| Revision as of 21:28, 18 February 2009 view sourceEric-Wester (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Rollbackers19,044 editsm Reverted edits by Hiyaninja to last revision by 12.45.130.165 (HG)← Previous edit | Revision as of 00:11, 19 February 2009 view source 142.68.245.31 (talk) ←Replaced content with 'Russia is in Asia.'Next edit → | ||
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| Russia is in Asia. | |||
| {{pp-move-indef}} | |||
| {{Otheruses1|the country}} | |||
| {{Infobox Country | |||
| |native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;"> Российская Федерация <br />''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''</span> | |||
| |conventional_long_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Russian Federation</span> | |||
| |common_name = Russia | |||
| |national_anthem = Государственный гимн Российской Федерации{{spaces|2}}<small>(Russian)</small><br/>'']''{{spaces|2}}<small>(])<br/>State Anthem of the Russian Federation</small> | |||
| |image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg | |||
| |image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg | |||
| |image_map = Russian Federation (orthographic projection).svg | |||
| |map_width = 220px | |||
| |capital = ] | |||
| |latd=55 |latm=45 |latNS=N |longd=37 |longm=37 |longEW=E | |||
| |largest_city = capital | |||
| |official_languages = Russian official throughout nation; ] in various regions | |||
| | ethnic_groups = 79.8% ]<br/>3.8% ]<br/>2.0% ]<br/>1.2% ]<br/>1.1% ]<br/>12.1% others<ref>2002 census</ref> | |||
| |demonym = ] | |||
| |government_type = ] ] ] | |||
| |leader_title1 = ] | |||
| |leader_name1 = ] <small>(])</small> | |||
| |leader_title2 = ] | |||
| |leader_name2 = ] <small>(])</small> | |||
| |leader_title3 = ] | |||
| |leader_name3 = ] <small>(])</small> | |||
| |leader_title4 = ] | |||
| |leader_name4 = ] <small>(])</small> | |||
| |legislature = ] | |||
| |upper_house = ] | |||
| |lower_house = ] | |||
| |sovereignty_type = ] (862)<sup>1</sup> | |||
| |sovereignty_note = ]ians invited prince ] to keep law and order, thus giving birth to the ] that ruled over all Russian lands throughout more than 700 years<ref>According to the ]; {{cite web|title=Tale of Bygone Years: |url=http://www.infoliolib.info/rlit/pvl/pvl1.html|accessdate=2008-06-24}}</ref> | |||
| |area_km2 = 17,075,400 | |||
| |area_sq_mi = 6,592,800 | |||
| |area_rank = 1st | |||
| |area_magnitude = 1 E13 | |||
| |percent_water = 13<ref name=gen>{{cite web|title=The Russian federation: general characteristics|url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R|Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| |population_estimate = 142,008,838<ref name=demo/> | |||
| |population_estimate_year = 2008 | |||
| |population_estimate_rank = 9th | |||
| |population_census = 145,166,731<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Census of 2002|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/html/TOM_01_01.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| |population_census_year = 2002 | |||
| |population_density_km2 = 8.3 | |||
| |population_density_sq_mi = 21.5 | |||
| |population_density_rank = 209th | |||
| |GDP_PPP_year = 2007 | |||
| |GDP_PPP = $2.089 trillion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2004&ey=2008&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=922&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=66&pr.y=11 |title=Russia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2008-10-09}}</ref> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_rank = 7th | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $14,704<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 52nd | |||
| |GDP_nominal = $1.289 trillion<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_rank = 11th | |||
| |GDP_nominal_year = 2007 | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $9,074<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 54th <!---IMF---> | |||
| |HDI_year = 2005 | |||
| |HDI = {{increase}} 0.806 | |||
| |HDI_rank = 73rd | |||
| |HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">high</span><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_RUS.html|title=The Human Development Index—Going Beyond Income|publisher=United Nations Development Program|work=Human Development Report 2007|accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> | |||
| |Gini = 40.5<ref name=cia/> | |||
| |Gini_year = 2005 | |||
| |currency = ] | |||
| |currency_code = RUB | |||
| |time_zone = | |||
| |utc_offset = +2 to +12 | |||
| |time_zone_DST = | |||
| |utc_offset_DST = +3 to +13 | |||
| |drives_on = right | |||
| |cctld = ] (] reserved), (]<sup>2</sup> 2009) | |||
| |calling_code = 7 | |||
| |footnote1 = The Russian Federation is the successor to earlier forms of continuous statehood, starting from the 9<sup>th</sup> Century AD when ], a ] warrior, established Russ or Rhos state at Novgorod, ]. | |||
| |footnote2 = The ] ] will be available for use in the Russian Federation in the second quarter of 2009 and will only accept domains which use the ].<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.interfax.ru/society/news.asp?id=19381&sw=%D0%EE%F1%F1%E8%E8+%F0%E0%E7%F0%E5%F8%E5%ED%EE+%F1%EE%E7%E4%E0%F2%FC+%E2+%E8%ED%F2%E5%F0%ED%E5%F2%E5+%E4%EE%EC%E5%ED+%ED%E0+%EA%E8%F0%E8%EB%EB%E8%F6%E5&bd=5&bm=6&by=2008&ed=5&em=7&ey=2008&secid=0&mp=0&p=1|publisher=Interfax|title=Russia allowed to register internet domains in Cyrillic|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Russia''' {{Audio-IPA|en-us-Russia.ogg|/ˈrʌʃə/}} ({{lang-ru|Россия}}, '']''), or the '''Russian Federation'''<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-02.htm|work=From Article 1: "The names "Russian Federation" and "Russia" shall be equal."|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> ({{audio-ru|Российская Федерация|Ru-Rossiyskaya Federatsiya Rossiya.ogg}}, ''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''), is a ] ] extending over much of northern ]. It is a ] ] comprising 83 ]. Russia shares ] with the following countries (counterclockwise from northwest to southeast): ], ], ], ], ] (via ]), ] (via ]), ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ], and is also close to the ] (]), ], ], and ]. It borders the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ]. | |||
| At {{convert|17075400|km2|sqmi}}, Russia is the ], covering more than an eighth of the Earth’s land area; with 142 million people, it is the ] by population.<ref name=gen/> It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning 11 time zones and incorporating a great range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's greatest reserves of mineral and energy resources,<ref>{{cite web|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|title="Russia"|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_4/Russia.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> and is considered an ]. It has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's unfrozen fresh water.<ref name=loc/> | |||
| The nation's history began with that of the ]. The Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=britannica>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|title=Russia|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-01-31}}</ref> Founded and ruled by a noble ] warrior class and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, ], arose in the 9th century and adopted ] from the ] in 988,<ref name = Curtis/> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and ] cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.<ref name = Curtis>{{cite web|last=excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.)|title=Russia: A Country Study: Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods|publisher=Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress|year=1998|url=http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal states. The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was ], which served as the main force in the Russian reunification process and independence struggle against the ]. Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation and exploration to become the ], which was the ], stretching from ] eastward to the ] and ]. | |||
| Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the ] to being the largest and leading constituent of the ], the world's first and largest ] ] and a recognized ]. The nation can boast a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences.<ref name=britannica/> The Russian Federation was founded following the ] in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the ].<ref name=uk/> It has one of the world's fastest growing major economies and has the world's ] by ] or ] by ] with the ] military budget. It is one of the five recognized ] and possesses the ].<ref name=fas/> Russia is a permanent member of the ], a member of the ], ] and the ], and is a leading member of the ]. | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| {{main|Geography of Russia}} | |||
| The Russian Federation stretches across a large extent of the north of the super-continent of ]. Because of its size, Russia displays both monotony and diversity. As with its topography, its climates, vegetation, and soils span vast distances.<ref name=climate>{{cite web|title=Russia::Climate and vegetation|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-207542/Russia|accessdate=2007-07-03}}</ref> From north to south the ] is clad sequentially in ], coniferous forest (]), mixed and broad-leaf forests, grassland (]), and semi-desert (fringing the ]) as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. ] supports a similar sequence but is taiga. The country contains 23 ]s<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|title=Russian Federation|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and 40 UNESCO ]s.<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Network of Biosphere Reserves — UNESCO|title=Russian Federation|url=http://www.unesco.org/mab/BRs/EurBRlist.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> | |||
| ===Topography=== | |||
| The two widest separated points in Russia are about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) apart along a ] line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a 60 km long (40-mi long) ] separating the ] from the ]; and the farthest southeast of the ], a few miles off ], Japan. The points which are furthest separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,100 mi) apart along a geodesic. These points are: in the West, the same spit; in the East, the ] (Ostrov Ratmanova). The Russian Federation spans 11 ]s. | |||
| ], ], ]]] | |||
| ], ]]] | |||
| Russia has the world's largest forest reserves<ref name=loc>{{cite web|last=Library of Congress|title=Topography and Drainage|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> and is known as "the lungs of Europe",<ref name=guardianforest>{{cite web|last=Walsh|first =Nick Paton|title =It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood|publisher =Guardian (UK)|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/sep/19/environment.russia|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> second only to the ] in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs. It provides a huge amount of oxygen for not just Europe, but the world. With access to three of the world's oceans — the Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific — Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the world's fish supply.<ref>{{cite book|title =Fish Industry of Russia — Production, Trade, Markets and Investment|publisher=Eurofish, Copenhagen, Denmark|month=August | year=2006|page=211|url=http://www.eurofish.dk/indexSub.php?id=3308&easysitestatid=255998662|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The Caspian is the source of what is considered the finest ] in the world. | |||
| Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly ] to the south and heavily forested to the north, with ] along the northern coast. Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the ] (containing ], Russia's and Europe's highest point at 5,642 m / 18,511 ft) and the ], and in the eastern parts, such as the ] or the volcanoes on ]. The ], rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia. Russia possesses 10% of the world's ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Oil prices drive the cost of food|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20080222/99853566.html|accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref> | |||
| ], ], ]]] | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Russia has an extensive coastline of over 37,000 kilometers (23,000 mi) along the ] and ]s, as well as the ], ], ] and Caspian seas.<ref name=cia>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Russia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|title=CIA|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ] are linked to Russia. Major islands and archipelagos include ], the ], the ], the ], ], the ] and ]. The ] (one controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just three kilometers (1.9 mi) apart, and ] is about twenty kilometers (12 mi) from ]. | |||
| Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water, providing it with one of the world's largest surface water resources. The largest and most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is ], the world's deepest, purest, most ancient and most capacious freshwater lake.<ref name=baikal>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies|publisher=United States Geological Survey|url=http://marine.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/baikal/|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal|publisher=] World Heritage Centre|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/754|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Other major lakes include ] and ], two largest lakes in Europe. Of Russia's 100,000 rivers,<ref>{{cite web|title=Angara River|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24432/Angara-River|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The ] is the most famous—not only because it is the longest river in Europe but also because of its major role in Russian history. Russia has a wide natural resource base unmatched by any other country, including major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, timber and mineral resources.<ref name=cia/><ref name=countrybrief>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation: Country Brief|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/RUSSIANFEDERATIONEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21054807~menuPK:517666~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305600,00.html|accessdate =2007-12-26}}</ref> | |||
| ===Climate=== | |||
| {{main|Climate of Russia}} | |||
| The climate of the Russian Federation formed under the influence of several determining factors. The enormous size of the country and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the ] and ], which is prevalent in European and Asian Russia except for the tundra and the extreme southeast.<ref name=climate/> Mountains in the south obstructing the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean and the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.<ref name=congress>{{cite web|title=Climate|publisher=Library Of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> | |||
| Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons — winter and summer; spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low temperatures and extremely high.<ref name=congress/> The coldest month is January (on the shores of the sea—February), the warmest usually is July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east.<ref name=climate/> Summers can be quite hot and humid, even in Siberia. A small part of Black Sea coast around ] has a ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Drozdov|first=V. A.|coauthors=et al|title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea|journal=GeoJournal|publisher=Springer Netherlands|location=27.2, pp. 169–178|year=1992|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/n877766450lk8p66/fulltext.pdf|accessdate=|doi=10.1007/BF00717701|volume=27|pages=169|format=PDF}}</ref> The continental interiors are the driest areas. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|History of Russia}} | |||
| ===Early periods=== | |||
| {{see|Eurasian nomads|Scythia|Bosporan Kingdom|Khazaria}} | |||
| ]: South Russia as the ] of ]]] | |||
| In prehistoric times, the vast ]s of Southern Russia were home to disunited ]s of ]. In classical antiquity, the ] was known as ].<ref name = Belinskij>{{cite journal|last=Belinskij|first=Andrej|coauthors=H. Härke|title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo|journal=Archeology|volume=52|issue=2|date=March/April 1999|url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in the course of the 20th century in such places as ],<ref name = Belinskij/> ],<ref>{{cite book | last = Drews | first = Robert | title = Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe | year = 2004 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | page = 50}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|last=Koryakova|first=Dr. Ludmila|title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture|publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN)|url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"|work=Transcript|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> In the latter part of the eighth century ], ] traders brought ] to the trade emporiums in ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=Esther|title=The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World|publisher=Brill|year=1995|location=p. 38|isbn=9004098569}}</ref> Between the third and sixth centuries BC, the ], a Hellenistic ] which succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{cite book|last=Tsetskhladze|first=Gocha R.|title=The Greek Colonisation of the ] Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology|publisher=F. Steiner|year=1998|location=p. 48|isbn=3515073027}}</ref> was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,<ref>{{cite book|last=Turchin|first=Peter|title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|location=pp. 185–186|isbn=0691116695}}</ref> led by warlike tribes, such as the ] and ]. A Turkic people, the ], ruled the lower ] basin ]s between the ] and ]s until the 8th century.<ref name = Christian>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|location=pp. 286–288|isbn=0631208143}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The ancestors of modern ] are the ], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see Barford|first=Paul M.|title=The Early Slavs|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=pp. 15–16|isbn=0801439779|year=2001}}</ref> Moving into the lands vacated by the migrating ], the ] gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from ] toward present-day ] and ] and another from ] toward ] and ].<ref name = Christian2>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|location=pp. 6–7|isbn=}}</ref> From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<ref name = Christian2/> and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native ] tribes, including the ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Paszkiewicz|first=Henry K|title=The Making of the Russian Nation|publisher=Darton, Longman & Todd|year=1963|location=p. 262}}</ref> the ]s,<ref>{{cite book|last=McKitterick|first=Rosamond|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|location =p. 497|isbn=0521364477}}</ref> and the ].<ref name = Mongait>{{cite book|last=Mongaĭt|first=Aleksandr Lʹvovich|title=Archeology in the U.S.S.R.|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House|year=1959|location=p. 335}}</ref> | |||
| ===Kievan Rus'=== | |||
| {{main|Kievan Rus'}} | |||
| ] in the 11th century]] | |||
| The 9th century saw the establishment of Kievan Rus', a predecessor state to Russia, ] and ]. ]n Norsemen, called "]s" in Western Europe and "]" in the East,<ref>{{cite web|last=See, for instance,|title=Viking (Varangian) Oleg|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/427466/Oleg|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> combined ] and trade in their roamings over much of Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|title=Byzantium and the Slavs|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=1994|location=p. 42|isbn=088141008X}}</ref> According to the ], a Varangian named ] was elected ruler (] or ]) of Novgorod around the year 860;<ref name = Curtis/> his successors moved south and extended their authority to Kiev,<ref>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=James Westfall|coauthors =E. N. Johnson|title=An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|year=1937|location=p. 268|isbn=0415346991}}</ref> which had been previously dominated by the Khazars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=David|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|location=p. 343|isbn=0631208143}}</ref> | |||
| In the 10th to 11th centuries this state of ] became the largest and most prosperous in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ukraine: Security Assistance|publisher=U.S. Department of State|url=http://www.state.gov/t/pm/64851.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The reigns of ] (980-1015) and his son ] (1019–1054) constitute the ] of ], which saw the acceptance of ] and the creation of the first East Slavic written ], the '']''. | |||
| In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic ] tribes, such as the ] and the ], caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as ].<ref name="Klyuch1">{{cite book|last=Klyuchevsky|first=Vasily|title=The course of the Russian history|location=v.1|url=http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|isbn=5-244-00072-1|year=1987|publisher="Myslʹ}}</ref> Like many other parts of ], these territories were ]. About half of the Russian population perished during the invasion.<ref></ref> The invaders, later known as ], formed the state of the ], which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries. Mongol rule retarded the country's economic and social development.<ref>{{cite book|last=Рыбаков|first=Б. А.|title=Ремесло Древней Руси|year=1948|location=с.525–533,780–781}}</ref> However, the ] together with ] retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the ] and was largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by ], Novgorodians repelled the ] who attempted to colonize the region. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of ] in the north-east, ] in the north-west and ] in the south-west. Conquest by the Golden Horde in the 13th century was the final blow and resulted in the destruction of Kiev in 1240.<ref name="Hamm">{{cite book|last=Hamm|first=Michael Franklin|title=Kiev: A Portrait, 1800–1917|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691025851|year=1995}}</ref><ref></ref> Galicia-Volhynia was eventually absorbed into the ], while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and the independent ], two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name = Curtis/> | |||
| ===Grand Duchy of Moscow and Tsardom of Russia=== | |||
| {{main|Grand Duchy of Moscow|Tsardom of Russia}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was ]. It would annex rivals such as ] and ], and eventually become the basis of the modern Russian state. After the fall of ] in 1453, Moscow ] of the ]. While still under the domain of the ] and with their connivance, the ] (or "Muscovy") began to assert its influence in Western Russia in the early 14th century. Assisted by the ] and Saint ]'s spiritual revival, Russia inflicted a defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the ] (1380). ] (''Ivan the Great'') eventually threw off the control of the ], consolidated surrounding areas under Moscow's dominion and was the first to take the title "grand duke of all the Russias".<ref>{{cite web|last=May|first=Dr. Timothy|title=Khanate of the Golden Horde|url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| ]'s Battle with the Tsar's army at Nizhny Kotly]] | |||
| In 1547, ] (''Ivan the Terrible'') was officially crowned the first ] of Russia. During his long reign, Ivan IV annexed the ] (], ]) along the ] and transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. Ivan IV promulgated a new code of laws (]), established the first Russian feudal representative body (]) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<ref name=solovyov>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|location=pp.562–604, volume 6|isbn=5170021429}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Skrynnikov|first=R.|title=Ivan the Terrible|publisher=Academic Intl Pr (March 1981)|year=1981|location=p.58|page=219|isbn=0875690394}}</ref> But Ivan IV's rule was also marked by the long and unsuccessful ] against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|location=v.6, pp.751–908|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> The military losses, ]s and poor harvests<ref>Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena. ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190</ref> weakened the state, and the ] were able to ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|location=v.6, pp.751–809|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> The death of Ivan's sons, combined with the ],<ref>''Nighttime temperatures in all summer months, often below freezing, wrecked crops.'' Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena. ISBN 5-244-00212-0, p.190</ref> led to the civil war and foreign intervention of the ] in the early 1600s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|location=v.7, pp.461–568|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> By the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern ], on the ], along the ], and on the Pacific coast. The ] between North America and Asia was first sighted by a Russian explorer in 1648. | |||
| ===Imperial Russia=== | |||
| {{main|Russian Empire}} | |||
| ] officially proclaimed the existence of the ] in 1721]] | |||
| Under the ] and ] (''Peter the Great''), the Russian Empire became a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated ] in the ], forcing it to cede West ] and ] (two regions lost by Russia in the ]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|location=v.9, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/09_01.html|isbn=5170021429|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> ], and ], securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<ref>{{cite book|last=Solovyov|first=Sergey|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|location=v.15, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/15_01.html}}</ref> It was in Ingria that Peter founded a new capital, ]. Peter's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. ] (''Catherine the Great''), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts to establish Russia as one of the ] of Europe. In alliance with ] and ], Russia stood against ]'s France and eliminated its rival Poland-Lithuania in a series of ], gaining large areas of territory in the west. As a result of its victories in the ], by the early 19th century Russia had made significant territorial gains in ]. ]'s ] at the height of his power in 1812 failed miserably as obstinate Russian resistance combined with the bitterly cold ] dealt him a disastrous defeat, in which more than 95% of his invading force perished.<ref name=uslibrary>{{cite web|title=Ruling the Empire|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/5.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The officers in the ] brought ideas of ] back to Russia with them and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive ] of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression. | |||
| ] | |||
| ] in 1866 and its spheres of influence]] | |||
| The prevalence of ] and the conservative policies of ] impeded the development of Russia in the mid-nineteenth century. Nicholas's successor ] (1855–1881) enacted significant reforms, including the ] in 1861; these "Great Reforms" spurred ]. However, many socio-economic conflicts were aggravated during ]’s reign and under his son, ]. Harsh conditions in factories created mass support for the revolutionary socialist movement. In January 1905, striking workers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in Saint Petersburg but were fired upon by troops, killing and wounding hundreds. The abject failure of the Tsar's military forces in the initially-popular ], and the event known as "]", ignited the ]. Although the uprising was swiftly put down by the army and although Nicholas II retained much of his power, he was forced to concede major reforms, including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalization of political parties and the creation of an elected legislative assembly, the ]; however, the hopes for basic improvements in the lives of industrial workers were unfulfilled. Droughts and famines in Russia tended to occur on a fairly regular basis, with ] occurring every 10–13 years. The ] killed approximately half-million people.<ref></ref> ] epidemics claimed more than 2 million lives.<ref>, By G. William Beardslee</ref> | |||
| Russia entered ] in aid of its ally ] and fought a war across three fronts while isolated from its allies. Russia did not want war but felt that the only alternative was German domination of Europe. Although the army was far from defeated in 1916, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, casualties (Russia suffered the highest number of ] of the ]), and tales of corruption and even treason in high places, leading to the outbreak of the ]. A series of uprisings were organized by workers and peasants throughout the country, as well as by soldiers in the Russian army, who were mainly of peasant origin. Many of the uprisings were organized and led by democratically-elected councils called Soviets. The ] overthrew the Russian monarchy, which was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the ]. The abdication marked the end of imperial rule in Russia, and Nicholas and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the ]. While initially receiving the support of the Soviets, the Provisional Government proved unable to resolve many problems which had led to the February Revolution. The second revolution, the ], led by ], overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first Communist state. | |||
| ===Soviet Russia=== | |||
| {{main|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|History of the Soviet Union|Russian SFSR}} | |||
| ], leader of the ]s and founder of the USSR.]] | |||
| Following the ], a ] broke out between the new regime and the ], ]s, and the ]. The ] concluded hostilities with the ] in World War I. Russia lost its ], ] and ] territories, and ] by signing the treaty. The ] launched a ] in support of anti-Communist forces and both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the ] and ]. The ] claimed 5 million victims.<ref>, International Committee of the Red Cross</ref> By the end of the ], some 20 million had died and the Russian economy and infrastructure were completely devastated. Following victory in the Civil War, the ] together with three other Soviet republics ] the ] on 30 December 1922. The ] dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 69-year history; the USSR was often referred to as "Russia" and its people as "Russians." The largest of the republics, Russia contributed over half the population of the Soviet Union. After Lenin's death in 1924, ] consolidated power and became ]. Stalin launched a ], rapid ] of the largely rural country and ] of its agriculture and the Soviet Union was transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time. This transformation came with a heavy price, however; millions of citizens died as a consequence of his harsh policies. | |||
| ], 1942. The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|isbn=0521558794|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=264|year=1995}}</ref> Nazi Germany suffered 80% to 93% of all casualties there<ref>Osbourne, Andrew, . The Age</ref><ref>Rozhnov, Konstantin, . BBC. Russian historian Valentin Falin</ref>]] | |||
| ]]] | |||
| On 22 June 1941, ] invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,<ref>{{cite web|title=World War II|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2008-03-09|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648813/World-War-II}}</ref> opening the ]. Although the ] had considerable success early on, they suffered defeats after reaching the outskirts of Moscow and were dealt their first major defeat at the ] in the winter of 1942–1943.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648813/World-War-II|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-03-12|title=The Allies' first decisive successes > Stalingrad and the German retreat, summer 1942–February 1943}}</ref> Soviet forces drove through ] in 1944–45 and ] in May, 1945. In the conflict, Soviet military and civilian death toll were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,<ref name=vadim>{{cite book|last=Erlikman|first=Vadim|title=Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik|year=2004|id=Note: Estimates for Soviet World War II casualties vary between sources|isbn=5-93165-107-1|publisher=Russkai︠a︡ panorama|location=Moskva}}</ref> accounting for half of all ]. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation<ref>{{cite web|title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged ]. The ] occupied ] after the war, including the ] of Germany; Stalin installed communist governments in these ]s. Becoming the world's second ], the USSR established the ] alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States, which became known as the ]. | |||
| After Stalin's death, Russian leader ] denounced Stalin and ]. He began the process of eliminating the ] political system known as ] and abolished the ] labor camps, releasing millions of prisoners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916205-2,00.html|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-08-01|title=Great Escapes from the Gulag}}</ref> The Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial ], ] and the Russian ] ] became the first human being to orbit the ] aboard the first manned spacecraft, ]. Tensions with the ] heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. ] in ] and Soviet ]. Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued until ] established himself in the early 1970s as the pre-eminent figure in Soviet politics. Brezhnev's rule oversaw ] and the ], which dragged on without success and with continuing casualties inflicted by ]. Soviet citizens became increasingly discontented with the war, ultimately leading to the withdrawal of Soviet forces by 1989. An incident furthering tension between the Soviet Union and the United States was the Sept. 1, 1983 downing by the Soviets of ] carrying 269 people, including a sitting U.S. congressman, Democrat from Georgia, ]. From 1985 onwards, ] introduced the policies of '']'' (openness) and '']'' (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country. The ] was the second largest in the world prior to the Soviet collapse.{{Fact|date=February 2009}} | |||
| During its last years, the economy was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/russia/economy/russia_economy_unforeseen_results_o~1315.html|title=Russia Unforeseen Results of Reform|publisher=The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook|accessdate=2008-03-10}}</ref> In August 1991, an unsuccessful ] against Gorbachev aimed at preserving the Soviet Union instead led to its collapse. In Russia, ] came to power and declared the end of Communist rule. The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics and was ] in December 1991. Boris Yeltsin was elected the ] in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. | |||
| ===Russian Federation=== | |||
| {{main|History of post-Soviet Russia}} | |||
| ]'' (2002)]] | |||
| During and after the disintegration of the USSR when wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and | |||
| market and trade liberalization were being undertaken,<ref name=OECD/> the Russian economy went through a major crisis. This period was characterized by deep contraction of output, with GDP declining by roughly 50 percent between 1990 and the end of 1995 and industrial output declining by over 50 percent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Economic Conditions in Mid-1996|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ru0119)}}</ref><ref name=OECD/> In October 1991, Yeltsin announced that Russia would proceed with radical, market-oriented reform along the lines of "]", as recommended by the United States and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/05/12/edme.php|title=Russia: Shock Therapy Isn't the Way to Promote Democracy|publisher=International Herald Tribune|author=Melvin Fagen|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED91F39F932A15751C1A965958260|title= U.S. is abandoning 'shock therapy' for the Russians|author=Elaine Sciolino|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> ] were abolished, ] was started. Millions were plunged into poverty. According to the World Bank, whereas 1.5% of the population was living in poverty in the late Soviet era, by mid-1993 between 39% and 49% of the population was living in poverty.<ref name=worldbank>{{cite book|author=Branko Milanovic|title=Income, Inequality, and Poverty During the Transformation from Planned to Market Economy|publisher=The World Bank|year=1998|pages=186–189}}</ref> Delays in wage payment became a chronic problem with millions being paid months, even years late. Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's ]s, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia pays off USSR’s entire debt, sets to become crediting country|publisher=Pravda.ru|url=http://english.pravda.ru/russia/economics/22-08-2006/84038-paris-club-0|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The privatization process largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to groups of individuals with inside connections in the Government and the ]. Violent criminal groups often took over state enterprises, clearing the way through assassinations or extortion. ] of government officials became an everyday rule of life. Many of the newly rich mobsters and businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Clawing Its Way Back to Life (int'l edition)|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_48/b3657252.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The long and wrenching depression was coupled with social decay. Social services collapsed and the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed. The early and mid-1990s was marked by extreme lawlessness. Criminal gangs and organized crime flourished and murders and other violent crime spiraled out of control.<ref name=sokolov>{{cite journal|last=Sokolov|first=Vsevolod|title=From Guns to Briefcases: The Evolution of Russian Organized Crime|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=XXI|issue=No 1|date=Spring 2004|url=http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/articles/wpj04-1/sokolov.htm|accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
| ] under construction. ] is the world's most expensive city for ] to live in.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sahadi|first=Jeanne|title=Moscow remains the world’s most expensive city while London moves up from fifth to second place|publisher =CNN|url=http://money.cnn.com/2007/06/15/pf/most_expensive_cities/index.htm|accessdate=2008-03-09}}</ref>]] | |||
| In 1993 a ] resulted in the worst civil strife in Moscow since the October Revolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE1D61031F937A35753C1A965958260|title=Showdown in Moscow: The Overview; Yeltsin sends troops to oust armed foes from parliament; Fierce battle rages in capital|accessdate=2008-05-25|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> President Boris Yeltsin illegally<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/russiagov/stories/dissolve092293.htm|title=Yeltsin Dissolves Parliament, Orders New vote|accessdate=2008-05-25|publisher=Washington Post|author=Margaret Shapiro}}</ref> dissolved the country's legislature which opposed his moves to consolidate power and push forward with unpopular ] reforms; in response, legislators barricaded themselves inside the ], impeached Yeltsin and elected a new President and major protests against Yeltsin's government resulted in hundreds killed. With military support, Yeltsin sent the army to besiege the parliament building and disperse its defenders and used tanks and artillery to eject the legislators. | |||
| The 1990s were plagued by armed ethnic conflicts in the ]. Such conflicts took a form of separatist Islamist insurrections against federal power, or of ethnic/clan conflicts between local groups. Since the ] separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent ] (], ]) has been fought between disparate Chechen rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by Chechen separatists, most notably the ] and ], caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention. High budget deficits and the ] caused the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/aslund0108.pdf|title=Russia's Capitalist Revolution|first=Anders|last=Aslund|accessdate=2008-03-28|format=PDF}}</ref> and resulted in further GDP decline.<ref name=OECD>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/7/50/2452793.pdf|accessdate=2008-02-24|format=PDF}}</ref> On 31 December 1999 Boris Yeltsin resigned from the presidency, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister, ], who then won the 2000 election. Putin won popularity for suppressing the Chechen insurgency, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the North Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, alleviating the standard of living and increasing Russia's clout on the world stage.<ref name=cia/> While many reforms made during the Putin administration have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,<ref>{{cite web|first=Daniel|last=Treisman|title=Is Russia's Experiment with Democracy Over?|url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=16294|publisher=UCLA International Institute|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref> Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|first=Norman|last=Stone|title=No wonder they like Putin|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article2994651.ece|publisher=The Times|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref> On March 7, 2008, ] was elected President of Russia. | |||
| ==Government and politics== | |||
| {{main|Government of Russia|Politics of Russia}} | |||
| ], part of the ] and the working residence of the Russian president]] | |||
| According to the ], which was adopted by national referendum on 12 December 1993 following the ], Russia is a ] and formally a ] ], wherein the ] is the ]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 80, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the ] is the ]. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a ]. ] is exercised by the government.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 110, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-07.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> ] is vested in the two chambers of the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 94)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The government is regulated by a system of ] defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as a ] for the people of the Russian Federation. | |||
| ] ] and ] ]]] | |||
| ], the seat of the ]]] | |||
| The federal government is composed of three branches: | |||
| * ]: The ] ], made up of the ] and the ] adopts ], ], approves treaties, has the ], and has power of ], by which it can remove the President. | |||
| * ]: The ] is the ] of the military, can veto ] before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. | |||
| * ]: The ], ], ] and lower ], whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem ]. | |||
| According to the Constitution, constitutional justice in the court is based on the equality of all citizens,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 19, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> judges are independent and subject only to the law,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 120, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> trials are to be open and the accused is guaranteed a defense.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 123, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Since 1996, Russia has instituted a moratorium on the ], although capital punishment has not been abolished by law. | |||
| The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 81, para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> (eligible for a second term but constitutionally barred for a third consecutive term);<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 81, para. 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> election last held 2 March 2008. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). | |||
| The national legislature is the ], which consists of two chambers; the 450-member ]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, para. 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the 176-member ]. Leading political parties in Russia include ], the ], the ] and ]. | |||
| ==Subdivisions== | |||
| {{Main|Subdivisions of Russia}} | |||
| ;Federal subjects | |||
| The Russian Federation comprises 83 ].<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 65, para. 1) In 1993, when the Constitution was adopted, there were 89 subjects listed. Some of them were later ]|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, para.2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. | |||
| *46 ]s (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature. | |||
| *21 ]: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities. | |||
| *Nine ]s (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts. | |||
| *Four ]s (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of ], all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part. | |||
| *One ] (the ]): originally autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic. | |||
| *Two ] (] and ]): major cities that function as separate regions. | |||
| ;Federal districts and economic regions | |||
| Federal subjects are grouped into seven ], each administered by an envoy appointed by the ].<ref name="OkerFD">{{lang|ru|"Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов" (ОК 024–95) введённый 1 января 1997 г., в ред. Изменения № 05/2001. Секция I. Федеральные округа}} (''Russian Classificaton of Economic Regions'' (OK 024–95) of 1 January 1997 as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. Section I. Federal Districts)</ref> Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws. | |||
| ] of the Russian Federation]] | |||
| ==Foreign relations and military== | |||
| {{Main|Foreign relations of Russia|Armed Forces of the Russian Federation}} | |||
| <!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: ], an ], allegedly capable of evading ]s]] --> | |||
| The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as continuing the legal personality of the former Soviet Union.<ref name=uk>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/europe/russia/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat on the ], membership in other international organizations, the rights and obligations under international treaties and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. It maintains diplomatic relations with 178 countries and has 140 embassies.<ref>{{cite web|title="News From Russia", Issue No. 4|publisher =The Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of India|url=http://www.india.mid.ru/nfr2003/nf07.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}{{dead link|date=November 2008}}</ref> Russia's foreign policy is determined by the ] and implemented by the ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Kosachev|first=Konstantin|title=Russian Foreign Policy Vertical|publisher=Russia In Global Affairs|url=http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/numbers/8/578.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security, and plays a major role in resolving international conflicts by participating in the ], the ] with ], promoting the resolution of the ] and resolving ] issues. Russia is a member of the ] (G8) industrialized nations, the ], ] and ]. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as the ], ], ], and the ]. Former President ] had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of ].<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|url=http://rian.ru/politics/20041125/743119.html|title=Interview of official Ambassador of Russian Foreign Ministry on relations with the EU|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-06-30}}</ref> Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile ] with ]. The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.<ref>{{cite web|title=NATO-Russia relations|publisher =NATO|url=http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/topic.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| ] at an exercise in ]]] | |||
| Russia assumed control of Soviet assets abroad and most of the Soviet Union's production facilities and defense industries are located in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 2—Investing In Russian Defense Conversion: Obstacles and Opportunities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/industry/docs/rus95/rdbd4ch2.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The Russian military is divided into the ], ], and ]. There are also three independent arms of service: ], ], and the ]. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.<ref name=iiss/> | |||
| Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern ] force.<ref name=fas>{{cite web|title=Status of Nuclear Powers and Their Nuclear Capabilities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/summary.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The country has a large and fully indigenous ], producing all of its own military equipment. Russia is the world's top supplier of weapons, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<ref>{{cite web|title=US drives world military spending to record high|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200606/s1661277.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia arms exports could exceed $7 bln in 2007 - Ivanov|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-01-27|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20071224/93979601.html}}</ref> Following the Soviet practice, it was mandatory before 2007 for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be ] for two years' Armed Forces service. Various problems associated with this, such as ] (institutionalised physical and psychological abuse), explain why the armed forces have reduced the conscription term first to 18 months in 2007 and then to 12 since 2008, and are planning to increase the proportion of contract servicemen to 70% of the armed forces by 2010.<ref name=cia/> Defense expenditure has quadrupled over the past six years.<ref>{{citation|publisher=FBIS: Informatsionno-Analiticheskoye Agentstvo Marketing i Konsalting|date=14 March 2006|title=Russia: Assessment, Adam Baltin Interview, Opinion Poll on State of Armed Forces}}</ref> Official government military spending for 2008 is $40 billion, making it the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080226/100080440.html|title=Russian defense spending to grow 20% in 2008, to $40 bln|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-03-13}}</ref> though various sources, including US intelligence,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abcnews.go.com/WN/story?id=3728855|title=Rice: Russia's Military Moves 'a Problem'|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> and the ],<ref name=iiss>{{cite journal|journal=International Institute for Strategic Studies|title=Overview of the major Asian Powers (page 31)|url=http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/060626_asia_balance_powers.pdf|accessdate=2008-01-27|format=PDF}}</ref> have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm|publisher=Global Security|title=World Wide Military Expenditures|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> | |||
| Currently, the military is undergoing a major equipment upgrade with about $200 billion on procurement of military equipment between 2006 and 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/feb/09/russia.usa|publisher=Guardian|title=Big rise in Russian military spending raises fears of new challenge to west|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{main|Economy of Russia}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The economic crisis that struck all post-Soviet countries in the 1990s was twice as intense as the ] in the countries of Western Europe and the United States in the 1930s.<ref>See “What Can Transition Economies Learn from the First Ten Years? A New World Bank Report,” in ''Transition Newsletter'' (http://worldbank.org/transitionnewsletter/janfeb2002). </ref><ref name=Russia>, New York Times, October 8, 2000</ref> Even before the financial crisis of 1998, Russia's ] was half of what it had been in the early 1990s.<ref name=Russia/> Since the turn of the century, rising oil prices, increased foreign investment, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have bolstered economic growth in Russia. The country ended 2007 with its ninth straight year of growth, averaging 7% annually since the ]. In 2007, Russia's GDP was $2.076 trillion (est. ]), the 6th largest in the world, with GDP growing 8.1% from the previous year. Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineral extraction and exports.<ref name=cia/> The average salary in Russia was $640 per month in early 2008, up from $80 in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russians weigh an enigma with Putin’s protégé|publisher=MSNBC|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24443419/|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref> Approximately 14% of Russians lived ] in 2007,<ref name="RIA">{{cite web|publisher=RIA Novosti|title=Russia’s economy under Vladimir Putin: achievements and failures|url=http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20080301/100381963.html|accessdate =2008-05-09}}</ref> significantly down from 40% in 1998 at the worst of the post-Soviet collapse.<ref name=worldbank/> Unemployment in Russia was at 6% in 2007, down from about 12.4% in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=RIA Novosti|title=Russia's unemployment rate down 10% in 2007 - report|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080208/98724898.html|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=indexmundi.com|title=Russia — Unemployment rate (%)|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=rs&v=74|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref> | |||
| ] petrol station. Russia is the world's leading natural gas exporter and the second leading oil exporter.]] | |||
| ] moves to launch pad, about to carry the first resident crew to the ]]] | |||
| Russia has the world's largest ], the second largest ] and the eighth largest ]. It is the world's leading natural gas exporter and the second leading oil exporter. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad.<ref name=cia/> Since 2003, however, exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably. Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will drop to 3.7% by 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia fixed asset investment to reach $370 bln by 2010 - Kudrin|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/business/20070921/80301609.html|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia is also considered well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461_page_2.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The country has more ] graduates than any other country in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=CEE Biweekly (page 6)|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics, UniCredit New Europe Research Network|url=http://www.unicredit-tiriac.ro/pdf/CEE-Biweekly_07-05-24.pdf|accessdate=2008-03-28|format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
| A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the tax burden on people, and dramatically increased state revenue.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tavernise|first=Sabrina|title=Russia Imposes Flat Tax on Income, and Its Coffers Swell|publisher=The New York Times|date=23 March 2002|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E0DC163BF930A15750C0A9649C8B63|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia has a ] rate of 13 percent. This ranks it as the country with the second most attractive personal tax system for single managers in the world after the ], according to a 2007 survey by investment services firm ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Rabushka|first=Alvin|title=The Flat Tax at Work in Russia: Year Three|publisher =Hoover Institution|url=http://www.hoover.org/research/russianecon/essays/5144587.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Global personal taxation comparison survey – market rankings|publisher=Mercer (consulting firms)|url=http://www.mercer.com.au/pressrelease/details.htm?idContent=1287670|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The federal budget has run surpluses since 2001 and ended 2007 with a surplus of 6% of GDP. Over the past several years, Russia has used oil revenues from its ] to prepay all Soviet-era sovereign debt to ] creditors and the IMF. Oil export earnings have allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12 billion in 1999 to $597.3 billion on 1 August 2008, the third largest reserves in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbr.ru/Eng/statistics/credit_statistics/print.asp?file=inter_res_08_e.htm|title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation in 2008|publisher=The Central Bank of the Russian Federation|accessdate=2008-07-30}}</ref> The country has also been able to substantially reduce its formerly massive foreign debt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia's foreign debt down 31.3% in Q3—finance ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20061031/55272320.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| ] and ] supplier.<ref>, Spiegel</ref>]] | |||
| The economic development of the country though has been uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a disproportionately high amount of the country's GDP.<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|title=Gross regional product by federal subjects of the Russian Federation 1998–2006|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b01_19/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d000/vrp98-06.htm|accessdate=2008-06-30|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service}}</ref> Much of Russia, especially indigenous and rural communities in Siberia, lags significantly behind. Nevertheless, the middle class has grown from just 8 million persons in 2000 to 55 million persons in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia is home to the largest number of billionaires in the world after the United States, gaining 50 billionaires in 2007 for a total of 110.<ref>{{cite_web|accessdate=2008-04-19|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idUSL189270520080418?feedType=RSS&feedName=businessNews|author=Robin Paxton|title=A billion dollars not enough for Russian rich list|publisher=Forbes}}</ref> | |||
| Over the last five years, fixed capital investments have averaged real gains greater than 10% per year and personal incomes have achieved real gains more than 12% per year. During this time, poverty has declined steadily and the middle class has continued to expand. Russia has also improved its international financial position since the 1998 financial crisis.<ref name=cia/> A principal factor in Russia's growth has been the combination of strong growth in productivity, real wages, and consumption.<ref name=imf>{{cite web|last=Lipsky|first=John|title=Statement by John Lipsky, First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund|work=Press Release No. 07/126|publisher=International Monetary Fund|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2007/pr07126.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Despite the country's strong economic performance since 1999, however, the ] lists several challenges facing the Russian economy including diversifying the economy, encouraging the growth of small and medium enterprises, building human capital and improving corporate governance.<ref name=countrybrief/> ] grew to about 12% by the end of 2007, up from 9% in 2006. The upward trend continued in the first quarter of 2008, driven largely by rising food costs.<ref name="RIA"/><ref name=cia/> Infrastructure, ageing and inadequate after years of being neglected, is considered to be a bottleneck to economic growth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTPROGRAMS/EXTTRADERESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:21481768~menuPK:64001880~pagePK:210083~piPK:152538~theSitePK:544849,00.html|title=Meeting Russia’s Infrastructure Gap|publisher=The World Bank|accessdate=2008-07-31}}</ref> The government has said $1 trillion will be invested in infrastructure by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070920/80058850.html|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-07-31|title=Russia to invest $1 trillion in infrastructure by 2020 - ministry}}</ref> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| {{main|Demographics of Russia}} | |||
| <div style="font-size: 90%"> | |||
| {| class="wikitable" border="1" table cellspacing="0" style="border:1px black; float:left; margin-left:1em;" | |||
| ! style="background:#F99;" colspan="2"|Ethnic composition (2002)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.1. National composition of population|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |]||79.8% | |||
| |- | |||
| |]||3.8% | |||
| |- | |||
| |]||2.0% | |||
| |- | |||
| |]||1.1% | |||
| |- | |||
| |]||0.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| |]||0.8% | |||
| |- | |||
| |Other/unspecified||10.3% | |||
| |} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ] | |||
| According to preliminary estimates, the resident population of the Russian Federation on 1 January 2008 was 142 million people. In 2007, the population shrank by 237,800 people, or by 0.17% (in 2006 - by 532,600 people, or by 0.37%). Migration grew by 50.2% in 2007<ref name=demo/> to reach 274,000.<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b08_11/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/05-09.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|title=International Migration|accessdate=2008-08-07}}</ref> The vast majority of migrants came from CIS states and were Russians or Russian-speaking.<ref name=demo/> There are also an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ] states in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia cracking down on illegal migrants|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=15 January 2007|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/15/news/migrate.php|accessdate =}}</ref> The Russian Federation is a diverse, multi-ethnic society, home to as many as 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web|title=1 June 2007: A great number of children in Russia remain highly vulnerable|publisher=United Nations Children's Fund|url=http://www.unicef.org/russia/media_6762.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Though Russia's population is comparatively large, its population density is low because of the country's enormous size.<ref>See '']''</ref> Population is densest in European Russia, near the ], and in southwest Siberia. | |||
| 73% of the population lives in urban areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Resident population|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-01.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As of the ], the two largest cities in Russia are ] (10,126,424 inhabitants) and ] (4,661,219). Eleven other cities have between one and two million inhabitants: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. In 2006, 186,380 migrants arrived to the Russian Federation of which 95% came from ] countries. | |||
| Russia's population peaked in 1991 at 148,689,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/29.htm|publisher=Library of Congress|title=Demographics|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> The number of deaths during 2007 was 477,700 greater than the number of births. This is down from 687,100 in 2006.<ref name=demo>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-05|title=Demography|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b08_00/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/7-0.htm}}</ref> According to data published by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service, the mortality rate in Russia declined 4% in 2007, as compared to 2006, reaching some 2 million deaths, while the birth rate grew 8.3% year-on-year to an estimated 1.6 million live births.<ref name=ri>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080221/99803097.html|title=Russia's population down 0.17% in 2007 to 142 mln|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (11.3 births per 1000 people in 2007<ref name=demo/> compared to the ] average of 10.00 per 1000)<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order — Birth rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2054rank.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> its population declines at much greater rate due to a substantially higher death rate (In 2007, Russia's death rate was 14.7 per 1000 people<ref name=demo/> compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000).<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order — Death rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2066rank.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, the Russian health ministry predicts that by 2011, the death rate will equal the birth rate due to increases in fertility and decline in mortality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080123/97616414.html|title=Russia's birth, mortality rates to equal by 2011 - ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref> | |||
| {{Largest cities of Russia}} | |||
| ===Education=== | |||
| {{main|Education in Russia}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Russia has a free education system guaranteed to all citizens by the Constitution,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 43 para. 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and has a ] rate of 99.4%.<ref name=cia/> Entry to higher education is highly competitive.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smolentseva|first=Anna|title=Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia|url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News19/text13.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a high order.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia Country Guide|publisher=EUbusiness.com|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/Russia/russia-country-guide/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title= Background Note: Russia|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3183.htm|accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref> | |||
| The Russian Constitution grants a universal right to higher education free of charge through competitive entry.<ref name=constitution>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 43 para. 3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota, or number of students for each state institution. This is considered crucial because it provides access to higher education to all skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. In addition, students are paid a small stipend and provided with free housing. However, the institutions have to be funded entirely from the federal and regional budgets; institutions have found themselves unable to provide adequate teachers' salaries, students' stipends, and to maintain their facilities.<ref name=education2>{{cite web|title=Higher education structure|publisher=State University Higher School of Economics|url=http://www.hse.ru/lingua/en/rus-ed.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> To address the issue, many state institutions started to open commercial positions, which have been growing steadily since.<ref>{{cite web|title=Higher Education Institutions|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/08-10.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-01}}</ref> Many private higher education institutions have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for high-tech and emerging industries and economic sectors.<ref name=education2/> | |||
| ===Health=== | |||
| {{main article|Health in Russia}} | |||
| The Russian Constitution guarantees free, universal health care for all citizens.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 41)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world on a ] basis,<ref>{{cite book|last=Field|first=M. G.|title=The health and demographic crisis in post-Soviet Russia: a two-phase development in "Russia’s Torn Safety Nets", edited by Field M. G., Twigg J. L. (eds)|publisher=St. Martin’s Press|location=2000:11–42}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Highlights on Health in the Russian Federation|publisher =World Health Organization|month=November | year=1999|url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/e72504.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> since the collapse of the Soviet Union the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, and lifestyle changes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leonard|first=William R|title=Declining growth status of indigenous Siberian children in post-Soviet Russia|month=April | year=2002|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200204/ai_n9037764|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As of 2007, the average life expectancy in Russia is 61.5 years for males and 73.9 years for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.duma-er.ru/news/29056|publisher=United Russia|title=Продолжительность жизни россиян возросла с 2005 по 2007 г на 2,4 года, до 67,7 года|accessdate=2008-05-01}}</ref> The average Russian life expectancy of 67.7 years at birth is 10.8 years shorter than the overall figure in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ee.html|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=European Union|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref> The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crimes). Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe.<ref name=heart>{{cite web|title=Heart disease kills 1.3 million annually in Russia — chief cardiologist|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070214/60721668.html|accessdate=2007-12-27 }}</ref> As a result of the large difference in life expectancy between men and women and because of the lasting effect of World War II, where Russia lost more men than any other nation in the world, the gender imbalance remains to this day and there are 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/> | |||
| Heart diseases account for 56.7% of total deaths, with about 30% involving people still of working age. About 16 million Russians suffer from cardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, after Ukraine, in this respect.<ref name=heart/> Death rates from homicide, suicide and cancer are also especially high.<ref name=cbs>{{cite web|title=Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System|publisher=CBS News|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/06/28/world/main2992334.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> According to a 2007 survey by Romir Monitoring, 52% of men and 15% of women smoke. More than 260,000 lives are lost each year as a result of tobacco use.<ref name=smokingria>{{cite web|title=Third of Russians smoke, but half welcome public smoking ban|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070221/61054065.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet era, rapidly spread following the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use.<ref>{{cite web|title=HIV/AIDS in the Russian Federation|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/EXTECAREGTOPHEANUT/EXTECAREGTOPHIVAIDS/0,,contentMDK:20320143~menuPK:616427~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:571172,00.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> According to official statistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV, but independent experts place the number significantly higher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian regional HIV vaccine center seeks $40–50 mln from budget|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070206/60289838.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spending on HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006, and the 2007 budget doubled that of 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/CountryResponses/Countries/russian_federation.asp Russian Federation AIDS information|title=Russian Federation|accessdate=2008-03-11|publisher=UNAIDS: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS}}</ref> Since the Soviet collapse, there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particularly widespread amongst prison inmates.<ref>{{cite web|title=119,000 TB cases in Russia — health official|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20060127/43221133.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| In an effort to stem Russia’s demographic crisis, the government is implementing a number of programs designed to increase the birth rate and attract more migrants to alleviate the problem. The government has doubled monthly child support payments and offered a one-time payment of 250,000 Rubles (around US$10,000) to women who had a second child since 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=]—Federal Research Division|month=October | year=2006|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Russia.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> In 2007, Russia saw the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/International_Business/Russian_policies_ignite_unprecedented_birth_rate_in_2007/articleshow/2750305.cms|publisher=The Economic Times|title=Russian policies ignite unprecedented birth rate in 2007|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> The First Deputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centres in Russia in 2008–2009. Immigration is increasingly seen as necessary to sustain the country's population.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Expert Group Meeting On International Migration and Development|publisher=Population Division; Department of Economic and Social Affairs; United Nations Secretariat|date=6–8 July 2005|url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/ittmigdev2005/P11_Rybakovsky&Ryazantsev.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
| ===Language=== | |||
| ] is spoken]] | |||
| {{main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}} | |||
| Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages.<ref name=britannica/> According to the 2002 census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by ] with 5.3 million and German with 2.9 million speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.3. Population by nationalities and knowledge of Russian; 4.4. Spreading of knowledge of languages (except Russian)|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> Russian is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual ] the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 68, para. 2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of ] and the most widely spoken ].<ref name=toronto>{{cite web|title=Russian|publisher=University of Toronto|url=http://learn.utoronto.ca/Page625.aspx|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russian belongs to the ] family and is one of the living members of the ]; the others being ] and ] (and possibly ]). Written examples of ] (''Old Russian'') are attested from the 10th century onwards.<ref>{{cite web|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|title=Russian language|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572449/Russian_Language.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian. Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in the English and Russian languages.<ref name=lomonosov>{{cite web|title=Russian language course|publisher=Russian Language Centre — Official Website, Moscow State University|url=http://www.rlcentre.com/russian-language-course.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The language is one of the six ] of the ]. | |||
| ===Religion=== | |||
| {{main|Religion in Russia}} | |||
| ], demolished during the Soviet period, was reconstructed from 1990–2000]] | |||
| ], ], ], and ] are Russia’s traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bell|first=Imogen|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=respecting+christianity+islam+buddhism+judaism+and+other&source=web&ots=pppIldMuS1&sig=KikE3NJkzMEdWt4rU9EoeN03-6o|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 16–48% of the population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zuckerman|first=Phil|title=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns, chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=}}</ref> ] is the dominant religion in Russia.<ref name=relig>{{cite web|title=Religion In Russia|publisher=Embassy of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.russianembassy.org/RUSSIA/religion.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the ] while there are a number of ].<ref>{{cite web|title={{ru icon}} Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской Федерации По данным Федеральной регистрационной службы|date=December 2006|url=http://www.religare.ru/article36302.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.<ref name=encarta>{{cite web|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|title=Russia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_6/Russia.html|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> Smaller Christian denominations such as ], ] and various ] exist. | |||
| The ancestors of many of today’s Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century.<ref name=encarta/> The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published by the US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90196.htm | |||
| |accessdate=2008-04-08 | |||
| |title=Russia | |||
| }}</ref> According to a poll by the ], 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves ] and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.<ref name=religionsurvey>{{cite web|title={{ru_icon}} Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше|publisher=religare.ru|date=6 June 2007|url=http://www.religare.ru/article42432.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| It is estimated that Russia is home to some 15–20 million Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fact Box: Muslims In Russia|publisher=Radio Free Europe|url=http://rfe.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/07/b7d5e783-749f-4e6a-b77e-8932ece7ad53.html?napage=2|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref name=timesmuslim>{{cite web|last=Page|first=Jeremy|title=The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church|published=The Times|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article551693.ece|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, surveys say that there are only 7 to 9 million people who adhere to the Islamic faith in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=2869|publisher=Interfax|title=20Mln Muslims in Russia and mass conversion of ethnic Russians are myths — expert|accessdate=2008-04-01}}</ref> Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ex-Soviet states.<ref name=financialtimes>{{cite web|title=Russia's Islamic rebirth adds tension|publisher=Financial Times|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3f3fba2c-474f-11da-b8e5-00000e2511c8.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Most Muslims live in the Volga-Ural region, as well as in the North Caucasus, Moscow,<ref>, VOA News, June 18, 2007</ref> Saint Petersburg and western Siberia.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mainville|first=Michael|title=Russia has a Muslim dilemma|work=Page A - 17|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle|date=19 November 2006|url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/19/MNGJGMFUVG1.DTL|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> ] is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|last=Nettleton|first=Steve|title=Prayers for Ivolginsky|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2000/russia/story/train/ivolginsky.monastery/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, ], ], etc., practice shamanist, pantheistic, and pagan rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. ] are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian. Turkic speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not.<ref name=religion2>{{cite web|title=Russia::Religion|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{main|Russian culture}} | |||
| ===Classical music and ballet=== | |||
| {{main|Russian music|Russian ballet}} | |||
| ] (1840–1893), composer]] | |||
| Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions of ]. Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classical composer ] and ], who embraced Russian national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions, and the ] led by composers ] and ], which was musically conservative. The later Romantic tradition of ], one of the greatest composers of the ] whose music has come to be known and loved for its distinctly Russian character as well as its rich harmonies and stirring melodies, was brought into the 20th century by ], one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.{{Fact|date=October 2008}} | |||
| World-renowned composers of the 20th century included ], ], ], ], and ]. During most of the Soviet Era, music was highly scrutinized and kept within a conservative, accessible idiom in conformity with the Stalinist policy of socialist realism. Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists ] and ], cellist ], pianists ], ] and ], and vocalist ].{{Fact|date=October 2008}} | |||
| ]. Currently, it is undergoing a four-year, $730 million restoration<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/04/arts/04arts-SAVINGBOLSHO_BRF.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-06-13|title=Saving Bolshoi Theater|last=Gelder|first=Lawrence V}}</ref>]] | |||
| Russian composer ] composed the world's most famous works of ballet—], ], and ]. During the early 20th century, Russian dancers ] and ] rose to fame, and impresario ] and his ]' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.<ref>{{cite book|last=Garafola|first=Lynn|title=Diaghilev's Ballets Russes|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=576|url=http://www.amazon.com/Diaghilevs-Ballets-Russes-Lynn-Garafola/dp/0195057015|isbn=0195057015|year=1989}}</ref> Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,<ref>{{cite web|last=Cashin|first=Kathryn Karrh|title=Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet — Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward|url=http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04072005-133328/unrestricted/12_kkc_chap5.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including ], ], and ]. The ] in Moscow and the ] in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://petersburgcity.com/news/culture/2005/11/18/theatre/|title=A Tale of Two Operas|publisher=Petersburg City|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> | |||
| ===Literature=== | |||
| {{main|Russian literature}} | |||
| ] is considered to be among the most influential and developed in the world, contributing much of the world's most famous literary works.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564269/Russian_Literature.html|title=Russian Literature|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> Russia's literary history dates back to the 10th century and by the early 19th century a native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writers of all time. This period and the ] began with ], considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often described as the "Russian Shakespeare".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kelly|first=Catriona|title=Russian Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions) (Paperback)|publisher=Oxford Paperbacks|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/Russian-Literature-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0192801449|isbn=0192801449|year=2001}}</ref> Amongst Russia's most renowned poets and writers of the 19th century are ], ], ], ], ] and ]. ], ], ], and ] made lasting contributions to Russian prose. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky in particular were titanic figures to the point that many literary critics have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-04-11|title=Russian literature; Leo Tolstoy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Time Magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943893,00.html?promoid=googlep|accessdate=2008-04-10|title=Freaking-Out with Fyodor|author=Otto Friedrich}}</ref> | |||
| ] (1828–1910), writer]] | |||
| By the 1880s Russian literature had begun to change. The age of the great novelists was over and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres of Russian literature for the next several decades which became known as the ]. Previously dominated by realism, symbolism dominated Russian literature in the years between 1893 and 1914. Leading writers of this age include ], ], ], ], ],], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war, Russian cultural life in was left in chaos. Some established writers left Russia while a new generation of talented writers who had at least some sympathy for the ideals of the revolution was emerging. The most ardent of these joined together in writers organizations with the aim of creating a new and distinctive proletarian (working-class) culture appropriate to the new state. Throughout the 1920s writers enjoyed broad tolerance. In the 1930s censorship over literature was tightened in line with Joseph Stalin's policy of ]. After his death several thaws took place and restrictions on literature were eased. By the 1970s and 1980s, writers were increasingly ignoring the guidelines of socialist realism. The leading writers of the Soviet era included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| ===Cinema=== | |||
| {{main|Cinema of Russia}} | |||
| ], the ]]] | |||
| While in the industrialized nations of the West, motion pictures had first been accepted as a form of cheap recreation and leisure for the working class, Russian filmmaking came to prominence following the 1917 revolution when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=History of the motion picture: The Soviet Union|accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention in the period immediately following the 1917 revolution, resulting in world-renowned films such as '']''.<ref name=film>{{cite web|title=Russia::Motion pictures|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably ] and ], would become some of the world's most innovative and influential directors. | |||
| Eisenstein also was a student of filmmaker and theorist ], who formulated the groundbreaking editing process called ] at the world's first film school, the ] in Moscow. ], whose kino-glaz (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. In 1932, Stalin made ] the state policy; this stifled creativity but many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, including '']'', '']'' and '']''.<ref name=film/> ]'s comedies of the 1960s and 1970s were immensely popular, with many of the catch phrases still in use today. In 1969, ]'s '']'' was released, starting a genre known as ']s'. The film is watched by ] before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|publisher=Film Society of Lincoln Center|title=White Sun of the Desert / Beloe solntse pustyni|accessdate=2008-01-18}}</ref> | |||
| The 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.<ref name=kino>{{cite web|last=Dzieciolowski|first=Zygmunt|title=Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-Film/russian_film_3726.jsp|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia's total box-office revenue in 2007 was $565 million, up 37% from the previous year<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011|publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers|url=http://www.pwc.com/extweb/ncpressrelease.nsf/docid/B373F0C74AA25A7480257309003B9833|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> (by comparison, in 1996 revenues stood at $6 million).<ref name=kino/> Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. '']'' (2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. | |||
| ===Visual arts=== | |||
| {{main|Russian visual arts}} | |||
| Early Russian painting focused on ] and vibrant ]s inherited by Russians from ]. As ] rose to power, ] and ] are vital names associated with the beginning of a distinctly Russian art. The ] was created in 1757, aimed to give Russian artists an international role and status. Notable portrait painters from the Academy include ], ], ] and ]. ] flourished in the 19th century and the realists captured Russian identity. Russian landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birch clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries asserted a sense of identity. Other artists focused on ], showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority while ] flourished under the reign of ]. | |||
| ], symbolic of Russia's historical spiritual quest]] | |||
| ]]] | |||
| After the abolition of serfdom in 1861 some artists made the circle of human suffering their focus. Artists sometimes created wide canvasses to depict dramatic moments in Russian history. The ] (wanderers) group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from Academic restrictions. Their paintings had deep social and political meaning. Leading realists include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. By the 1830s the Academy was sending painters overseas to learn. The most gifted of these were ] and ], both of whom were noted for the Romantic historical canvasses. Uniquely Russian styles of painting emerged by the late 19th century that was intimately engaged with the daily life of Russian society. | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The ] is an umbrella term used to define the large, influential wave of ] that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930. The term covers many separate, but inextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namely ], ], ], ] and ]. Notable artists from this era include ], ], ], ], ], and ] amongst others. The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the ] and 1932, at which point the ideas of the ] clashed with the newly emerged conservative Stalinist direction of ]. | |||
| By the late 1920s the rigid policy of socialist realism enveloped the visual arts as it did literature and motion pictures and soon the avant-garde had faded from sight. Some artists combined innovation with socialist realism including ], ], ], ] and ]. They employed techniques as varied as ], ], ], and ], but they shared a common distaste for the canons of socialist realism. Soviet artists produced works that were furiously patriotic and anti-fascist in the 1940s. Events and battles from the Great Patriotic War were depicted with stirring patriotism and after the war sculptors made many monuments to the war dead, the greatest of which have a great restrained solemnity. In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, due in part to the traumas of the Revolution. Russian artists such as ], ], and ] spread their work and ideas internationally. These Russian artists studied internationally in Paris and Munich and their involuntary exile spread the impact of Russian art globally. | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ===Sports=== | |||
| {{main|Sport in Russia}} | |||
| ], the world's highest paid female athlete<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/22/women-athletes-endorsements-biz-sports-cx_tvr_kb_0722athletes.html|accessdate=2008-08-01|author=Tom Van Riper and Kurt Badenhausen|title=Top-Earning Female Athletes|publisher=Forbes}}</ref>]] | |||
| Russians have been successful at a number of sports and continuously finishing in the top rankings at the Olympic Games. During the Soviet era, the national team placed first in the total number of medals won at 14 of its 18 appearances; with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era. Since the 1952 Olympic Games, Soviet and later Russian athletes have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow while the 2014 Winter Olympics will be hosted by Sochi. | |||
| As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in basketball, winning various Olympic tournaments, World Championships and Eurobasket. At the moment they have various players in the NBA, notably Utah Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko, and are considered as a worldwide basketball force. In 2007, Russia defeated world champions Spain to win Eurobasket 2007. Russian basketball clubs such as PBC CSKA Moscow (2006 and 2008 Euroleague Champions) have also had great success in European competitions such as the Euroleague and the ULEB Cup. | |||
| During the soviet period, Russia was also a competitive footballing nation, reaching the finals of various international tournaments. With ice hockey and possibly basketball, football is the most popular sport in Russia today. Despite having fantastic players, the USSR never really managed to assert itself as one of the major forces of international football, although its teams won various championships (such as Euro 1960) and reached numerous finals (such as Euro 1988). In recent years, Russian football, which suffered terribly from the break up of 1991, has experienced something of a revival. Russian clubs (such as CSKA Moscow, Zenit St Petersburg, Lokomotiv Moscow and of course Spartak Moscow) are becoming more and more successful on the European stage (CSKA and Zenit winning the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008 respectively) and many predict that the Russian league will become one of the strongest in Europe, partly due to Russia's wealth of footballing talent (visible in their team at Euro 2008) and also because of the injection of serious money into the Russian game, which helps to attract notable foreign players as well. The Russian national team, which played some of the most entertaining and skillful football of Euro 2008 and reached the semi final, losing to eventual champions Spain, is rapidly reemerging as a dominant force in international football, under the guidance of Dutch manager Guus Hiddink. | |||
| Soviet gymnasts, track-and-field athletes, weight lifters, wrestlers, cross country skiers, and boxers were consistently among the best in the world. Even since the collapse of the Soviet empire, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competition in these areas. Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at almost all the Olympics and World Championships they contested, most recently in the 2008 World Championships. | |||
| Figure skating is another popular sport; in the 1960s, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in figure skating, especially in pair skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. Since the end of the Soviet era, tennis has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. Chess is a widely popular pastime; from 1927, Soviet and Russian chess grandmasters have held the world championship almost continuously. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{main|List of basic Russia topics}} | |||
| {{Russia topics}} | |||
| ==References and notes== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Russia}} | |||
| ; Government | |||
| *—Official governmental portal {{ru icon}} | |||
| *—Official site of the parliamentary lower house {{ru icon}} | |||
| *—Official site of the parliamentary upper house | |||
| *—Official presidential site | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * - From the Energy Information Administration | |||
| *— Russian Official Travel Guide | |||
| *— Russian Official Cruises | |||
| * | |||
| ; General information | |||
| *{{CIA World Factbook link|rs|Russia}} | |||
| * at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' | |||
| *{{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Russia}} | |||
| *{{wikiatlas|Russia}} | |||
| *{{wikitravel}} | |||
| ; Other | |||
| * news agency based in Moscow | |||
| * | |||
| * Bibliographic database of German publications on Russia (about 175 000 positions) | |||
| * | |||
| {{Template group | |||
| |title = Geographic locale | |||
| |list = | |||
| {{Countries of Europe}} | |||
| {{Countries of Asia}} | |||
| {{Countries bordering the Baltic Sea}} | |||
| {{Countries bordering the Black Sea}} | |||
| {{Countries bordering the Caspian Sea}} | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Template group | |||
| |title = International organisations | |||
| |list = | |||
| {{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)|state=collapsed}} | |||
| {{Council of Europe}} | |||
| {{G8 nations}} | |||
| {{BRIC}} | |||
| {{UN Security Council|state=collapsed}} | |||
| {{East Asia Summit (EAS)}} | |||
| {{APEC}} | |||
| {{Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)}} | |||
| {{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}} | |||
| {{Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC)}} | |||
| {{Slavic-speaking nations}} | |||
| {{Quartet on the Middle East|state=collapsed}} | |||
| }} | |||
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Revision as of 00:11, 19 February 2009
Russia is in Asia.