops, attired in dress uniform, marched into Bexar's military plaza to reinforce Santa Anna. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under General ] had soundly defeated Texian Colonel ] at the ] on February 27.<ref name=todish47>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 47.</ref> Most of the Texians in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Bexar to almost 2,400.<ref>Edmondson (2000), p. 349.</ref> On March 3, The Texans watched from the walls as approximately 1000 Mexican troops, attired in dress uniform, marched into Bexar's military plaza to reinforce Santa Anna. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under General ] had soundly defeated Texan Colonel ] at the ] on February 27.<ref name=todish47>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 47.</ref> Most of the Texans in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Bexar to almost 2,400.<ref>Edmondson (2000), p. 349.</ref>


On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna called his senior officers together and proposed an assault of the fort. Many of the participants recommended that the battle wait for the two {{convert|12|lb|abbr=on}} cannons, anticipated to arrive on March 7.<ref name=todish48>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 48.</ref> A local woman, likely ], approached Santa Anna that evening and attempted to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo defenders.<ref name=edmondson355>Edmondson (2000), p. 355.</ref> According to many historians, this visit likely increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, "there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory".<ref name=todish49>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 49.</ref> The following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6.<ref name=todish49/> On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna called his senior officers together and proposed an assault of the fort. Many of the participants recommended that the battle wait for the two {{convert|12|lb|abbr=on}} cannons, anticipated to arrive on March 7.<ref name=todish48>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 48.</ref> A local woman, likely ], approached Santa Anna that evening and attempted to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo defenders.<ref name=edmondson355>Edmondson (2000), p. 355.</ref> According to many historians, this visit likely increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, "there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory".<ref name=todish49>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 49.</ref> The following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6.<ref name=todish49/>


That evening, James Allen became the last courier to leave the Alamo. He carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men.<ref>Edmondson (2000), p. 360.</ref> Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was likely imminent, and that the Mexican Army would prevail. He supposedly drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the Texian cause to cross and stand alongside him. A bedridden Bowie requested that Crockett and several others carry his cot over the line, leaving only one man, ] on the other side. Explaining that he was not yet ready to die, Rose deserted that evening. This episode was first mentioned in a newspaper article written thirty-five years later by a reporter who said his parents heard the story directly from Rose.<ref name=hopewell126>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;126.</ref> The reporter later admitted to embellishing pieces of the article, and as Rose had died by the time the story was published, the story could not be authenticated.<ref name=chariton195>Chariton (1992), p.&nbsp;195.</ref> Years after the story was published, Alamo survivors Susannah Dickinson and Enrique Esparza mentioned the incident, but many details conflicted.<ref>Groneman (1996), pp.&nbsp;122,&nbsp;150,&nbsp;184.</ref> That evening, James Allen became the last courier to leave the Alamo. He carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men.<ref>Edmondson (2000), p. 360.</ref> Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was likely imminent, and that the Mexican Army would prevail. He supposedly drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the Texan cause to cross and stand alongside him. A bedridden Bowie requested that Crockett and several others carry his cot over the line, leaving only one man, ] on the other side. Explaining that he was not yet ready to die, Rose deserted that evening. This episode was first mentioned in a newspaper article written thirty-five years later by a reporter who said his parents heard the story directly from Rose.<ref name=hopewell126>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;126.</ref> The reporter later admitted to embellishing pieces of the article, and as Rose had died by the time the story was published, the story could not be authenticated.<ref name=chariton195>Chariton (1992), p.&nbsp;195.</ref> Years after the story was published, Alamo survivors Susannah Dickinson and Enrique Esparza mentioned the incident, but many details conflicted.<ref>Groneman (1996), pp.&nbsp;122,&nbsp;150,&nbsp;184.</ref>


At 10 pm, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had planned, the exhausted Texians soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many had gotten since the siege began.<ref name=todish51>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 51.</ref> At 10 pm, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had planned, the exhausted Texans soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many had gotten since the siege began.<ref name=todish51>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 51.</ref>


==Final assault== ==Final assault==
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Just after midnight on March 6 the Mexican army began preparing for the final assault.<ref name=edmondson362>Edmondson (2000), p. 362.</ref> The troops were divided into four ], commanded by Cos, Colonel Francisco Duque, Colonel Jose Marie Romero, and Colonel Juan Morales.<ref name=edmondson356/><ref name=edmondson357/> Santa Anna would supervise the reserves, while the Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent escape of either Texian or Mexican soldiers.<ref name=edmondson357/><ref name=todish50>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 50.</ref> Despite the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats, which could impede their movements.<ref name=edmondson357/> Clouds concealed the moon, and thus the movements of the soldiers.<ref name=lord160>Lord (1961), p. 160.</ref> Just after midnight on March 6 the Mexican army began preparing for the final assault.<ref name=edmondson362>Edmondson (2000), p. 362.</ref> The troops were divided into four ], commanded by Cos, Colonel Francisco Duque, Colonel Jose Marie Romero, and Colonel Juan Morales.<ref name=edmondson356/><ref name=edmondson357/> Santa Anna would supervise the reserves, while the Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent escape of either Texan or Mexican soldiers.<ref name=edmondson357/><ref name=todish50>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 50.</ref> Despite the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats, which could impede their movements.<ref name=edmondson357/> Clouds concealed the moon, and thus the movements of the soldiers.<ref name=lord160>Lord (1961), p. 160.</ref>


At 5:30 a.m. Santa Anna gave the order to advance. Troops silently moved forward, with veterans positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits in the middle. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo,<ref name=hardin138>Hardin (1994), p. 138.</ref> while Duque led his men from the northwest to the breach in the Alamo's north wall.<ref name=hardin139>Hardin (1994), p. 139.</ref> The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel. In front of each column ranged several lines of light infantry, poised to "pick off any defenders who showed their heads".<ref name=hardin139/> The three Texians sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep.<ref name=hardin139/><ref name=tinkle196>Tinkle (1985), p. 196.</ref> At 5:30 a.m. Santa Anna gave the order to advance. Troops silently moved forward, with veterans positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits in the middle. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo,<ref name=hardin138>Hardin (1994), p. 138.</ref> while Duque led his men from the northwest to the breach in the Alamo's north wall.<ref name=hardin139>Hardin (1994), p. 139.</ref> The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel. In front of each column ranged several lines of light infantry, poised to "pick off any defenders who showed their heads".<ref name=hardin139/> The three Texans sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep.<ref name=hardin139/><ref name=tinkle196>Tinkle (1985), p. 196.</ref>


The silence was soon broken by shouts of "Viva Santa Anna!" and music from the buglers.<ref name=edmondson362/> The Texians awakened and rushed to their posts.<ref name=tinkle196/> As Travis ran to his post, he shouted, "Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!"<ref name=hardin139/> and, as he passed a group of Tejanos, "!No rendirse, muchachos!" ("No surrender, boys").<ref name=todish51/> Most of the noncombatants gathered in the church ] for safety.<ref>Edmondson (2000), p. 363.</ref> By this point, the Mexican army was already within musket range.<ref name=hardin139/> The silence was soon broken by shouts of "Viva Santa Anna!" and music from the buglers.<ref name=edmondson362/> The Texans awakened and rushed to their posts.<ref name=tinkle196/> As Travis ran to his post, he shouted, "Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!"<ref name=hardin139/> and, as he passed a group of Tejanos, "!No rendirse, muchachos!" ("No surrender, boys").<ref name=todish51/> Most of the noncombatants gathered in the church ] for safety.<ref>Edmondson (2000), p. 363.</ref> By this point, the Mexican army was already within musket range.<ref name=hardin139/>
] was likely one of the first defenders to die.]] ] was likely one of the first defenders to die.]]
In the initial moments of the assault Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to safely fire.<ref name=todish52>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 52.</ref> The untrained recruits in the ranks did not realize this, and "blindly fir their guns", injuring or killing the troops in front of them.<ref name=petite113>Petite (1998), p. 113.</ref> The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texian artillery.<ref name=todish52/> Lacking ], Texians filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns.<ref name=hardin139/> According to the diary of ], "a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs from Toluca".<ref name=hardin146>Hardin (1994), p. 146.</ref> Duque fell from his horse after suffering a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. General Manuel Castrillon quickly assumed command of Duque's column.<ref name=edmondson364/> In the initial moments of the assault Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to safely fire.<ref name=todish52>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 52.</ref> The untrained recruits in the ranks did not realize this, and "blindly fir their guns", injuring or killing the troops in front of them.<ref name=petite113>Petite (1998), p. 113.</ref> The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texan artillery.<ref name=todish52/> Lacking ], Texans filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns.<ref name=hardin139/> According to the diary of ], "a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs from Toluca".<ref name=hardin146>Hardin (1994), p. 146.</ref> Duque fell from his horse after suffering a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. General Manuel Castrillon quickly assumed command of Duque's column.<ref name=edmondson364/>


Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on.<ref name=todish52/> As the troops massed against the walls, Texians were forced to lean over the walls to shoot, leaving them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis became one of the first defenders to die as he fired his shotgun into the soldiers below him.<ref name=todish52/> Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls;<ref name=hardin147>Hardin (1994), p. 147.</ref> those that arrived were poorly made.<ref name=todish53/> The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texians discharged their previously loaded rifles, however, they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls.<ref name=edmondson364/> Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on.<ref name=todish52/> As the troops massed against the walls, Texans were forced to lean over the walls to shoot, leaving them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis became one of the first defenders to die as he fired his shotgun into the soldiers below him.<ref name=todish52/> Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls;<ref name=hardin147>Hardin (1994), p. 147.</ref> those that arrived were poorly made.<ref name=todish53/> The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texans discharged their previously loaded rifles, however, they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls.<ref name=edmondson364/>
] ]
Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped, but their second attack was again repulsed. Fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time.<ref name=todish52/><ref name=edmondson364/> During the third strike, Romero's column, aiming for the east wall, were exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column.<ref name=edmondson364/> Cos's column, under fire from Texians on the west wall, also veered north.<ref name=todish53>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 53.</ref> When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he feared a rout; "panicked", he sent the reserves into the same area.<ref name=petite112>Petite (1998), p. 112.</ref> The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the {{convert|12|ft|m}} wall was General Juan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the wall. Amador opened the ] in the north wall, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex.<ref name=hardin147>Hardin (1994), p. 147.</ref> Others began climbing through gun ports in the west wall, which had few defenders.<ref name=edmondson366>Edmondson (2000), p. 366.</ref> As the Texian defenders abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall,<ref name=hardin147/><ref name=edmondson366/> Texian gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon toward the north and began firing into the incoming Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's eighteen-pounder cannon.<ref name=lord160>Lord (1961), p. 160.</ref> By this time Romero's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen.<ref name=edmondson366/> Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped, but their second attack was again repulsed. Fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time.<ref name=todish52/><ref name=edmondson364/> During the third strike, Romero's column, aiming for the east wall, were exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column.<ref name=edmondson364/> Cos's column, under fire from Texans on the west wall, also veered north.<ref name=todish53>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 53.</ref> When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he feared a rout; "panicked", he sent the reserves into the same area.<ref name=petite112>Petite (1998), p. 112.</ref> The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the {{convert|12|ft|m}} wall was General Juan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the wall. Amador opened the ] in the north wall, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex.<ref name=hardin147>Hardin (1994), p. 147.</ref> Others began climbing through gun ports in the west wall, which had few defenders.<ref name=edmondson366>Edmondson (2000), p. 366.</ref> As the Texan defenders abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall,<ref name=hardin147/><ref name=edmondson366/> Texan gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon toward the north and began firing into the incoming Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's eighteen-pounder cannon.<ref name=lord160>Lord (1961), p. 160.</ref> By this time Romero's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen.<ref name=edmondson366/>


===Interior fighting=== ===Interior fighting===
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| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{ndash}}Last words of Texian defender ] to his wife ] as he prepared to defend the chapel<ref name=todish53/> | colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{ndash}}Last words of Texan defender ] to his wife ] as he prepared to defend the chapel<ref name=todish53/>
|} |}
As previously planned, most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel. Holes had been carved in the walls so that the Texians could fire.<ref name=todish53/> The defenders in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. After discharging their weapons, the small band of Texians scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie, which appeared empty.<ref name=todish53/><ref name=edmondson366/><ref name=edmondson367/> As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group, ] and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting some casualties. Nevertheless, all of these escaping Texians were killed.<ref name=edmondson367>Edmondson (2000), p. 367.</ref> As previously planned, most of the Texans fell back to the barracks and the chapel. Holes had been carved in the walls so that the Texans could fire.<ref name=todish53/> The defenders in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. After discharging their weapons, the small band of Texans scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie, which appeared empty.<ref name=todish53/><ref name=edmondson366/><ref name=edmondson367/> As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group, ] and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting some casualties. Nevertheless, all of these escaping Texans were killed.<ref name=edmondson367>Edmondson (2000), p. 367.</ref>


Unable to reach the barracks, another group of Texians, stationed along the west wall, headed west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texians took cover and began firing from a ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcements, and the Texians were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50&nbsp;Texians, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated.<ref name=edmondson368>Edmondson (2000), p. 368.</ref> Unable to reach the barracks, another group of Texans, stationed along the west wall, headed west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texans took cover and began firing from a ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcements, and the Texans were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50&nbsp;Texans, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated.<ref name=edmondson368>Edmondson (2000), p. 368.</ref>


] ]
The last Texian group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men, defending the low wall in front of the church. Unable to reload, they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives. After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexican ]s, the few remaining Texians in this group fell back toward the church.<ref name=edmondson368/> The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls.<ref name=edmondson369>Edmondson (2000), p. 369.</ref> Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texian flag waving from the roof of one building. Four Mexicans were killed before the ] was raised in that location.<ref group=Note>Lieutenant Jose Maria Torres is credited with successfully raising the Mexican flag; he was mortally wounded in the process. (Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 54.)</ref><ref name=todish54>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 54.</ref> The last Texan group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men, defending the low wall in front of the church. Unable to reload, they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives. After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexican ]s, the few remaining Texans in this group fell back toward the church.<ref name=edmondson368/> The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls.<ref name=edmondson369>Edmondson (2000), p. 369.</ref> Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texan flag waving from the roof of one building. Four Mexicans were killed before the ] was raised in that location.<ref group=Note>Lieutenant Jose Maria Torres is credited with successfully raising the Mexican flag; he was mortally wounded in the process. (Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 54.)</ref><ref name=todish54>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 54.</ref>


It took an hour for the Mexican army to secure complete control of the Alamo.<ref name=petite114>Petite (1998), p. 114.</ref> Many of the remaining defenders were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms.<ref name=edmondson370>Edmondson (2000), p. 370.</ref> In the confusion, the Texians had neglected to spike their cannons before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannons toward the barracks.<ref name=hardin147/> As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge in for ]. De la Pena's diary remarked that some Texians hung white flags through the doorways of their barracks rooms, but that they had no intentions of surrendering; a Mexican soldier who entered the room without firing would find himself attacked.<ref name=edmondson370/> It took an hour for the Mexican army to secure complete control of the Alamo.<ref name=petite114>Petite (1998), p. 114.</ref> Many of the remaining defenders were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms.<ref name=edmondson370>Edmondson (2000), p. 370.</ref> In the confusion, the Texans had neglected to spike their cannons before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannons toward the barracks.<ref name=hardin147/> As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge in for ]. De la Pena's diary remarked that some Texans hung white flags through the doorways of their barracks rooms, but that they had no intentions of surrendering; a Mexican soldier who entered the room without firing would find himself attacked.<ref name=edmondson370/>


Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie likely died in bed. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him, alive, from the room.<ref>Groneman (1996), p.&nbsp;214.</ref> Other witnesses claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head.<ref name=hopewell127>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;127.</ref> According to historian Wallace Chariton, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate"<ref>Chariton (1992), p.&nbsp;74.</ref> version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife."<ref name=hopewell127/> Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie likely died in bed. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him, alive, from the room.<ref>Groneman (1996), p.&nbsp;214.</ref> Other witnesses claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head.<ref name=hopewell127>Hopewell (1994), p.&nbsp;127.</ref> According to historian Wallace Chariton, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate"<ref>Chariton (1992), p.&nbsp;74.</ref> version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife."<ref name=hopewell127/>


The last of the Texians to die were the eleven men manning the two twelve-pounder cannon in the chapel.<ref name=todish54/><ref name=petite115>Petite (1998), p. 115.</ref> A shot from the eighteen-pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from the ] into the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and ], grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.<ref name=edmondson371>Edmondson (2000), p. 371.</ref> Texian Robert Evans, the master of ordnance, had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.<ref name=edmondson371/> Had he succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church, killing the women and children hiding in the sacristy as well.<ref name=tinkle216>Tinkle (1985), p. 216.</ref> The last of the Texans to die were the eleven men manning the two twelve-pounder cannon in the chapel.<ref name=todish54/><ref name=petite115>Petite (1998), p. 115.</ref> A shot from the eighteen-pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from the ] into the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texans, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and ], grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.<ref name=edmondson371>Edmondson (2000), p. 371.</ref> Texan Robert Evans, the master of ordnance, had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.<ref name=edmondson371/> Had he succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church, killing the women and children hiding in the sacristy as well.<ref name=tinkle216>Tinkle (1985), p. 216.</ref>


As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the sons of defender Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders.<ref name=edmondson371/> In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him.<ref group=Note>According to Edmondson, Wolf then ran into the room, grabbed his remaining son, and leaped with the child from the cannon ramp at the rear of the church; both were killed by musket shots before hitting the ground. (Edmondson (2000), p. 372.)</ref><ref name=edmondson372/> Possibly the last Texian to die in battle was Jacob Walker,<ref name=tinkle218>Tinkle (1985), p. 218.</ref> who attempted to hide behind ] and the other women and was bayonetted in front of them.<ref name=lord166>Lord (1961), p. 166.</ref> Another Texian, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy.<ref name=edmondson371/> Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texian prisoner.<ref name=groneman55and56>Groneman (1990), p. 55&ndash;56.</ref><ref name=edmondson372>Edmondson (2000), p. 372.</ref> As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the sons of defender Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders.<ref name=edmondson371/> In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him.<ref group=Note>According to Edmondson, Wolf then ran into the room, grabbed his remaining son, and leaped with the child from the cannon ramp at the rear of the church; both were killed by musket shots before hitting the ground. (Edmondson (2000), p. 372.)</ref><ref name=edmondson372/> Possibly the last Texan to die in battle was Jacob Walker,<ref name=tinkle218>Tinkle (1985), p. 218.</ref> who attempted to hide behind ] and the other women and was bayonetted in front of them.<ref name=lord166>Lord (1961), p. 166.</ref> Another Texan, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy.<ref name=edmondson371/> Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texan prisoner.<ref name=groneman55and56>Groneman (1990), p. 55&ndash;56.</ref><ref name=edmondson372>Edmondson (2000), p. 372.</ref>


By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over.<ref name=lord166/> Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved.<ref name=edmondson372/> Even with all of the Texians dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although he showed himself, the violence continued, and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15&nbsp;minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies.<ref name=tinkle220>Tinkle (1985), p. 220.</ref> By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over.<ref name=lord166/> Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved.<ref name=edmondson372/> Even with all of the Texans dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although he showed himself, the violence continued, and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15&nbsp;minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies.<ref name=tinkle220>Tinkle (1985), p. 220.</ref>


==Aftermath== ==Aftermath==
===Casualties=== ===Casualties===
According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texians surrendered.<ref group=Note>Edmondson speculates that these men might have been sick or wounded and were therefore unable to fight. (Edmondson (2000), p. 373)</ref><ref name=edmondson373>Edmondson (2000), p. 373.</ref><ref name=petite123>Petite (1998), p. 123.</ref> Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors.<ref name=hardin148>Hardin (1994), p. 148.</ref> Weeks after the battle, stories began to circulate that Crockett was among those who surrendered.<ref name=petite123/> However, Ben, a former American slave who served one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by "no less than sixteen Mexican corpses".<ref name=tinkle214>Tinkle (1985), p. 214.</ref> Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate.<ref group=Note>According to Petite (1998), p. 124, "Every account of the Crockett surrender-execution story comes from an avowed antagonist (either on political or military grounds) of Santa Anna's. It is believed that many stories, such as the surrender and execution of Crockett, were created and spread in order to discredit Santa Anna and add to his role as villain."</ref><ref name=petite124>Petite (1998), p. 124.</ref> According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texans surrendered.<ref group=Note>Edmondson speculates that these men might have been sick or wounded and were therefore unable to fight. (Edmondson (2000), p. 373)</ref><ref name=edmondson373>Edmondson (2000), p. 373.</ref><ref name=petite123>Petite (1998), p. 123.</ref> Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors.<ref name=hardin148>Hardin (1994), p. 148.</ref> Weeks after the battle, stories began to circulate that Crockett was among those who surrendered.<ref name=petite123/> However, Ben, a former American slave who served one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by "no less than sixteen Mexican corpses".<ref name=tinkle214>Tinkle (1985), p. 214.</ref> Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate.<ref group=Note>According to Petite (1998), p. 124, "Every account of the Crockett surrender-execution story comes from an avowed antagonist (either on political or military grounds) of Santa Anna's. It is believed that many stories, such as the surrender and execution of Crockett, were created and spread in order to discredit Santa Anna and add to his role as villain."</ref><ref name=petite124>Petite (1998), p. 124.</ref>


Santa Anna ordered that the face of every corpse be wiped clean so that they could positively identify which soldiers were Mexican and which were Texian.<ref name=tinkle220>Tinkle (1985), p. 220.</ref> According to Francisco Ruiz, possibly the '']'' of Bexar, he was ordered by Santa Anna to identify the bodies of Travis, Bowie, and Crockett.<ref group=Note>Lindley believes that Ruiz was not in Bexar at the time. Lindley (2003), p. 278.</ref> <ref name=edmondson373/> Joe was also asked to point out Travis's body.<ref name=edmondson374>Edmondson (2000), p. 374.</ref> With the identifications complete, Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned.<ref group=Note>Cremating bodies was anathema at the time, as most people believed that a body could not be resurrected unless it were whole. (Petite (1998), p. 139.)</ref><ref name=edmondson374/> The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza, whose brother Francisco served in Santa Anna's army and received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.<ref name=edmondson374/> Santa Anna ordered that the face of every corpse be wiped clean so that they could positively identify which soldiers were Mexican and which were Texan.<ref name=tinkle220>Tinkle (1985), p. 220.</ref> According to Francisco Ruiz, possibly the '']'' of Bexar, he was ordered by Santa Anna to identify the bodies of Travis, Bowie, and Crockett.<ref group=Note>Lindley believes that Ruiz was not in Bexar at the time. Lindley (2003), p. 278.</ref> <ref name=edmondson373/> Joe was also asked to point out Travis's body.<ref name=edmondson374>Edmondson (2000), p. 374.</ref> With the identifications complete, Santa Anna ordered that the Texan bodies be stacked and burned.<ref group=Note>Cremating bodies was anathema at the time, as most people believed that a body could not be resurrected unless it were whole. (Petite (1998), p. 139.)</ref><ref name=edmondson374/> The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza, whose brother Francisco served in Santa Anna's army and received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.<ref name=edmondson374/>


In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600&nbsp;Texians had been killed, with only 70&nbsp;Mexican soldiers killed and 300&nbsp;wounded.<ref name=edmondson374/> His secretary, Ramon Martinez Caro, later remarked that he had not wished to make a false report but had done so under Santa Anna's orders.<ref name=hardin156>Hardin (1994), p. 156.</ref> Other eyewitnesses counted between 182&ndash;257&nbsp;Texians killed.<ref name=nofi133>Nofi (1992), p. 133.</ref> Some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier.<ref name=edmondson407>Edmondson (2000), p. 407.</ref><ref>Groneman (1990), p. 119.</ref> In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600&nbsp;Texans had been killed, with only 70&nbsp;Mexican soldiers killed and 300&nbsp;wounded.<ref name=edmondson374/> His secretary, Ramon Martinez Caro, later remarked that he had not wished to make a false report but had done so under Santa Anna's orders.<ref name=hardin156>Hardin (1994), p. 156.</ref> Other eyewitnesses counted between 182&ndash;257&nbsp;Texans killed.<ref name=nofi133>Nofi (1992), p. 133.</ref> Some historians believe that at least one Texan, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier.<ref name=edmondson407>Edmondson (2000), p. 407.</ref><ref>Groneman (1990), p. 119.</ref>
] purports to hold the ashes of the Alamo defenders. Historians believe it more likely that the ashes were buried near the Alamo.]] ] purports to hold the ashes of the Alamo defenders. Historians believe it more likely that the ashes were buried near the Alamo.]]


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Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle "was but a small affair".<ref name=lord167>Lord (1961), p. 167.</ref> Another officer, however, remarked that "with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil".<ref group=Note>The identify of this officer is disputed. Edmondson (2000), p. 374 claims that this remark was made by Colonel Juan Almonte, and overheard by Almonte's cook, Ben. Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 55. attributes the remark to Lieutenant Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro.</ref><ref name=todish55/> Estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60&ndash;2000, with an additional 250&ndash;300&nbsp;wounded.<ref name=todish55/> Most Alamo historians agree that 400&ndash;600&nbsp;Mexicans were killed or wounded.<ref name=todish55/><ref name=hardin155>Hardin (1961), p. 155.</ref><ref name=nofi136>Nofi (1992), p. 136.</ref> This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards".<ref name=todish55/> Santa Anna ordered that the Mexican soldiers be buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo. Ruiz claimed that the graveyard was near full and that he instead threw some of the corpses in the river.<ref name=edmondson374/> However, ] reported on March 13 that all Mexicans were buried.<ref name=lindley277>Lindley (2003), p. 277.</ref> Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle "was but a small affair".<ref name=lord167>Lord (1961), p. 167.</ref> Another officer, however, remarked that "with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil".<ref group=Note>The identify of this officer is disputed. Edmondson (2000), p. 374 claims that this remark was made by Colonel Juan Almonte, and overheard by Almonte's cook, Ben. Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 55. attributes the remark to Lieutenant Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro.</ref><ref name=todish55/> Estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60&ndash;2000, with an additional 250&ndash;300&nbsp;wounded.<ref name=todish55/> Most Alamo historians agree that 400&ndash;600&nbsp;Mexicans were killed or wounded.<ref name=todish55/><ref name=hardin155>Hardin (1961), p. 155.</ref><ref name=nofi136>Nofi (1992), p. 136.</ref> This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards".<ref name=todish55/> Santa Anna ordered that the Mexican soldiers be buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo. Ruiz claimed that the graveyard was near full and that he instead threw some of the corpses in the river.<ref name=edmondson374/> However, ] reported on March 13 that all Mexicans were buried.<ref name=lindley277>Lindley (2003), p. 277.</ref>


===Texian survivors=== ===Texan survivors===
{{main|List of Texan survivors of the Battle of the Alamo}} {{main|List of Texan survivors of the Battle of the Alamo}}
] survived the Battle of the Alamo. Santa Anna sent her to spread word of the Texian defeat to the Texas colonists.]] ] survived the Battle of the Alamo. Santa Anna sent her to spread word of the Texan defeat to the Texas colonists.]]
Santa Anna spared several of the Texians found at the Alamo. He freed both Travis's slave, Joe, and Bowie's ], Sam, because they were or had been slaves, and he hoped the act of mercy would convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion.<ref name=petite128>Petite (1998), p. 128.</ref> The surviving noncombatants were interviewed individually by Santa Anna on March 7. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Susanna Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury for her son who was of similar age.<ref name=todish55>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 55.</ref> Each woman was given a blanket and two silver ]s.<ref name=petite127>Petite (1998), p. 127.</ref> The Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Bexar; Dickinson, her daughter, and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben.<ref name=todish55/> Before they were allowed to leave, Santa Anna ordered that the surviving members of the Mexican army parade in a grand review,<ref name=edmondson377>Edmondson (2000), p. 377.</ref> in the hopes that Joe and Dickinson would deliver a warning to the remainder of the Texian forces that his army was unbeatable.<ref name=todish55/> Santa Anna spared several of the Texans found at the Alamo. He freed both Travis's slave, Joe, and Bowie's ], Sam, because they were or had been slaves, and he hoped the act of mercy would convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texan rebellion.<ref name=petite128>Petite (1998), p. 128.</ref> The surviving noncombatants were interviewed individually by Santa Anna on March 7. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Susanna Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury for her son who was of similar age.<ref name=todish55>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 55.</ref> Each woman was given a blanket and two silver ]s.<ref name=petite127>Petite (1998), p. 127.</ref> The Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Bexar; Dickinson, her daughter, and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben.<ref name=todish55/> Before they were allowed to leave, Santa Anna ordered that the surviving members of the Mexican army parade in a grand review,<ref name=edmondson377>Edmondson (2000), p. 377.</ref> in the hopes that Joe and Dickinson would deliver a warning to the remainder of the Texan forces that his army was unbeatable.<ref name=todish55/>


===Impact on revolution=== ===Impact on revolution===
Within hours of the end of the battle, the ] received Travis's March 3 dispatch. Unaware that the fort had fallen, delegate Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in ] to develop a constitution.<ref group=Note>The convention had ] on March 2.</ref> After being reappointed commander of all Texian troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400&nbsp;volunteers who had gathered to reinforce the Alamo.<ref name=edmondson375>Edmondson (2000), p. 375.</ref> Shortly after his arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived to report that the Alamo had fallen with all men slain.<ref name=nofi138>Nofi (1992), p. 138.</ref> Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. By the end of the day, however, Susannah Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales.<ref name=edmondson376>Edmondson (2000), p. 376.</ref> On hearing their news, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered the army to retreat.<ref name=todish67>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 67.</ref> This sparked ] from the Anglo settlements; even the government fled east.<ref name=todish68>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 68.</ref> Within hours of the end of the battle, the ] received Travis's March 3 dispatch. Unaware that the fort had fallen, delegate Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in ] to develop a constitution.<ref group=Note>The convention had ] on March 2.</ref> After being reappointed commander of all Texan troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400&nbsp;volunteers who had gathered to reinforce the Alamo.<ref name=edmondson375>Edmondson (2000), p. 375.</ref> Shortly after his arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived to report that the Alamo had fallen with all men slain.<ref name=nofi138>Nofi (1992), p. 138.</ref> Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. By the end of the day, however, Susannah Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales.<ref name=edmondson376>Edmondson (2000), p. 376.</ref> On hearing their news, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered the army to retreat.<ref name=todish67>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 67.</ref> This sparked ] from the Anglo settlements; even the government fled east.<ref name=todish68>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 68.</ref>


Despite their losses at the Alamo the Mexican army in Texas outnumbered the Texian army by almost 6 to 1.<ref name=lord190>Lord (1961), p. 190.</ref> Santa Anna assumed that all Texian resistance would crumble,<ref name=edmondson378/> and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory.<ref name=hardin158>Hardin (1994), p. 158.</ref> News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to Houston's army.<ref name=edmondson378>Edmondson (2000), p. 378.</ref> The '']'' editorialized that "had treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren".<ref name=lord169>Lord (1961), p. 169.</ref> Despite their losses at the Alamo the Mexican army in Texas outnumbered the Texan army by almost 6 to 1.<ref name=lord190>Lord (1961), p. 190.</ref> Santa Anna assumed that all Texan resistance would crumble,<ref name=edmondson378/> and that Texan soldiers would quickly leave the territory.<ref name=hardin158>Hardin (1994), p. 158.</ref> News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to Houston's army.<ref name=edmondson378>Edmondson (2000), p. 378.</ref> The '']'' editorialized that "had treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren".<ref name=lord169>Lord (1961), p. 169.</ref>


On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's camp near ]. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and the ] was essentially over after 18&nbsp;minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texian soldiers repeatedly cried "Remember the Alamo!"<ref name=todish69>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 69.</ref> Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: "That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished."<ref name=todish70>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 70.</ref> Houston replied, "You should have remembered that at the Alamo".<ref name=todish70/> Santa Anna was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and giving some legitimacy to the new ].<ref name=todish70/> On the afternoon of April 21 the Texan army attacked Santa Anna's camp near ]. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and the ] was essentially over after 18&nbsp;minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texan soldiers repeatedly cried "Remember the Alamo!"<ref name=todish69>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 69.</ref> Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: "That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished."<ref name=todish70>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 70.</ref> Houston replied, "You should have remembered that at the Alamo".<ref name=todish70/> Santa Anna was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and giving some legitimacy to the new ].<ref name=todish70/>


==Legacy== ==Legacy==
Line 198: Line 198:
Within Mexico, perceptions of the battle have often mirrored the country's view of Santa Anna.<ref name=glaser98>Glaser (1985), p. 98.</ref> Many of the Mexican officers who participated in the battle left memoirs, although some were not written until decades later.<ref name=nofi211>Nofi (1992), p. 211.</ref> Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many of the memoirs or other accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or became, outspoken critics. Petite, and many other historians, believe that many of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna.<ref name=petite124>Petite (1998), p. 124.</ref> In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by the ] of the 1840s.<ref name=glaser98/> Within Mexico, perceptions of the battle have often mirrored the country's view of Santa Anna.<ref name=glaser98>Glaser (1985), p. 98.</ref> Many of the Mexican officers who participated in the battle left memoirs, although some were not written until decades later.<ref name=nofi211>Nofi (1992), p. 211.</ref> Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many of the memoirs or other accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or became, outspoken critics. Petite, and many other historians, believe that many of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna.<ref name=petite124>Petite (1998), p. 124.</ref> In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by the ] of the 1840s.<ref name=glaser98/>


In San Antonio de Bexar, the largely Tejano population viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battlesite; it represented decades of assistance&mdash;as a mission, a hospital, or a military post.<ref name=schoelwer18>Schoelwer (1985), p. 18.</ref> As the English-speaking population increased, the battle gained more importance. Focus has become centered primarily on the Texian defenders, with little emphasis given to the role of the Tejano soldiers who served in the Texian army or the actions of the Mexican army.<ref name=schoelwer52and56>Schoelwer (1985), pp. 52, 56.</ref> The Texas Legislature eventually purchased the property and appointed the ] (DRT) as permanent caretakers<ref name=todish199>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 199.</ref> of what is now an official state shrine to the Texian<!-- Please note that 'Texian' is the correct contemporary spelling--> defenders.<ref name=gronemanbattle52/> In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a ], designed by ], which commemorates the Texians and Tejanos<!-- Please note that 'Texian' is the correct contemporary spelling--> who died during the battle.<ref name=gronemanbattle56>Groneman (1998), p. 56.</ref> According to Bill Groneman's ''Battlefields of Texas'', the Alamo has become "the most popular tourist site in Texas".<ref name=gronemanbattle52>Groneman (1998), p. 52.</ref> In San Antonio de Bexar, the largely Tejano population viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battlesite; it represented decades of assistance&mdash;as a mission, a hospital, or a military post.<ref name=schoelwer18>Schoelwer (1985), p. 18.</ref> As the English-speaking population increased, the battle gained more importance. Focus has become centered primarily on the Texan defenders, with little emphasis given to the role of the Tejano soldiers who served in the Texan army or the actions of the Mexican army.<ref name=schoelwer52and56>Schoelwer (1985), pp. 52, 56.</ref> The Texas Legislature eventually purchased the property and appointed the ] (DRT) as permanent caretakers<ref name=todish199>Todish ''et al'' (1998), p. 199.</ref> of what is now an official state shrine to the Texan<!-- Please note that 'Texan' is the correct contemporary spelling--> defenders.<ref name=gronemanbattle52/> In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a ], designed by ], which commemorates the Texans and Tejanos<!-- Please note that 'Texan' is the correct contemporary spelling--> who died during the battle.<ref name=gronemanbattle56>Groneman (1998), p. 56.</ref> According to Bill Groneman's ''Battlefields of Texas'', the Alamo has become "the most popular tourist site in Texas".<ref name=gronemanbattle52>Groneman (1998), p. 52.</ref>


] wrote the first history of the battle, which was published in 1843.]] ] wrote the first history of the battle, which was published in 1843.]]

Revision as of 01:51, 29 January 2009

"Alamo" redirects here. For other uses, see Alamo (disambiguation).
The Battle of the Alamo
Part of the Texas Revolution

Plan of the Alamo, by José Juan Sánchez-Navarro, 1836.
DateFebruary 23–March 6, 1836
LocationSan Antonio, Texas
Result Mexican victory
Belligerents
Republic of Mexico  Republic of Texas
Commanders and leaders
Antonio López de Santa Anna William Travis†
Jim Bowie†
Strength
2,400 180–260
Casualties and losses
400–600 killed or wounded 182–257 killed
Texas Revolution

The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 – March 6, 1836) is the most famous battle of the Texas Revolution. After an insurgent army of Texan settlers and adventurers from the United States drove all Mexican troops out of Mexican Texas, Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led an invasion to regain control of the area. Mexican forces arrived in San Antonio de Bexar on February 23 and initiated a siege of the Texan forces garrisoned at the Alamo Mission.

In the early morning hours of March 6 the Mexican army launched an assault on the Alamo. The outnumbered Texans repulsed two attacks, but were unable to fend off a third. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texan soldiers retreated into the long barracks or the chapel. Several small groups who were unable to reach these points attempted to escape and were killed outside the walls by the waiting Mexican cavalry. The Mexican soldiers fought room-to-room and soon had control over the Alamo. Between five and seven Texans may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed on Santa Anna's orders. Most eyewitness accounts reported between 182 and 257 Texan dead, while most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. Of the Texans who fought during the battle, only two survived: Joe, spared because he was a slave, and Brigido Guerrero, a Mexican Army deserter who convinced Mexican soldiers he had been imprisoned. Women and children, primarily family members of the Texan soldiers, were questioned by Santa Anna and then released.

On Santa Anna's orders, three of the survivors were sent to Gonzales to spread word of the Texan defeat. After hearing this news, Texan army commander Sam Houston ordered a retreat; this sparked the Runaway Scrape, a mass exodus of citizens and the Texas government towards the east (away from the Mexican army). News of the Alamo's fall prompted many Texas colonists to join Houston's army. On the afternoon of April 21 the Texan army attacked Santa Anna's forces in the Battle of San Jacinto. During the battle many Texans shouted "Remember the Alamo!" Santa Anna was captured and forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the area, which subsequently became the Republic of Texas.

By March 24 a list of names of the Texans who died at the Alamo had begun to be compiled. The first history of the battle was published in 1843, but serious study of the battle did not begin until after the 1931 publication of Amelia W. Williams's dissertation attempting to identify all of the Texans who died at the Alamo. The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was published in 1948. The battle was first depicted in film in the 1911 silent film The Immortal Alamo, and has since been featured in numerous movies, including one directed by John Wayne. The Alamo church building has been designated an official Texas state shrine, with the Daughters of the Republic of Texas acting as permanent caretakers.

Background

Further information: Mexican Texas and Texas Revolution

In 1835 federalists across Mexico began to revolt against the increasingly dictatorial reign of President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In October, settlers in Mexican Texas launched an armed uprising against the Mexican government. Santa Anna immediately began preparations to invade Texas and end the Texas Revolution. His invasion force, named the Army of Operations in Texas, was comprised primarily of raw recruits, including conscripts and convicts.

As Santa Anna assembled his forces in Mexico, the Texans systematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. After the surrender of Santa Anna's brother-in-law, General Martin Perfecto de Cos, on December 9, no Mexican troops remained in Texas. Unprepared for a long campaign, many Texas settlers had left the Texan Army; by the time Cos surrendered, the Texan Army was dominated by recent arrivals to the region, primarily adventurers from the United States. According to historian Alwyn Barr, their presence "contributed to the Mexican view that Texan opposition stemmed from outside influences".

Angered by what he perceived as American interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Anna directed the Mexican Congress to authorize the army to treat any foreigners found fighting in Texas as pirates. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war; in this time period, captured pirates were executed immediately. Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States President Andrew Jackson. The letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the American recruits serving in the Texan Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war.

When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Bexar (now San Antonio, Texas), Texan soldiers established a garrison at the Alamo Mission, a former religious outpost now used as a makeshift fort. Described by Santa Anna as an "irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name", the Alamo had been designed to withstand an attack by native tribes, not artillery. The complex sprawled across 3 acres (1.2 ha), providing almost 1,320 feet (400 m) of perimeter to be defended. An interior plaza was bordered on the west by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks. A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings. The east side of the plaza contained the two-story Long Barracks, formerly the convent. At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen, with a horse corral between it and the plaza. The walls surrounding the complex were at least 2.75 feet (0.84 m) thick and ranged from 9–12 ft (2.7–3.7 m) high.

Texan engineer Green B. Jameson made many improvements to the fortifications. To compensate for a lack of firing ports, Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, would leave the shooter's upper body exposed. Mexican forces had left behind 19 cannon, including an 18-pounder, which Jameson installed along the walls. He boasted to Texan army commander Sam Houston that the Texans could "whip 10 to 1 with our artillery".

The Texan garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100 soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836. Colonel James C. Neill, the acting Alamo commander, wrote to the provisional government: "If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it". Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely unable to withstand a siege greater than four days. The Texan government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance. Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army; on Janury 14 Neill approached Houston for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition.

Prelude to battle

James Bowie arrived at the Alamo Mission on January 19 with orders to destroy the complex. He instead became the garrison's co-commader.

Realizing that it would be difficult for the Texans to hold the Alamo, Houston ordered Colonel James Bowie to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex. Bowie soon discovered that the Alamo garrison lacked draft animals, making it impossible to transport the artillery. Neill was unwilling to abandon the fortress and persuaded Bowie of the location's strategic importance. In a letter to Governor Henry Smith, Bowie argued that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Bexar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine." The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy." Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder". Smith ordered a cavalry officer, William B. Travis, to reinforce the Alamo. Travis arrived in Bexar with 30 men on February 3. Five days later, Davy Crockett arrived.

On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, likely to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies for the garrison. He transitioned command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison. Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader. The men instead elected Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated his election by getting very drunk and creating havoc in Bexar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis.

General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna led Mexican troops into Texas in 1836.

The Texans were unaware that Santa Anna had begun invasion preparations the year before. By late December, however, the Mexican Army of Operations had begun marching north; on February 12 they crossed the Rio Grande. Progress was slow, and rations ran short. Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15–16 inches (38–41 cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, and Comanche raiding parties took a large toll on the Mexican soldiers.

As early as February 16, residents of Bexar began warning the Texans of the Mexican approach. Travis disregarded the rumors. On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of the Medina River, 25 miles (40 km) from Bexar. With no idea that the Mexican army was so close, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Bexar residents at a fiesta on February 22 to celebrate George Washington's birthday. After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered General Ramirez y Sesma to seize the unprotected Alamo; sudden rains halted the raid.

Siege

Main article: Siege of the Alamo

Investment

Unlike Travis, Bexar residents believed that the Mexican army would arrive imminently. On February 23, the town emptied as residents fled. Travis stationed one of his soldiers in the San Fernando church bell tower to watch for any signs of the Mexican army. Several hours later, he sent several men to scout the surrounding area; they returned quickly, having seen Mexican troops 1.5 miles (2.4 km) outside the town. The garrison was completely unprepared for the Mexican army arrival. The Texans quickly herded cattle into the Alamo and scrounged for food in some of the recently abandoned houses. A few members of the garrison brought their families into the Alamo for safety. Among these were Alamaron Dickinson, who fetched his wife Susanna and their daughter Angelina, and Bowie, who brought his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury and Alsbury's young son into the fort.

“ I reply to you, according to the order of His Excellency, that the Mexican army cannot come to terms under any conditions with rebellious foreigners to whom there is no recourse left, if they wish to save their lives, than to place themselves immediately at the disposal of the Supreme Government from whom alone they may expect clemency after some considerations. ”
–response of Jose Bartres to Texan requests for an honorable surrender, as quoted in the journal of Juan Almonte

Travis quickly dispatched couriers to Gonzales and Goliad with pleas for reinforcements. By late afternoon Bexar was occupied by about 1500 Mexican troops, who immediately raised a blood-red flag signifying no quarter. Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon. Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna. Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own emissary. The men met with Colonel Juan Almonte and Jose Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texans asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional. On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again.

The first night of the siege was relatively quiet. The Mexican cavalry was stationed to the north and east of the Alamo to prevent the arrival of Texan reinforcements. The next day, 600 more troops arrived, allowing Santa Anna to post a company of soldiers east of the Alamo, on the road to Gonzales. Days later, Santa Anna stationed Almonte and 800 dragoons along the road to Goliad to intercept rumored Texan reinforcements.

In the first few days of the siege, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1000 feet (300 m) from the south and east walls of the Alamo. A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.

Skirmishes

The Mexican army kept up a consistent barrage of artillery shells. During the first week of the siege over 200 Mexican cannon shots landed in the Alamo plaza. The Texans often picked up the cannonballs and reused them. At first the Texans matched Mexican artillery fire, but on February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot.

The first fatality of the siege occurred on February 24, when Texans killed a Mexican scout. The following morning, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed the San Antonio River and took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls. Several Texans ventured out to burn the huts, and Texans within the Alamo provided cover fire. After a two-hour skirmish the Mexican troops retreated to Bexar. Two Mexican soldiers were killed and four wounded; no Texans were injured.

A blue norther blew in that evening and dropped the temperature to 39 °F (4 °C). Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures. Several Texans ventured out to gather firewood but returned empty-handed after encountering Mexican troops. On the evening of February 26, the Texans burned more huts. Santa Anna sent Colonel Juan Bringas to engage the Texans, and according to Edmondson, one Texan was killed.

Texan troop movements

“ I am determined to sustain myself as long as possible & die like a soldier who never forgets what is due to his own honor & that of his country. VICTORY OR DEATH. ”
–excerpt from William B. Travis's letter To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World.

The sudden arrival of the Mexican army caught several Texans outside the fort. Most did not try to sneak past Mexican lines, but on the night of February 23, Gregorio Esparza and his family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel to join the Texans. At some point on Wednesday, February 24, Bowie collapsed from illness, leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison. That afternoon Travis wrote a letter addressed To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World, which is, according to historian Mary Deborah Petite, "considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism". Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas, and it was eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.

Travis sent multiple other letters pleading for reinforcements. As news of the siege spread throughout the colonies, settlers gathered in Gonzales to wait for Colonel James Fannin, commander of the only other garrison of Texan troops, to arrive with more troops. Impatient with waiting, on February 27, some of the men from Gonzales began their march towards Bexar. That same night, Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales "to hurry up reinforcements". According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian soon found the group from Gonzales and volunteered to lead them to the Alamo. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving off four of the men, including Bastian. In the darkness, the Texans fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the defenders to open the gates.

James Fannin's attempt to reinforce the Alamo garrison was unsuccessful.

After days of indecision, Fannin had finally decided to offer assistance. On the morning of February 26, he led 320 men, 4 cannon, and several supply wagons on the 90 miles (140 km) march from Goliad to the Alamo. By the end of the day, they had traveled less than 1 mile (1.6 km). The following day the group returned to Presidio La Bahia. Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers, claiming they requested the journey's cancellation after learning that General Urrea's army was marching towards Goliad. The officers and men in the expedition maintained that Fannin decided on his own to abort the mission.

According to Lindley, after Fannin's aborted rescue mission up to 50 of his men, most of whom had belonged to the New Orleans Greys, left Goliad to rescue their former mates in the Alamo. On March 3, these men joined a group waiting at Cibolo Creek for Fannin. After Mexican reinforcements arrived in Bexar that day, Travis sent three men, including Davy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which they still believed was en route. Lindley stated that just before midnight, Crockett reached Cibolo Creek and found the force of Texans waiting 20 miles (32 km) from the Alamo. Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texan force managed to break through the Mexican lines and enter the Alamo. A second group was driven across the prairie by Mexican soldiers. Almonte's journal reported that there was an engagement that night, but that the Mexican troops had repulsed the assault.

Assault preparations

On March 3, The Texans watched from the walls as approximately 1000 Mexican troops, attired in dress uniform, marched into Bexar's military plaza to reinforce Santa Anna. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under General Jose de Urrea had soundly defeated Texan Colonel Frank W. Johnson at the Battle of San Patricio on February 27. Most of the Texans in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Bexar to almost 2,400.

On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna called his senior officers together and proposed an assault of the fort. Many of the participants recommended that the battle wait for the two 12 lb (5.4 kg) cannons, anticipated to arrive on March 7. A local woman, likely Juana Navarro Alsbury, approached Santa Anna that evening and attempted to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo defenders. According to many historians, this visit likely increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, "there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory". The following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6.

That evening, James Allen became the last courier to leave the Alamo. He carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men. Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was likely imminent, and that the Mexican Army would prevail. He supposedly drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the Texan cause to cross and stand alongside him. A bedridden Bowie requested that Crockett and several others carry his cot over the line, leaving only one man, Louis "Moses" Rose on the other side. Explaining that he was not yet ready to die, Rose deserted that evening. This episode was first mentioned in a newspaper article written thirty-five years later by a reporter who said his parents heard the story directly from Rose. The reporter later admitted to embellishing pieces of the article, and as Rose had died by the time the story was published, the story could not be authenticated. Years after the story was published, Alamo survivors Susannah Dickinson and Enrique Esparza mentioned the incident, but many details conflicted.

At 10 pm, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had planned, the exhausted Texans soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many had gotten since the siege began.

Final assault

Exterior fighting

Initial Mexican troop deployment
Commander Troops Equipment
Cos 350 10 ladders

2 crowbars
2 axes

Duque/Castrillon 400 10 ladders
Romero 400 6 ladders
Morales 125 2 ladders
Santa Anna 400 reserves

Just after midnight on March 6 the Mexican army began preparing for the final assault. The troops were divided into four columns, commanded by Cos, Colonel Francisco Duque, Colonel Jose Marie Romero, and Colonel Juan Morales. Santa Anna would supervise the reserves, while the Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent escape of either Texan or Mexican soldiers. Despite the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats, which could impede their movements. Clouds concealed the moon, and thus the movements of the soldiers.

At 5:30 a.m. Santa Anna gave the order to advance. Troops silently moved forward, with veterans positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits in the middle. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo, while Duque led his men from the northwest to the breach in the Alamo's north wall. The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel. In front of each column ranged several lines of light infantry, poised to "pick off any defenders who showed their heads". The three Texans sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep.

The silence was soon broken by shouts of "Viva Santa Anna!" and music from the buglers. The Texans awakened and rushed to their posts. As Travis ran to his post, he shouted, "Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!" and, as he passed a group of Tejanos, "!No rendirse, muchachos!" ("No surrender, boys"). Most of the noncombatants gathered in the church sacristy for safety. By this point, the Mexican army was already within musket range.

Alamo commander William B. Travis was likely one of the first defenders to die.

In the initial moments of the assault Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to safely fire. The untrained recruits in the ranks did not realize this, and "blindly fir their guns", injuring or killing the troops in front of them. The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texan artillery. Lacking canister shot, Texans filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns. According to the diary of José Enrique de la Peña, "a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs from Toluca". Duque fell from his horse after suffering a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. General Manuel Castrillon quickly assumed command of Duque's column.

Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on. As the troops massed against the walls, Texans were forced to lean over the walls to shoot, leaving them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis became one of the first defenders to die as he fired his shotgun into the soldiers below him. Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls; those that arrived were poorly made. The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texans discharged their previously loaded rifles, however, they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls.

The Fall of the Alamo, painted by Theodore Gentilz in 1844, depicts the final assault.

Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped, but their second attack was again repulsed. Fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time. During the third strike, Romero's column, aiming for the east wall, were exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column. Cos's column, under fire from Texans on the west wall, also veered north. When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he feared a rout; "panicked", he sent the reserves into the same area. The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the 12 feet (3.7 m) wall was General Juan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the wall. Amador opened the postern in the north wall, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex. Others began climbing through gun ports in the west wall, which had few defenders. As the Texan defenders abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall, Texan gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon toward the north and began firing into the incoming Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's eighteen-pounder cannon. By this time Romero's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen.

Interior fighting

Great God, Sue, the Mexicans are inside our walls! If they spare you, save my child
–Last words of Texan defender Almaron Dickinson to his wife Susana as he prepared to defend the chapel

As previously planned, most of the Texans fell back to the barracks and the chapel. Holes had been carved in the walls so that the Texans could fire. The defenders in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. After discharging their weapons, the small band of Texans scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie, which appeared empty. As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group, Almeron Dickinson and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting some casualties. Nevertheless, all of these escaping Texans were killed.

Unable to reach the barracks, another group of Texans, stationed along the west wall, headed west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texans took cover and began firing from a ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcements, and the Texans were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50 Texans, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated.

The Fall of the Alamo by Robert Jenkins Onderdonk depicts Davy Crockett in a charge at the Mexican troops who have breached the walls of the mission.

The last Texan group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men, defending the low wall in front of the church. Unable to reload, they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives. After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexican bayonets, the few remaining Texans in this group fell back toward the church. The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls. Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texan flag waving from the roof of one building. Four Mexicans were killed before the flag of Mexico was raised in that location.

It took an hour for the Mexican army to secure complete control of the Alamo. Many of the remaining defenders were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms. In the confusion, the Texans had neglected to spike their cannons before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannons toward the barracks. As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge in for hand-to-hand combat. De la Pena's diary remarked that some Texans hung white flags through the doorways of their barracks rooms, but that they had no intentions of surrendering; a Mexican soldier who entered the room without firing would find himself attacked.

Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie likely died in bed. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him, alive, from the room. Other witnesses claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head. According to historian Wallace Chariton, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate" version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife."

The last of the Texans to die were the eleven men manning the two twelve-pounder cannon in the chapel. A shot from the eighteen-pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from the apse into the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texans, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and James Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death. Texan Robert Evans, the master of ordnance, had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder. Had he succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church, killing the women and children hiding in the sacristy as well.

As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the sons of defender Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders. In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him. Possibly the last Texan to die in battle was Jacob Walker, who attempted to hide behind Susannah Dickinson and the other women and was bayonetted in front of them. Another Texan, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy. Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texan prisoner.

By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over. Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved. Even with all of the Texans dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although he showed himself, the violence continued, and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15 minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies.

Aftermath

Casualties

According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texans surrendered. Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors. Weeks after the battle, stories began to circulate that Crockett was among those who surrendered. However, Ben, a former American slave who served one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by "no less than sixteen Mexican corpses". Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate.

Santa Anna ordered that the face of every corpse be wiped clean so that they could positively identify which soldiers were Mexican and which were Texan. According to Francisco Ruiz, possibly the alcade of Bexar, he was ordered by Santa Anna to identify the bodies of Travis, Bowie, and Crockett. Joe was also asked to point out Travis's body. With the identifications complete, Santa Anna ordered that the Texan bodies be stacked and burned. The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza, whose brother Francisco served in Santa Anna's army and received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.

In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texans had been killed, with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded. His secretary, Ramon Martinez Caro, later remarked that he had not wished to make a false report but had done so under Santa Anna's orders. Other eyewitnesses counted between 182–257 Texans killed. Some historians believe that at least one Texan, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier.

A coffin in the San Fernando Cathedral purports to hold the ashes of the Alamo defenders. Historians believe it more likely that the ashes were buried near the Alamo.

The ashes were left where they fell until February 1837, when Juan Seguin returned to Bexar to examine the remains. At Seguin's behest, the bells at the San Fernando Cathedral pealed all day. A simple coffin inscribed with the names Travis, Crockett, and Bowie was filled with ashes from the funeral pyres. According to a March 28, 1937 article in the Telegraph and Texas Register, Seguin buried the coffin under a peach tree grove. The spot was not marked and cannot now be identified. However, in 1899 Seguin claimed that he had placed the coffin in front of the altar at the San Fernando Cathedral. In July 1936 a coffin was discovered buried in that location, but according to historian Wallace Chariton it is unlikely to actually contain the remains of the Alamo defenders. Fragments of uniforms were found in the coffin, and it is known that the Alamo defenders did not wear uniforms.

Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle "was but a small affair". Another officer, however, remarked that "with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil". Estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60–2000, with an additional 250–300 wounded. Most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards". Santa Anna ordered that the Mexican soldiers be buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo. Ruiz claimed that the graveyard was near full and that he instead threw some of the corpses in the river. However, Sam Houston reported on March 13 that all Mexicans were buried.

Texan survivors

Main article: List of Texan survivors of the Battle of the Alamo
Susanna Dickinson survived the Battle of the Alamo. Santa Anna sent her to spread word of the Texan defeat to the Texas colonists.

Santa Anna spared several of the Texans found at the Alamo. He freed both Travis's slave, Joe, and Bowie's freedman, Sam, because they were or had been slaves, and he hoped the act of mercy would convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texan rebellion. The surviving noncombatants were interviewed individually by Santa Anna on March 7. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Susanna Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury for her son who was of similar age. Each woman was given a blanket and two silver pesos. The Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Bexar; Dickinson, her daughter, and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben. Before they were allowed to leave, Santa Anna ordered that the surviving members of the Mexican army parade in a grand review, in the hopes that Joe and Dickinson would deliver a warning to the remainder of the Texan forces that his army was unbeatable.

Impact on revolution

Within hours of the end of the battle, the new Texas provisional government received Travis's March 3 dispatch. Unaware that the fort had fallen, delegate Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in Washington-on-the-Brazos to develop a constitution. After being reappointed commander of all Texan troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400 volunteers who had gathered to reinforce the Alamo. Shortly after his arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived to report that the Alamo had fallen with all men slain. Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. By the end of the day, however, Susannah Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales. On hearing their news, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered the army to retreat. This sparked a mass exodus of Texans from the Anglo settlements; even the government fled east.

Despite their losses at the Alamo the Mexican army in Texas outnumbered the Texan army by almost 6 to 1. Santa Anna assumed that all Texan resistance would crumble, and that Texan soldiers would quickly leave the territory. News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to Houston's army. The New York Post editorialized that "had treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren".

On the afternoon of April 21 the Texan army attacked Santa Anna's camp near Lynchburg Ferry. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and the Battle of San Jacinto was essentially over after 18 minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texan soldiers repeatedly cried "Remember the Alamo!" Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: "That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished." Houston replied, "You should have remembered that at the Alamo". Santa Anna was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and giving some legitimacy to the new Republic of Texas.

Legacy

Main article: Legacy of the Battle of the Alamo

Within Mexico, perceptions of the battle have often mirrored the country's view of Santa Anna. Many of the Mexican officers who participated in the battle left memoirs, although some were not written until decades later. Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many of the memoirs or other accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or became, outspoken critics. Petite, and many other historians, believe that many of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna. In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by the Mexican-American War of the 1840s.

In San Antonio de Bexar, the largely Tejano population viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battlesite; it represented decades of assistance—as a mission, a hospital, or a military post. As the English-speaking population increased, the battle gained more importance. Focus has become centered primarily on the Texan defenders, with little emphasis given to the role of the Tejano soldiers who served in the Texan army or the actions of the Mexican army. The Texas Legislature eventually purchased the property and appointed the Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) as permanent caretakers of what is now an official state shrine to the Texan defenders. In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a cenotaph, designed by Pompeo Coppini, which commemorates the Texans and Tejanos who died during the battle. According to Bill Groneman's Battlefields of Texas, the Alamo has become "the most popular tourist site in Texas".

John Henry Brown wrote the first history of the battle, which was published in 1843.

The first histories of the battle were written and published by Texas Ranger and amateur historian John Henry Brown. The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter's The Fall of the Alamo, published in The Magazine of American History in 1878. Potter based his work on interviews with many of the Mexican survivors of the battle. The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was not published until 1948, when John Myers Myers's The Alamo was released.

This replica of the Alamo is located at Alamo Village. It was built for the 1960 John Wayne film The Alamo.

According to Todish et al., "there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books, but from the various movies made about the battle." The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911, when Gaston Melies directed The Immortal Alamo. The battle gained a larger popularity after it was featured in the 1955 miniseries Walt Disney's Davy Crockett: King of the Wild Frontier, which was largely based on myth. Within several years, John Wayne directed and starred in one of the best-known, but least accurate, film version, 1960's The Alamo. In 2004 another film, also called The Alamo, was released. CNN described it as possibly "the most character-driven of all the movies made on the subject".

A number of songwriters have also been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo. Tennessee Ernie Ford's "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" spent 16 weeks on the country music charts, peaking at number 4 in 1955. Marty Robbins recorded a version of the song "The Ballad of the Alamo" in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts, peaking at number 34.

See also

Notes

  1. The plaza covered an area 75 feet (23 m) long and 62 feet (19 m) wide. The Low Barracks was 114 feet (35 m) long, and the Long Barracks was 186 feet (57 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide. (Myers (1948), pp. 180–1.)
  2. A week after Neill sent his letter, the Texan provisional legislature impeached the governor, who in turn disbanded the legislature. The interim constitution had given neither party the authority to take those actions, and no one in Texas was entirely sure who was in charge. (Todish et al (1998), pp. 30–1.)
  3. Houston, James Fannin, Frank W. Johnson, and Dr. James Grant (Todish et al (1998), p. 30.)
  4. The Sabine River marked the eastern border of Mexican Texas.
  5. Volunteers in the Texan Army asserted the right to choose their own leaders; most were unwilling to serve under officers in the regular army.
  6. Although Santa Anna later reported that the cannon fire killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others, no other Mexican officer reported fatalities from that day. (Todish et al (1998), p. 40., Edmondson (2000), p. 304.)
  7. Colonel Juan Almonte's journal did not mention any skirmishes that evening. In 1837, Santa Anna's secretary Roman Martinez Caro did report "two small reinforcements from Gonzales that succeeded in breaking through our lines and entering the fort. The first consisted of four men who gained the fort one night, and the second was a party of twenty-five". (Lindley (2003), p. 131.)
  8. These Texan reinforcements were later dubbed the Immortal 32.
  9. Susannah Dickinson mentioned this party in an interview in 1876.
  10. Lieutenant Jose Maria Torres is credited with successfully raising the Mexican flag; he was mortally wounded in the process. (Todish et al (1998), p. 54.)
  11. According to Edmondson, Wolf then ran into the room, grabbed his remaining son, and leaped with the child from the cannon ramp at the rear of the church; both were killed by musket shots before hitting the ground. (Edmondson (2000), p. 372.)
  12. Edmondson speculates that these men might have been sick or wounded and were therefore unable to fight. (Edmondson (2000), p. 373)
  13. According to Petite (1998), p. 124, "Every account of the Crockett surrender-execution story comes from an avowed antagonist (either on political or military grounds) of Santa Anna's. It is believed that many stories, such as the surrender and execution of Crockett, were created and spread in order to discredit Santa Anna and add to his role as villain."
  14. Lindley believes that Ruiz was not in Bexar at the time. Lindley (2003), p. 278.
  15. Cremating bodies was anathema at the time, as most people believed that a body could not be resurrected unless it were whole. (Petite (1998), p. 139.)
  16. The identify of this officer is disputed. Edmondson (2000), p. 374 claims that this remark was made by Colonel Juan Almonte, and overheard by Almonte's cook, Ben. Todish et al (1998), p. 55. attributes the remark to Lieutenant Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro.
  17. The convention had declared independence on March 2.
  18. Historians J. Frank Dobie and Lon Tinkle demanded that they not be listed as historical advisors in the credits of The Alamo because of its disjunction from reality. (Todish et al, p. 188.)

References

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  6. Barr (1990), p. 63.
  7. Scott (2000), p. 71.
  8. Scott (2000), pp. 74–5.
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  10. Edmondson (2000), p. 128.
  11. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 131.
  12. ^ Myers (1948), p. 181.
  13. Todish et al (1998), p. 10.
  14. ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 364.
  15. Myers (1948), p. 180.
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  17. Hardin (1994), p. 111.
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  113. Chariton (1992), p. 74.
  114. Petite (1998), p. 115.
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  162. Cox, Mike (March 6, 1998), "Last of the Alamo big books rests with 'A Time to Stand'", The Austin-American Statesman
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  165. Todish et al (1998), p. 188.
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Bibliography

  • Barr, Alwyn (1996), Black Texans: A history of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (2nd ed.), Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 080612878X
  • Chariton, Wallace O. (1990), Exploring the Alamo Legends, Dallas, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556222559
  • Edmondson, J.R. (2000), The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1-55622-678-0
  • Glaser, Tom W. (1985), Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast (ed.), Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience, Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press, ISBN 0870742132
  • Groneman, Bill (1990), Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 089015757X
  • Groneman, Bill (1996), Eyewitness to the Alamo, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1556225024
  • Groneman, Bill (1998), Battlefields of Texas, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556225710
  • Hardin, Stephen L. (1994), Texian Iliad, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-73086-1
  • Hopewell, Clifford (1994), James Bowie Texas Fighting Man: A Biography, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 0890158819
  • Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003), Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions, Lanham, MD: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1556229836
  • Lord, Walter (1961), A Time to Stand, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803279027
  • Manchaca, Martha (2001), Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans, The Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292752539
  • Myers, John Myers (1948), The Alamo, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803257791
  • Nofi, Albert A. (1992), The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History, Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, Inc., ISBN 0938289101
  • Petite, Mary Deborah (1999), 1836 Facts about the Alamo and the Texas War for Independence, Mason City, IA: Savas Publishing Company, ISBN 188281035X
  • Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast (1985), Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience, Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press, ISBN 0870742132
  • Scott, Robert (2000), After the Alamo, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556226915
  • Tinkle, Lon (1985), 13 Days to Glory: The Siege of the Alamo, College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 0890962383. Reprint. Originally published: New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958
  • Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998), Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 9781571681522

Further reading

  • Crisp, James E. (2005), Sleuthing the Alamo, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195163494
  • Hardin, Stephen L. (2001), The Alamo 1836: Santa Anna's Texas Campaign, Osprey Campaign Series #89, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1841760900

External links

Battle of the Alamo
Siege
Defenders
Mexican commanders
Texian survivors
Legacy
See also

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