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	== Life ==		== Life ==
	Shankara was born in ], a small village in ], ], to a ] ] couple, Shivaguru and Aryamba. The traditional source for accounts of his life is the ]s, which are essentially ]. The most important among them are the ], the ], ], and ]. What follows is the standard story of Shankara's life; some of it is clearly mythical, but a substantial portion is historical, according to most scholars.		Shankara was born in ], a small village in ], ], to a ] ] couple, Shivaguru and Aryamba. The traditional source for accounts of his life is the ]s, which are essentially ]. The most important among them are the ], the ], ], and ]. What follows is the standard story of Shankara's life; some of it is clearly mythical, but a substantial portion is historical, according to most scholars.

			===Birth===
	Shankara's parents were childless for many years, and prayed at the ] (vRashAcala) temple in ], ], for the boon of a child. Legend has it that ] appeared to both husband and wife in their dreams, and offered them a choice: a mediocre son who would live a long life, or an extraordinary son who would not live long. Both Shivaguru and Aryamba chose the latter. The son was named Shankara, in honour of Shiva.		Shankara's parents were childless for many years, and prayed at the ] (vRashAcala) temple in ], ], for the boon of a child. Legend has it that ] appeared to both husband and wife in their dreams, and offered them a choice: a mediocre son who would live a long life, or an extraordinary son who would not live long. Both Shivaguru and Aryamba chose the latter. The son was named Shankara, in honour of Shiva.

			===Formal education===
	Shivaguru died while Shankara was very young. The child showed remarkable scholarship, and is said to have mastered the four Vedas by the age of eight. Following the common practice of that era, Shankara lived and studied at the home of his teacher. It was customary for students and men of learning to receive ''Bhiksha'' or alms from the laity; on one occasion, while accepting ''Bhiksha'', Shankara came upon a woman who had nothing to eat in her house except a single dried amlaka fruit. Rather than consume this last bit of food herself, the pious lady gave away the fruit to Sankara as ''Bhiksha''. Moved by her piety, Shankara composed the Kanakadhara Stotram on the spot. Legend has it that on completion of the stotram, golden amlaka fruits were showered upon the woman by the goddess ].		Shivaguru died while Shankara was very young. The child showed remarkable scholarship, and is said to have mastered the four Vedas by the age of eight. Following the common practice of that era, Shankara lived and studied at the home of his teacher. It was customary for students and men of learning to receive ''Bhiksha'' or alms from the laity; on one occasion, while accepting ''Bhiksha'', Shankara came upon a woman who had nothing to eat in her house except a single dried amlaka fruit. Rather than consume this last bit of food herself, the pious lady gave away the fruit to Sankara as ''Bhiksha''. Moved by her piety, Shankara composed the Kanakadhara Stotram on the spot. Legend has it that on completion of the stotram, golden amlaka fruits were showered upon the woman by the goddess ].

			===Renunciation===
	From a young age, Shankara was attracted to asceticism and to the life of a renunciate. ~~His~~ mother Aryamba was ~~however~~ entirely against his becoming a ''Sannyasi'', and consistently refused him her formal permission, which was required before he could take ''Sannyasam''. Once when Shankara was bathing in the river, a crocodile gripped him by the leg and began ~~rapidly~~ to drag him into the water. Only his mother was nearby, and it proved impossible for her to get him away from the grip of the crocodile. Shankara then told his mother that he was on the verge of death; if she would give him her formal permission verbally, he would at this moment renounce the world and die a ''Sannyasi'' or ascetic. At the end of her wits, his mother agreed; Shankara immediately recited the words that made a renunciate of him, entered ''Sannyasa'', and awaited death. But inexplicably, the crocodile released him from its very jaws and swam away. Shankara emerged unscathed from the river, now a ''Sannyasi''.		From a young age, Shankara was attracted to ] and to the life of a renunciate. However, his mother, Aryamba, was entirely against his becoming a ''Sannyasi'', and consistently refused him her formal permission, which was required before he could take ''Sannyasam''. Once when Shankara was bathing in the river, a ] gripped him by the leg and began to rapidly drag him into the water. Only his mother was nearby, and it proved impossible for her to get him away from the grip of the crocodile. Shankara then told his mother that he was on the verge of death; if she would give him her formal permission verbally, he would at this moment renounce the world and die a ''Sannyasi'' or ascetic. At the end of her wits, his mother agreed; Shankara immediately recited the words that made a renunciate of him, entered ''Sannyasa'', and awaited death. But inexplicably, the crocodile released him from its very jaws and swam away. Shankara emerged unscathed from the river, now a ''Sannyasi''.

	Seeing in this incident the hand of God, Aryamba put no further obstacles in the path of her son. Shankara then left Kerala and travelled thoroughout India. When he reached the banks of the river ], he met ], the disciple of the ~~advaitin~~ ]. Shankara was initiated as his disciple.		Seeing in this incident the hand of God, Aryamba put no further obstacles in the path of her son. Shankara then left Kerala and travelled thoroughout India. When he reached the banks of the river ], he met ], the disciple of the Advaitin ]. Shankara was initiated as his disciple.

	===Travels===		===Travels===
	Shankara travelled extensively, while writing commentaries on the Upanishads, ], ], and the ]. He engaged in a series of debates with Buddhist scholars, and with scholars of the ] school, which helped in cementing his spiritual ascendancy. One of the most famous of these debates was with the famed ritualist ].		Shankara travelled extensively, while writing commentaries on the Upanishads, ], ], and the ]. He engaged in a series of debates with Buddhist scholars, and with scholars of the ] school, which helped in cementing his spiritual ascendancy. One of the most famous of these debates was with the famed ritualist ].

	His most famous encounter was however with an ]. On his way to the Vishwanath temple in Kashi, he came upon an untouchable and his dog. When asked to move aside by Shankara's disciples, the untouchable asked: "Do you wish that I move my soul, the atman and ever lasting, or this body made of clay?" Seeing the untouchable as none other than the Lord Shiva, Shankara prostrated himself before Ishwara, composing five ''shlokas'' (Manisha Panchakam).		His most famous encounter was however with an ]. On his way to the ] temple in ], he came upon an untouchable and his dog. When asked to move aside by Shankara's disciples, the untouchable asked: "Do you wish that I move my soul, the ] and ever lasting, or this body made of clay?" Seeing the untouchable as none other than the Lord ], Shankara prostrated himself before ], composing five ] (]).

	Once he was saved by ] from being sacrificed to goddess ] by a Kapalika. He then composed the ]-Nrsimha stotra. Another famous composition of Adi Shankara is his ], in praise of ].		Once he was saved by Sri ] from being sacrificed to goddess ] by a Kapalika. He then composed the ]-Nrsimha stotra. Another famous composition of Sri Adi Shankara is his ], in praise of ].

	It is a traditional belief that Adi Sankara installed at ] a ] called janakarshana to attract pilgrims to this sacred temple, just as at ] he installed the dhanakarshana yantra. Indeed, ] is the most visited ] temple in the world, and ] is the richest.		It is a traditional belief that Adi Sankara installed at ] a ] called janakarshana to attract pilgrims to this sacred temple, just as at ] he installed the dhanakarshana yantra. Indeed, ] is the most visited ] temple in the world, and ] is the richest.

	Shankara is believed to have attained the Sarvajnapitha in ]. After a while, he withdrew to ] and attained ] at the age of thirty-two. The Kamakshi Amman temple at ] also has a vrindavanam where he is believed to have attained siddhi. (A variant tradition expounded by ] places his place of death as ] (vRashAcala) temple in ], Kerala.)		Shankara is believed to have attained the Sarvajnapitha in ]. After a while, he withdrew to ] and attained ] at the age of thirty-two. The Kamakshi Amman temple at ] also has a vrindavanam where he is believed to have attained siddhi. (A variant tradition expounded by ] places his place of death as ] (vRashAcala) temple in ], Kerala.)

	He died in 820 at Kedarnata in the Himalayas when only thirty-two years of age.		He died in 820 at Kedarnata in the Himalayas when only thirty-two years of age.

	== Shankara's dates ==		== Shankara's dates ==
	Modern scholarship is agreed on dates in the ], though it has proved impossible to reach agreement on Shankara's precise dates of birth or death. Some religious institutions dedicated to Shankara, such as Shankara mathams, however, ascribe much earlier dates to him. If these dates were true, they would require moving back the date of ] (which serves as an anchor for modern academic history of India)..		Modern scholarship is agreed on dates in the ], though it has proved impossible to reach agreement on Shankara's precise dates of birth or death. Some religious institutions dedicated to Shankara, such as Shankara mathams, however, ascribe much earlier dates to him. If these dates were true, they would require moving back the date of ] (which serves as an anchor for modern academic history of India) as suggested .

	Of the major Shankara Mathams active today, the Kanchi, Dwaraka, and Puri ascribe the dates 509–477 BCE to Shankara. The ] Peetham, on the other hand, accepts the 788–820 CE dates. (See also ].) <!-- (Need information on ]) -->		Of the major Shankara Mathams active today, the Kanchi, Dwaraka, and Puri ascribe the dates 509–477 BCE to Shankara. The ] Peetham, on the other hand, accepts the 788–820 CE dates. (See also ].) <!-- (Need information on ]) -->

			The Guru Parampara of the Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham can be found , and the Guru parampara of the Sringeri Sarada Peetham can be found .
⚫	According to Swami Niranjanananda Saraswati's biography of Shankara, published in his book ''Sannyasa Darshan'', Shankara was born in ~~Kalady~~, Kerala, in ], and attained ~~mahasamadhi~~ at Kedarnath, ], in ].

			External material supporting the 509–477 BCE dates can be found and (non-Peetham) material supporting the 788–820 CE dates can be found .
	:''See ] for external web sites with evidence and arguments on this subject.''

		⚫	According to Swami Niranjanananda Saraswati's biography of Shankara, published in his book "Sannyasa Darshan", Shankara was born in ], ], in ], and attained Mahasamadhi at ], ], in ].

	== Philosophy and religious thought ==		== Philosophy and religious thought ==
	At the time of Shankara's life, Hinduism had lost some of its appeal because of the influence of ] and ]. Shankara stressed the importance of the Vedas, and his work helped Hinduism regain strength and popularity. Although he did not live long, he had travelled on foot to various parts of India to restore the study of the Vedas.		At the time of Shankara's life, Hinduism had lost some of its appeal because of the influence of ] and ]. Shankara stressed the importance of the Vedas, and his work helped Hinduism regain strength and popularity. Although he did not live long, he had travelled on foot to various parts of India to restore the study of the Vedas.

	Shankara's theology maintains that spiritual ignorance ('']'') is caused by seeing the self ('']'') where self is not. Discrimination needs to be developed in order to distinguish true from false and knowledge ('']'') from ignorance ('']''). Shankara proposed that, while the phenomenal universe, our ] and bodily being are certainly experienced, they are not true reality, but are rather '']''. He considered that the ultimate truth was ], the single divine foundation, which is beyond time, space, and causation. Brahman is ] and ], but not merely a ] concept. Indeed, while Brahman is the efficient and material cause for the cosmos, Brahman itself is not limited by self-projection, and transcends all binary opposites or dualities, especially such individuated aspects as form and being.		Shankara's theology maintains that spiritual ignorance ('']'') is caused by seeing the self ('']'') where self is not. Discrimination needs to be developed in order to distinguish true from false and knowledge ('']'') from ignorance ('']'').
			Shankara proposed that, while the phenomenal ], our ] and bodily being are certainly experienced, they are not true reality, but are rather ]. He considered that the ultimate truth was '']'', the single divine foundation, which is beyond ], ], and ]. ''Brahman'' is ] and ], but not merely a ] concept. Indeed, while ''Brahman'' is the efficient and material cause for the cosmos, ''Brahman'' itself is not limited by self-projection, and transcends all binary opposites or dualities, especially such individuated aspects as form and being.

	We must pierce through a hazy lens to understand our true being and nature, which is not change and mortality, but unmitigated bliss for eternity. If we are to understand the true motive behind our actions and thoughts, we must become aware of the fundamental unity of being. How, he asks, can a limited mind comprehend the limitless ''Ātman''? It cannot, he argues, and therefore we must transcend even the mind and become one with Soul-consciousness.		We must pierce through a hazy lens to understand our true being and nature, which is not ] and ], but unmitigated bliss for ]. If we are to understand the true motive behind our actions and thoughts, we must become aware of the fundamental unity of being. How, he asks, can a limited mind comprehend the limitless ]? It cannot, he argues, and therefore we must transcend even the mind and become one with Soul-consciousness.

	Shankara denounced ] and meaningless ] as foolish, and exhorted the true devotee to meditate on god's love and to apprehend truth. His treatises on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Vedanta Sutras are testaments to a keen and intuitive mind that did not want to admit dogma but advocated reason. His ~~main~~ lesson was that reason and abstract philosophising alone would not lead to '']'' (liberation). It was only through selflessness and love governed by '']'' (discrimination) that a devotee would realise his inner self. Charges that his philosophical views were influenced by Buddhism are unfounded, since Shankara vehemently opposed negation of being ('']''), and believed that the unmanifest Brahman manifested itself as '']'', the loving, perfect being on high who is seen by many as being ] or ] or whatever their hearts dictate. Shankara is said to have travelled throughout India, from the ~~south~~ to ], preaching to the local populaces and debating philosophy (apparently successfully, though no documentation exists) with other Hindu and Buddhist scholars and monks along the way.		Shankara denounced ] and meaningless ] as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner exhorted the true devotee to meditate on god's love and to apprehend truth. His treatises on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Vedanta Sutras are testaments to a keen and intuitive mind that did not want to admit dogma but advocated reason. His greatest lesson was that reason and abstract philosophising alone would not lead to '']'' (liberation). It was only through selflessness and love governed by '']'' (discrimination) that a devotee would realise his inner self. Charges that his philosophical views were influenced by Buddhism are unfounded, since Shankara vehemently opposed negation of being ('']''), and believed that the unmanifest Brahman manifested itself as '']'', the loving, perfect being on high who is seen by many as being ] or ] or whatever their hearts dictate. Shankara is said to have travelled throughout India, from ] to ], preaching to the local populaces and debating philosophy (apparently successfully, though no documentation exists) with other Hindu and Buddhist scholars and monks along the way.

	His beliefs form the basis of the Smarta tradition, or ].		His beliefs form the basis of the Smarta tradition, or ].

	Even though he lived for only thirty-two years, his impact on India and on Hinduism ~~was~~ ~~extremely~~ ~~significant~~, as he countered the increasing sacerdotalism (the belief that priests can mediate between humans and god) of the masses, and reintroduced a purer form of ] thought. He presented a face of Hinduism that could reasonably contend with Buddhist ideas and spread it, ~~together~~ ~~with~~ reformist measures, across the land, travelling from as far up as Kashmir from areas in the South of India. His Hindu revival movement paved the way for the strict theistic movements of ] and ], and helped lead to the decline of Buddhism in much of India.		Even though he lived for only thirty-two years, his impact on India and on Hinduism cannot be stressed enough, as he countered the increasing ] (the belief that priests can mediate between humans and god) of the masses, and reintroduced a purer form of ] thought. He presented a face of Hinduism that could reasonably contend with Buddhist ideas and spread it, as well as reformist measures, across the land, travelling from as far up as Kashmir from areas in the ]. His Hindu revival movement paved the way for the strict ] movements of ] and ], and helped lead to the decline of Buddhism in much of India.

	== Works ==		== Works ==
	Books certainly written by Adi Shankara:		Books certainly written by Adi Shankara:
	* The "Crest-Jewel of Discrimination" or '']'', one of his most famous works, which summarises his ideas of non-dual ]		* The "Crest-Jewel of Discrimination" or ], one of his most famous works, which summarises his ideas of non-dual ]
	* The commentary '']'' on the '']''		* The commentary ] on the ]
	* The commentary on the '']''		* The commentary on the ]
	* The commentary on the '']''		* The commentary on the ]
	* The ~~Thousand~~ ~~Teachings,~~ or '']''		* The commentary on the ]
			* The Thousand Teachings or ]
	* A hymn to Krishna as the Herder of Cows, known as '']''		* A hymn to Krishna as the Herder of Cows, known as ]
	* Benedictory invocation to ] and ], namely ] and ] respectively		* Benedictory invocation to ] and ], namely ] and ] respectively
	* Commentary on '']''		* Commentary on ]

	Books he probably wrote are:		Books he probably wrote are:
	* The commentary on Gaudapada's Karika to the '']''		* The commentary on Gaudapada's Karika to the ]
	* The commentary on the '']'', though there is no scholarly agreement on this.		* The commentary on the ], though there is no scholarly agreement on this.

	== Mathas (monasteries) ==		== Mathas (monasteries) ==
	Shankara is said to have founded four mathas (a matha is a monastery or religious order), which are important to this day. These are at ] in ], in the south, ] in ] in the west, ] in ] in the east, and ] (Joshimath) in ] in the north. He put in charge of these mathas his four main disciples: Sureshwaracharya, Hastamalaka, Padmapada, and Trotakaharya respectively; the heads of the mathas trace their authority back to them. However, there is no concrete evidence for the existence of these mathas before the ]~~, so the claim that Adi Shankara founded them is dubious at best~~.		Shankara is said to have founded four ] (a matha is a monastery or religious order), which are important to this day. These are at ] in ], in the south, ] in ] in the west, ] in ] in the east, and ] (Joshimath) in ] in the north. He put in charge of these mathas his four main disciples: Sureshwaracharya, Hastamalaka, Padmapada, and Trotakaharya respectively; the heads of the mathas trace their authority back to them. However, there is no concrete evidence for the existence of these mathas before the ].

	The matha at ] or Kanchi in ] claims that it was also founded by Shankara. According to this matha, it was where he settled in his last days and attained ''mahaasamaadhi'' (i.e., left his body), but there are other, equally well-founded accounts which claim that he attained ''mahaasamadhi'' at Kedarnath.		The matha at ] or Kanchi in ] claims that it was also founded by Shankara. According to this matha, it was where he settled in his last days and attained mahaasamaadhi (i.e. left his body), but there are other, equally well-founded accounts which claim that he attained mahaasamadhi at Kedarnath.

	== External links ==		== External links ==
		⚫	*
	*Advaita Vedanta library
	**		*
	**		*
	**		*
			*
	*Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham
		⚫	*
	**
	**

⚫	*
⚫	*
	*		*
			*
			*
	*		*
	* ~~(PDF)~~		*
	* ~~—~~ by ]		* (by Nitin Kumar)
	* — short introduction to his life & philosophy (by ])		* — short introduction to his life & philosophy (by ])
	* by Swami ]		*

	*Concerning Adi Shankara's dates:
	**
	**
	** (PDF)
	**


	{{Hinduism}}		{{Hinduism}}

Revision as of 03:19, 29 October 2005

Adi Shankara (Śaṅkara, Shri Shankaracharya, Adhi Shankaracharya, Ādi Śaṅkarācārya; 'the first Shankara' in his lineage), reverentially called Bhagavatpada Acharya (the teacher at the feet of Lord) (very approximately 788–820 C.E., but see below) was the most famous Advaita philosopher, who had a profound influence on the growth of Hinduism through his non-dualistic philosophy. He advocated the greatness and importance of the important Hindu scriptures, the Vedas (most particularly on the Upanishads, also known as Vedanta), spoke to a spirituality founded on reason and without dogma or ritualism, and gave new life to Hinduism at a time when Buddhism and Jainism were gaining popularity.

Life

Shankara was born in Kalady, a small village in Kerala, India, to a Nambuthiri brahmin couple, Shivaguru and Aryamba. The traditional source for accounts of his life is the Shankara Vijayams, which are essentially hagiographies. The most important among them are the MadhavIya Shankaravijaya, the AnandagirIya Shankaravijaya, cidvilAsIya Shankaravijaya, and keralIya Shankaravijaya. What follows is the standard story of Shankara's life; some of it is clearly mythical, but a substantial portion is historical, according to most scholars.

Birth

Shankara's parents were childless for many years, and prayed at the Vadakkumnathan (vRashAcala) temple in Thrissur, Kerala, for the boon of a child. Legend has it that Shiva appeared to both husband and wife in their dreams, and offered them a choice: a mediocre son who would live a long life, or an extraordinary son who would not live long. Both Shivaguru and Aryamba chose the latter. The son was named Shankara, in honour of Shiva.

Formal education

Shivaguru died while Shankara was very young. The child showed remarkable scholarship, and is said to have mastered the four Vedas by the age of eight. Following the common practice of that era, Shankara lived and studied at the home of his teacher. It was customary for students and men of learning to receive Bhiksha or alms from the laity; on one occasion, while accepting Bhiksha, Shankara came upon a woman who had nothing to eat in her house except a single dried amlaka fruit. Rather than consume this last bit of food herself, the pious lady gave away the fruit to Sankara as Bhiksha. Moved by her piety, Shankara composed the Kanakadhara Stotram on the spot. Legend has it that on completion of the stotram, golden amlaka fruits were showered upon the woman by the goddess Lakshmi.

Renunciation

From a young age, Shankara was attracted to asceticism and to the life of a renunciate. However, his mother, Aryamba, was entirely against his becoming a Sannyasi, and consistently refused him her formal permission, which was required before he could take Sannyasam. Once when Shankara was bathing in the river, a crocodile gripped him by the leg and began to rapidly drag him into the water. Only his mother was nearby, and it proved impossible for her to get him away from the grip of the crocodile. Shankara then told his mother that he was on the verge of death; if she would give him her formal permission verbally, he would at this moment renounce the world and die a Sannyasi or ascetic. At the end of her wits, his mother agreed; Shankara immediately recited the words that made a renunciate of him, entered Sannyasa, and awaited death. But inexplicably, the crocodile released him from its very jaws and swam away. Shankara emerged unscathed from the river, now a Sannyasi.

Seeing in this incident the hand of God, Aryamba put no further obstacles in the path of her son. Shankara then left Kerala and travelled thoroughout India. When he reached the banks of the river Narmada, he met Govinda Bhagavatpada, the disciple of the Advaitin Gaudapada. Shankara was initiated as his disciple.

Travels

Shankara travelled extensively, while writing commentaries on the Upanishads, Vishnu sahasranama, Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. He engaged in a series of debates with Buddhist scholars, and with scholars of the Purva Mimamsa school, which helped in cementing his spiritual ascendancy. One of the most famous of these debates was with the famed ritualist Mandana Mishra.

His most famous encounter was however with an untouchable. On his way to the Vishwanath temple in Kashi, he came upon an untouchable and his dog. When asked to move aside by Shankara's disciples, the untouchable asked: "Do you wish that I move my soul, the atman and ever lasting, or this body made of clay?" Seeing the untouchable as none other than the Lord Shiva, Shankara prostrated himself before Ishwara, composing five shlokas (Manisha Panchakam).

Once he was saved by Sri Narasimha from being sacrificed to goddess Kali by a Kapalika. He then composed the Laksmi-Nrsimha stotra. Another famous composition of Sri Adi Shankara is his Bhaja Govindam, in praise of Vishnu.

It is a traditional belief that Adi Sankara installed at Srirangam a yantra called janakarshana to attract pilgrims to this sacred temple, just as at Tirupati he installed the dhanakarshana yantra. Indeed, Srirangam is the most visited Hindu temple in the world, and Tirupati is the richest.

Shankara is believed to have attained the Sarvajnapitha in Kashmir. After a while, he withdrew to Kedarnath and attained samadhi at the age of thirty-two. The Kamakshi Amman temple at Kanchipuram also has a vrindavanam where he is believed to have attained siddhi. (A variant tradition expounded by keraliya Shankaravijaya places his place of death as Vadakkumnathan (vRashAcala) temple in Thrissur, Kerala.)

He died in 820 at Kedarnata in the Himalayas when only thirty-two years of age.

Shankara's dates

Modern scholarship is agreed on dates in the 8th century, though it has proved impossible to reach agreement on Shankara's precise dates of birth or death. Some religious institutions dedicated to Shankara, such as Shankara mathams, however, ascribe much earlier dates to him. If these dates were true, they would require moving back the date of Buddha (which serves as an anchor for modern academic history of India) as suggested here.

Of the major Shankara Mathams active today, the Kanchi, Dwaraka, and Puri ascribe the dates 509–477 BCE to Shankara. The Sringeri Peetham, on the other hand, accepts the 788–820 CE dates. (See also below.)

The Guru Parampara of the Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham can be found here, and the Guru parampara of the Sringeri Sarada Peetham can be found here.

External material supporting the 509–477 BCE dates can be found here and (non-Peetham) material supporting the 788–820 CE dates can be found here.

According to Swami Niranjanananda Saraswati's biography of Shankara, published in his book "Sannyasa Darshan", Shankara was born in Kaladi, Kerala, in 686, and attained Mahasamadhi at Kedarnath, Uttaranchal, in 718.

Philosophy and religious thought

At the time of Shankara's life, Hinduism had lost some of its appeal because of the influence of Buddhism and Jainism. Shankara stressed the importance of the Vedas, and his work helped Hinduism regain strength and popularity. Although he did not live long, he had travelled on foot to various parts of India to restore the study of the Vedas.

Shankara's theology maintains that spiritual ignorance (avidya) is caused by seeing the self (Ātman) where self is not. Discrimination needs to be developed in order to distinguish true from false and knowledge (jnana) from ignorance (avidya). Shankara proposed that, while the phenomenal universe, our consciousness and bodily being are certainly experienced, they are not true reality, but are rather maya. He considered that the ultimate truth was Brahman, the single divine foundation, which is beyond time, space, and causation. Brahman is immanent and transcendent, but not merely a pantheistic concept. Indeed, while Brahman is the efficient and material cause for the cosmos, Brahman itself is not limited by self-projection, and transcends all binary opposites or dualities, especially such individuated aspects as form and being.

We must pierce through a hazy lens to understand our true being and nature, which is not change and mortality, but unmitigated bliss for eternity. If we are to understand the true motive behind our actions and thoughts, we must become aware of the fundamental unity of being. How, he asks, can a limited mind comprehend the limitless Ātman? It cannot, he argues, and therefore we must transcend even the mind and become one with Soul-consciousness.

Shankara denounced caste and meaningless ritual as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner exhorted the true devotee to meditate on god's love and to apprehend truth. His treatises on the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Vedanta Sutras are testaments to a keen and intuitive mind that did not want to admit dogma but advocated reason. His greatest lesson was that reason and abstract philosophising alone would not lead to moksha (liberation). It was only through selflessness and love governed by viveka (discrimination) that a devotee would realise his inner self. Charges that his philosophical views were influenced by Buddhism are unfounded, since Shankara vehemently opposed negation of being (shunyata), and believed that the unmanifest Brahman manifested itself as Ishwara, the loving, perfect being on high who is seen by many as being Vishnu or Shiva or whatever their hearts dictate. Shankara is said to have travelled throughout India, from the South to Kashmir, preaching to the local populaces and debating philosophy (apparently successfully, though no documentation exists) with other Hindu and Buddhist scholars and monks along the way.

His beliefs form the basis of the Smarta tradition, or Smartism.

Even though he lived for only thirty-two years, his impact on India and on Hinduism cannot be stressed enough, as he countered the increasing sacerdotalism (the belief that priests can mediate between humans and god) of the masses, and reintroduced a purer form of Vedic thought. He presented a face of Hinduism that could reasonably contend with Buddhist ideas and spread it, as well as reformist measures, across the land, travelling from as far up as Kashmir from areas in the South of India. His Hindu revival movement paved the way for the strict theistic movements of Ramanuja and Madhva, and helped lead to the decline of Buddhism in much of India.

Works

Books certainly written by Adi Shankara:

The "Crest-Jewel of Discrimination" or Viveka Chudamani, one of his most famous works, which summarises his ideas of non-dual Vedanta
The commentary Bhasya on the Brahma Sutra
The commentary on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
The commentary on the Taittiriya Upanishad
The commentary on the Bhagavad Gita
The Thousand Teachings or Upadesasahasri
A hymn to Krishna as the Herder of Cows, known as Bhaja Govindam
Benedictory invocation to Siva and Sakti, namely Sivanandalahari and Saundaryalahari respectively
Commentary on Vishnu Sahasranama

Books he probably wrote are:

The commentary on Gaudapada's Karika to the Mandukya Upanishad
The commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, though there is no scholarly agreement on this.

Mathas (monasteries)

Shankara is said to have founded four mathas (a matha is a monastery or religious order), which are important to this day. These are at Sringeri in Karnataka, in the south, Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west, Puri in Orissa in the east, and Jyotirmath (Joshimath) in Uttaranchal in the north. He put in charge of these mathas his four main disciples: Sureshwaracharya, Hastamalaka, Padmapada, and Trotakaharya respectively; the heads of the mathas trace their authority back to them. However, there is no concrete evidence for the existence of these mathas before the 14th century.

The matha at Kanchipuram or Kanchi in Tamil Nadu claims that it was also founded by Shankara. According to this matha, it was where he settled in his last days and attained mahaasamaadhi (i.e. left his body), but there are other, equally well-founded accounts which claim that he attained mahaasamadhi at Kedarnath.

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