| Revision as of 14:35, 23 February 2009 view sourceXeno (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Bureaucrats, Administrators103,385 edits Undid revision 272721509 by 208.122.95.103 (talk) rv unexplained removal← Previous edit | Revision as of 20:00, 23 February 2009 view source 209.155.87.130 (talk) ←Replaced content with 'only fagots smoke marajuana'Next edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| only fagots smoke marajuana | |||
| {{pp-semi-indef}}{{pp-move-indef}} | |||
| {{taxobox | |||
| |name = Cannabis | |||
| |image = Macro cannabis bud.jpg | |||
| |image_caption = A dried flowered bud of the ''Cannabis sativa'' plant. Note the visible ]s (commonly referred to as crystals), which carry a large portion of the drug content. | |||
| | image_width = 250px | |||
| | regnum = ]ae | |||
| | divisio = ] | |||
| | classis = ] | |||
| | ordo = ] | |||
| | familia = ] | |||
| | genus = '']'' | |||
| | species = '''''C. sativa''''' | |||
| | binomial = ''Cannabis sativa'' | |||
| | binomial_authority = ] | |||
| | subdivision_ranks = ] | |||
| | subdivision = ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa''<br />''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' | |||
| |}} | |||
| '''Cannabis''', also known as ]<ref> </ref> or '''marihuana''',<ref>derived from the Spanish, also spelled "mariguana", which is of unknown origin ({{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VTYBbGybtNEC&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=%2Bmarijuana+%2B%22spanish+word%22+%2Bcannabis&source=bl&ots=MBDWPNXpCr&sig=K6HzFy8QqSt-GNnDA2APJX7BUCM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result | title=Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries | page=142}})</ref> or '''ganja''' (from ]/]: गांजा ''gānjā, hemp''),<ref>The ]. Any of various preparations of different parts of the cannabis-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang (marijuana), ganja, and charas (hashish) are different forms of these preparations." It is also notes that "cannabis" was elliptical reference (i.e. slang) for ''Cannabis sativa''.</ref> is a ] extracted from the plant '']'', or more often, ''Cannabis sativa'' subsp. ''indica''. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature ]s and subtending leaves of pistillate (female) plants. The resinous form, known as ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idmu.co.uk/can.htm|title=Types of Cannabis Available in the UK|author=Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit |accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> consists primarily of glandular ]s collected from the same plant material. The major biologically active ] in cannabis is Δ<sup>9</sup>-] (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly referred to as THC. | |||
| Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory,<ref name="rudgley1999">{{cite book|author=Rudgley, Richard|authorlink=Richard Rudgley|year=1998|title=Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age|isbn= 0-6848-5580-1}}</ref> although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for ], ] or ], and ] purposes. It is estimated that about four percent of the world's adult population (162 million) use cannabis annually and 0.6<!-- source states 14% of annual users are daily users --> percent (22.5 million) daily.<ref name="WDR2006chap2">{{citation|author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|year=2006|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf|format=PDF|title=Cannabis: Why we should care|journal=World Drug Report|volume=1|isbn= 9-2114-8214-3|accessdate=2006-10-10}} p.14</ref> The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became ] in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis ] while others have reduced the priority of enforcement. | |||
| ==Forms== | |||
| ===Marijuana=== | |||
| ] | |||
| * ''Marijuana'' or ''ganja'': the flowering tops of female plants,<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Marijuana | |||
| |title=Marijuana- Definitions from Dictionary.com | |||
| |publisher=dictionary.reference.com | |||
| |accessdate=2008-06-23 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> from less than 1% ] to 22% THC; the wide range is probably one of the reasons for the conflicting results from different studies. | |||
| Psychoactive potency by cannabis plant part is approximately as follows (descending order):<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:XN8MfdrQC5MJ:www.greenmanspage.com/guides/thcpotency.html+cannabis+plant+parts+by+potency&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us | |||
| |title=Marijuana Potency | |||
| |publisher=64.233.167.104 | |||
| |accessdate=2008-07-13 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> | |||
| # ]s | |||
| # Female flowering buds | |||
| # Male flowering buds | |||
| # New shoots | |||
| # Leaves from flower buds | |||
| # Leaves in ascending order of size | |||
| # Stems of leaves (]) in ascending order of size | |||
| # Stems in ascending order of size | |||
| # Roots and seeds | |||
| ===Hashish=== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main article|Hashish}} | |||
| * '']'' (pressed kief) or '']'': a concentrated resin composed of heated glandular trichomes that have been physically extracted,<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Hashish | |||
| |title=Hashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com | |||
| |publisher=dictionary.reference.com | |||
| |accessdate=2008-06-23 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice. | |||
| ===Kief=== | |||
| {{Main article|Kief}} | |||
| * '']'': | |||
| (1) The sticky resin saturated bits of plant before pressed into hashish. <br /> | |||
| (2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains;<ref name="kif">{{cite web|author=Zijlma, Anouk|url=http://goafrica.about.com/od/morocco/a/moroccokif.htm|title=Smoking hashish in Morocco|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref><br /> | |||
| (3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen");<br /> (4) the crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana, then smoked. | |||
| ===Hash oil=== | |||
| {{main|Honey oil}} | |||
| For example, an ethanol extract of cannabis that has had the ethanol evaporated from it, to leave hash oil. | |||
| ===Resin=== | |||
| When marijuana is smoked because of THC's adhesive properties resin builds up inside the paraphernalia. It has tar-like properties and still contains THC as well as other cannibinoids. Resin still has all the psychoactive properties of marijuana but is harsher and less healthy on the lungs. Marijuana users typically only smoke resin as a last resort when they have run out of marijuana flowers. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/articles/3603.html|title=Pipe Residue Information|accessdate=2004-08-25}}</ref> | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Methods of consumption== | |||
| ] forced-air Vaporizer]] | |||
| ] | |||
| <!-----PLEASE do not add any more detail to this section. Development is more than welcome at ]. THANKS!--->{{main|Cannabis consumption}} | |||
| Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which either involve inhaling smoke from ignited plant or administering orally. | |||
| Various devices exist for smoking cannabis. The most commonly used include screened ], ]s, ]s, paper-wrapped ]s and cigar-leaf-wrapped ]s. Local methods differ by the preparation of the cannabis plant before use, the parts of the cannabis plant which are used, and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation. | |||
| '']'' heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a ] without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 392 °F (200°C) at 0.02 mmHg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure),<ref name="volcano">{{cite web|url=http://www.storz-bickel.com/pics/down/Lufttemperaturtabelle%20-%20Air%20temperatur%20table.pdf|format=PDF|title=Air Temperature Table|accessdate=2007-09-22}}. Volcano<sup>tm</sup> Operating Manual. Storz & Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany.</ref><ref name="merck1989">1989. ''The Merck Index'', 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. | |||
| As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or ]d to cause ] of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, into psychoactive THC.<ref></ref> | |||
| Cannabis material can be ] in high-proof ] (often ]) to create a ] referred to as “]”. This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} | |||
| Cannabis can also be consumed as a ]. THC is ] and only slightly ] ] (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ProxyServlet?objectHandle=Search&actionHandle=getAll3DMViewFiles&nextPage=jsp%2Fcommon%2FChemFull.jsp%3FcalledFrom%3Dlite&chemid=001972083&formatType=_3D | |||
| |title=ChemIDplus Lite | |||
| |publisher=chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov | |||
| |accessdate=2008-08-08 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> so tea is made by first dissolving the active components in a fat such as milk, cream, butter, which is mixed with hot water to make a tea. | |||
| ==Effects== | |||
| {{main|Effects of cannabis}} | |||
| <!--- | |||
| PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ] THANKS. | |||
| ---> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Cannabis has ] and ] effects when consumed. The minimum amount of ] required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.<ref> http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt </ref> The most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of ], concentration, and short-term memory. Long-term effects are less clear. | |||
| ===Classification=== | |||
| {{main article|Effects of cannabis#Psychoactive effects}} | |||
| While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either ], ], ], or ], cannabis, containing both ] and ], exhibits a mix of all properties, leaning towards hallucinogen properties due to THC being the primary constituent.<ref name="mckim">{{cite book | author=McKim, William A | title=Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition)| publisher=Prentice Hall| year=2002| isbn=0-13-048118-1| page=400 }}</ref><ref name="nida">{{cite web | title=Information on Drugs of Abuse | work=Commonly Abused Drug Chart | url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html | dateformat=mdy | accessdate=July 15 2007}}</ref><ref name="Stafford">{{cite book | author=Stafford, Peter | title=Psychedelics Encyclopedia| year=1992 | isbn=0914171518 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Health issues=== | |||
| <!---This section is designed to be a summary of the health issues presented in the "Effects of cannabis" article. Please do not add specific studies here.-------> | |||
| Smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, since the combination of inhalation of ] from ] such as tobacco, wood, gasoline and cannabis can cause various health problems.<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=WLQV1VCMKJA38LX905QKR347R75K8LH6&ID=1467 | |||
| |title=The Haworth Press Online Catalog: Article Abstract | |||
| |publisher=www.haworthpress.com | |||
| |accessdate=2008-07-28 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> | |||
| In comparison, study on ] found that subjects were "only 40% as likely to report respiratory symptoms as users who do not vaporize, even when age, sex, cigarette use, and amount of cannabis consumed are controlled."<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://harmreductionjournal.com/content/4/1/11 | |||
| |title=Harm Reduction Journal | Full text | Decreased respiratory symptoms in cannabis users who vaporize | |||
| |publisher=harmreductionjournal.com | |||
| |accessdate=2008-07-28 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> Another study found vaporizers to be "a safe and effective cannabinoid delivery system."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Abrams DI, Vizoso HP, Shade SB, Jay C, Kelly ME, Benowitz NL |title=Vaporization as a smokeless cannabis delivery system: a pilot study |journal=Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=82 |issue=5 |pages=572–8 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=17429350 |doi=10.1038/sj.clpt.6100200 |url=}}</ref><ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17821306 | |||
| |title=Evaluation of a vaporizing device (Volcano®) for the pulmonary administration of tetrahydrocannabinol | |||
| |publisher=cat.inist.fr | |||
| |accessdate=2008-07-28 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> | |||
| ]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C |title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9566 |pages=1047–53 |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17382831 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4 |url=http://www.antiproibizionisti.it/public/docs/thelancet_20070323.pdf}}</ref>) ]] | |||
| A 2007 study by the Canadian government found cannabis smoke contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke.<ref name="Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7150274.stm|publisher=BBC|date=2007-12-19|title=Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'}}</ref> The study determined that marijuana smoke contained 20 times more ], and five times more ] and ]s than tobacco smoke. In spite of this, recent studies have been unable to demonstrate a direct link between lung cancer and frequent direct inhalation of marijuana smoke. While many researchers have failed to find a correlation,<ref name="Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=2006-05-26 |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref><ref name="Study finds no marijuana-cancer connection">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/25/AR2006052501729_pf.html |publisher=Washington Post |date= |title=Study Finds No Cancer-Marijuana Connection}}</ref> some researchers still conclude that marijuana smoke poses a higher risk of lung cancer than tobacco.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSHKG10478820080129|title=Cannabis bigger cancer risk than cigarettes: study|publisher=Thomson Reuters|accessdate=2008-12-02}}</ref> Some studies have even shown that the non-psychoactive ingredient ] found in marijuana may be useful in treating breast cancer.<ref name="Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,312132,00.html |publisher=Fox News |date=2007-11-19 |title=Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis use has been assessed by several studies to be ] of anxiety, psychosis and depression,<ref name="henquet2005">{{cite journal |author=Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J, ''et al'' |title=Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people |journal=BMJ |volume=330 |issue=7481 |pages=11 |year=2005 |month=January |pmid=15574485 |pmc=539839 |doi=10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63 |url=}}</ref><ref name="patton2002">{{cite journal |author=Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M, Hall W |title=Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study |journal=BMJ |volume=325 |issue=7374 |pages=1195–8 |year=2002 |month=November |pmid=12446533 |pmc=135489 |doi=10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1195 |url=}}</ref> however, ], and the meaning of the correlation and its direction is a subject of debate that has not been resolved in the scientific community. Some studies assess that the causality is more likely to involve a path from cannabis use to psychotic symptoms rather than a path from psychotic symptoms to cannabis use,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Ridder EM |title=Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms |journal=Addiction |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=354–66 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15733249 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01001.x |url=}}</ref> while others assess the opposite direction of the causality, or hold cannabis to only form parts of a "causal constellation", while not inflicting mental health problems that would not have occurred in the absence of the cannabis use.<ref>Hall, Wayne; Degenhardt, Lousia; Teesson, Maree. "". Office of Public Policy and Ethics, ], and National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre University of New South Wales Australia published in '']'' (December 2004). Vol 23 Issue 4. Pg 433-443</ref><ref>Arseneault, Louise; Cannon, Mary; Wiitton, John; Murray, Robin M. "". ] published in '']'' (2004). #184, Pg. 110-117</ref> | |||
| Studies have also shown links between heavy long-term use (over five joints daily over several years) and incidence of heart attacks, strokes, as well as abnormalities in the ] and ] regions of the brain.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/05/13/pot-stroke.html|title=Heavy pot smoking could raise risk of heart attack, stroke |publisher=CBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080602/marijuana_effects_080602/20080602?hub=Health |title=Long-term marijuana use linked to brain abnormalities |publisher=CBC}}</ref> | |||
| ===Gateway drug theory=== | |||
| {{further|]}} | |||
| Some claim that trying marijuana increases the probability that users will eventually use harder drugs. This hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of cannabis drug policy in the United States, though the validity and implications of these hypotheses are highly debated.<ref name="Rand">{{cite web|date=2002-12-02 |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name="Torabi1993">{{cite journal |author=Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M |title=Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the "gateway drug effect" |journal=The Journal of school health |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=302–6 |year=1993 |pmid=8246462 |doi=}}</ref> | |||
| No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use of marijuana and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. | |||
| A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social | |||
| context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:75835 | |||
| |title=Is cannabis a gateway drug? Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs - UQ eSpace | |||
| |publisher=espace.library.uq.edu.au | |||
| |accessdate=2008-06-19 | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> | |||
| The main variant of the gateway hypothesis is that people, upon trying cannabis for the first time and not finding it dangerous, are then tempted to try other, harder drugs. In such a scenario, a new user of cannabis who feels there is a difference between anti-drug information and their own experiences will apply this distrust to public information of other, more powerful drugs.{{Fact|date=October 2008}} Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway theory, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.<ref name="journalwatch">{{cite web|author=Saitz, Richard|date=2003-02-18|url=http://general-medicine.jwatch.org/cgi/content/full/2003/218/1|title=Is marijuana a gateway drug?|publisher=Journal Watch|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be ], and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01906.x|author=Degenhardt, Louisa et al|title=Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians|year=2007|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> | |||
| Another gateway hypothesis is that while cannabis is not as harmful or addictive as any other drugs, a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors" involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be in situations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.<ref name="morral2002">{{cite journal |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118957921/abstract |author=Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM |title=Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect |journal=] |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=1493–504 |year=2002 |pmid=12472629 |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1146183/k.AE54/FAQ.htm|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ|accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref> By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may also be regarded as gateway drugs.<ref name="Torabi1993"/> At least one source has suggested that the practice of mixing tobacco with cannabis can be a gateway to nicotine dependence.<ref>, page 4. "Cannabis has been described as a 'Trojan Horse' for nicotine addiction, given the usual method of mixing cannabis with tobacco when preparing marijuana for administration."</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ].<ref name=Stafford>Stafford, Peter. 1992. ''Psychedelics Encyclopedia''. Berkeley, California, Ronin Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-914171-51-8</ref> Má (] pronunciation), the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of 2 plants under a shelter.<ref name="Matthews2007">{{Citation | |||
| | title = Learning Chinese Characters | |||
| | last1 = Matthews | first1 = A. | |||
| | last2 = Matthews | first2 = L. | |||
| | year = 2007 | |||
| | page = 336 | |||
| | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=YweFHwPd05EC&pg=PA336&lpg=PA336&dq=hemp+wood+shelter&source=bl&ots=71EVxLUarw&sig=s0T9ek-LOmhqDPr74RhgJPmOVm8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result}}</ref>]] | |||
| Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the ] as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual ] at an ancient burial site in present day ].<ref name="rudgley1999" /> The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient ]s of ] and ]. The herb was called '']'' in ] (गांजा/গাঁজা ''ganja'' in modern ]).<ref name="leary1990">{{cite book|author=Leary, Thimothy|year=1990|title=Flashbacks|editor=Tarcher/Putnam|isbn=0-8747-7870-0}}</ref><ref name="ganjikaEB">{{Citation|year=1911|url=http://57.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HEMP.htm|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=11th|accessdate=2006-06-15|month=December|author=Miller, Ga|volume=34|issue=883|pages=761–762|pmid=17759460|doi=10.1126/science.34.883.761|journal=Science (New York, N.Y.)}}</ref> The ancient drug ], mentioned in the ]s as a sacred intoxicating ], was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name="rudgley1998">{{cite book|author=Rudgley, Richard|authorlink=Richard Rudgley|year=1998|url=http://www.huxley.net/soma/index.html|title=The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances|editor=Little, Brown and Company|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis was also known to the ], who discovered its psychoactive properties through the ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Franck, Mel | title=Marijuana Grower's Guide| publisher=Red Eye Press | year=1997| isbn=0-9293-4903-2}} p.3</ref> Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word 'Cannabis'.<ref>{{cite book | author=Rubin, Vera D.| title=Cannabis and Culture| publisher=Campus Verlag | year=1976| isbn=3-5933-7442-0}} p.305</ref> Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the ]ns and ]/]ns, whose ] (the '']''—“those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Cunliffe, Barry W.| title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001| isbn=0-1928-5441-0}} p.405</ref> Members of the cult of ], believed to have originated in ] (], ] and ]), are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old ] ] in the northwestern ] Uygur Autonomous Region of ].<ref name="peoplesdaily">{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref><ref name="jiang2006a">{{cite journal|author=Hong-En Jiang ''et al.''|year=2006|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8D-4K7WC0F-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F06%2F2006&_rdoc=17&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235084%232006%23998919996%23636769%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5084&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=23&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3e6ac8940b4b86b94935cd7a7d7bc19d|title=A new insight into ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=108|issue=3|pages=414–422|accessdate=2007-02-25|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034}}</ref> | |||
| ]'' from ], 512 A.D.]] | |||
| ] has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in ]s around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at ] suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the ] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Walton, Robert P. | title=Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem| publisher=J. B. Lippincott | year=1938| id=}} p.6</ref> Some users have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient ] and early ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> due to the similarity between the Hebrew word qannabbos (cannabis) and the Hebrew phrase qené bósem (aromatic cane). It was used by ] in various ] orders as early as the ] period, for example by the ]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Le haschich et l'extase|author=]|isbn=2-8416-1174-4}}</ref> | |||
| Today, recreational use in the ] drives a sizable demand for the drug. Cannabis is the largest ] in the United States, generating an estimated $36 billion market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/business/story?id=2735017&page=1|publisher=2008 ABCNews Internet Ventures|accessdate=2008-12-11|title=Marijuana Called Top U.S. Cash Crop}}</ref> | |||
| The ] reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.<ref>{{cite book |author=European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction |title=Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe |year=2008 |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |location=Luxembourg |isbn=978-92-9168-324-6 |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_64227_EN_EMCDDA_AR08_en.pdf |format=PDF|page=38 }}</ref> The ] claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical US retail prices are 15 dollars per gram (approximately $430 per ]).<ref>{{cite book |author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |title=World drug report |year=2008 |publisher=United Nations Publications |location= |isbn=978-92-1-148229-4 |url=http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2008/WDR_2008_eng_web.pdf |format=PDF|page=264 }}</ref> | |||
| == Medical use == | |||
| {{main|Medical cannabis}} | |||
| <!---PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ] THANKS.---> | |||
| A synthetic form of one chemical in marijuana, Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions. | |||
| In the United States, the ] has approved marijuana as a treatment for cancer and the symptoms of ] and ]. However, comparable authorities in Western Europe, including the ], have not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease. The current view of the United States ] is that the consumption of isolated compounds (such as cannabinoids) is more effective than smoking or ingesting parts of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title=Testimony before the | |||
| Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform|author=Meyer, Robert J.|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> | |||
| Russo and Grotenhermen report:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title=Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> | |||
| ;Cannabis is established to help with: | |||
| :Nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss. | |||
| ;Cannabis is well-confirmed in treating: | |||
| :spasticity, painful conditions, especially neurogenic pain, movement disorders, asthma, glaucoma. | |||
| Many other conditions are also indicate cannabis for relief or treatment, but are less confirmed. | |||
| Clinical trials conducted by the American ], a pro-cannabis organization, have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and ] patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to ] and other aggressive treatments.<ref><references/http://www.mpp.org/news/low-dose-pot-eases-pain-while.html></ref> A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named ] has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3169901.stm|title=Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/] and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than "pot" and has not been shown to be effective or safe.<ref name="Respectable Reefer">{{cite news|last=Greenberg|first=Gary|title=Respectable Reefer|publisher=Mother Jones|date=2005-11-01|url=http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2005/11/respectable-reefer?page=3|accessdate = 2007-04-03}}</ref> | |||
| Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Merritt JC, Crawford WJ, Alexander PC, Anduze AL, Gelbart SS |title=Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma |journal=Ophthalmology |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=222–8 |year=1980 |month=March |pmid=7053160 |doi= |url=}}</ref> but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goldberg J, Flowerdew G, Smith E, Brody JA, Tso MO |title=Factors associated with age-related macular degeneration. An analysis of data from the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=700–10 |year=1988 |month=October |pmid=3421236 |doi= |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3421236}}</ref> Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Porcella A, Maxia C, Gessa GL, Pani L.|title=The synthetic cannabinoid WIN55212-2 decreases the intraocular pressure in human glaucoma resistant to conventional therapies|journal=Eur J Neurosci|year=2001|issue=13|pages=409–12|doi=10.1046/j.0953-816X.2000.01401.x|volume=13}}</ref> | |||
| Medical marijuana is also used for ], or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title=Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve ]s in people with ] and ]. Patients treated with ], the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999|volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-02">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial |journal=Pharmacopsychiatry|year=2002|volume=35|issue=2|url=http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/pharmaco/doi/10.1055/s-2002-25028|accessdate=2007-09-15|doi=10.1055/s-2002-25028|pages=57}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-88">{{cite journal|author=R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch|title=Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|year=1988|volume=8|issue=6|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/mjtouret.htm|accessdate=2007-09-15|doi=10.1097/00004714-198812000-00021|pages=444}}</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.<ref name="ocd-ts-99"/> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.<ref name="ADBlock">{{cite journal|author=Ramíirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos|year=2005|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/8/1904|title=Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=25|issue=8^|pages=1904–1913|accessdate=2007-02-27|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4540-04.2005|pmid=15728830}}</ref> THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name="steffens2005">{{cite journal |author=Steffens S, Veillard NR, Arnaud C, ''et al'' |title=Low dose oral cannabinoid therapy reduces progression of atherosclerosis in mice |journal=Nature |volume=434 |issue=7034 |pages=782–6 |year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15815632 |doi=10.1038/nature03389 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| Another potential use for medical marijuana is movement disorders. Marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with ]; this has been acknowledged by the ], but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.<ref>{{cite book | author=Randall, Blanchard| title=Medical use of marijuana policy and regulatory issues| publisher=Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress| year=1992| id=OCLC 29975643}}</ref> A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a ] spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.<ref name="SativexC">{{cite web|author=Koch, W.|date=2005-06-23|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm|title=Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| {{further|], ]}} | |||
| {{Expand-section|date=November 2008}} | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| == New breeding and cultivation techniques == | |||
| ] | |||
| {{main|Cannabis (drug) cultivation}} | |||
| <!---PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ] THANKS.---> | |||
| It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol was discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "]" were already available at that time. In fact, the ] of producing high-potency marijuana has been practiced in India for centuries.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because ] production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as ], ], ], and ] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. The average levels of THC in marijuana sold in United States rose from 3.5% in 1988 to 7% in 2003 and 8.5% in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18310976/|publisher=MSNBC|title=Marijuana sold in U.S. stronger than ever|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> | |||
| "Skunk" cannabis is a potent strain of cannabis, grown through selective breeding and usually hydroponics, that is a cross-breed of ''Cannabis sativa'' and ''C. indica''. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in ]s in the ] is about 18–19%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2006.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|accessdate=2008-02-25}} Ch. 2.3</ref> | |||
| The average THC content of Skunk #1 is 8.2%; it is a 4-way combination of the cannabis strains Afghani indica, Mexican Gold, Colombian Gold, and Thai: 75% ''sativa'', 25% ''indica''.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} This was done via extensive breeding by cultivators in California in the 1970s using the traditional outdoor cropping methods used for centuries.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} | |||
| In proposed revisions to ] in the UK, the government is considering rescheduling cannabis back from C to B. One of the reasons is the high-potency marijuana.<ref></ref> | |||
| A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking-style to the higher THC content.<ref>{{citation|author=Tj. T. Mensinga et al.|url=http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf|format=PDF|title=A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study on the pharmacokinetics and effects of cannabis|publisher=]|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single ] at times lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. The researchers suggested that THC may accululate in blood-serum when cannabis is smoked several times per day. | |||
| Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC resulted in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=]|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> | |||
| ==Various strains of Marijuana== | |||
| There are hundreds of named strains of ''Cannabis'', but their origins (particularly the drug varieties) are often shrouded in mystery. The names of many legendary strains, such as ] and ], are ubiquitous in the pop-culture, but the origins of some of these infamous strains, such as ], are acknowledged to be ]s, and some people even doubt their existance.<ref>Doorenbos, Norman J., Patricia S. Fetterman, Maynard W. Quimby, and Carlton Turner. 1971. Cultivation, extraction, and analysis of Cannabis sativa L. Annals New York Academy of Sciences 191: 3-14.</ref> | |||
| Strains of ''Cannabis'': | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * Cinderella 99 | |||
| * Chocolate Thai | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| The names of some strains have become embedded in the mass culture. For example, ''Chocolate Thai'',<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hirsch | first=Robert | coauthors=''Edited by'' Judith Pynchon | title=Clinicians' self-assessment questions and answers in substance abuse treatment | publisher=Journal of Substance Abuse | volume=14 | issue=1 | pages=95–98 | year=1997 | doi=10.1016/S0740-5472(97)00050-0 | journal = Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment}}</ref> which was popular in the early 1990s due to its supposed high potency,<ref></ref>was adopted as the ] of a jazz performer whose album ''The Real McCoy'' was released in 2006.<ref></ref> It should be noted, however, that because there is no state control over the production or sale of ''Cannabis'', many "strains" may in fact be just marketing ] adopted by ]s to increase sales. | |||
| ==Legal status== | |||
| {{main|Legality of cannabis}} | |||
| {{See also|Drug prohibition|Drug liberalization}} | |||
| <!---PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ] THANKS.---> | |||
| ] used in 1935]] | |||
| Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted ] against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by ] or a ], rather than ], focusing more on those who ] the drug on the black market. | |||
| In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of '']'' near the borders of the ]<ref></ref>, closing of ''coffes shops'' near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in ], ] in 2004.<ref>: Global issues and local experiences, Perspectives on cannabis controversies, treatment and regulation in Europe, 2008, p.157]</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long ] terms in some countries, particularly in ], where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of ] or even ]. | |||
| ==Religious use== | |||
| {{main|Spiritual use of cannabis}} | |||
| In ] and ], cannabis has been used by some of the wandering Hindu spiritual ]s for centuries, and in modern times the ] has embraced it as a sacrament.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dread, The Rastafarians of Jamaica|author=]|isbn=0-4359-8650-3}}</ref> Elders of the modern ] known as the ] consider cannabis to be the ], claiming it as an oral tradition from ] dating back to the time of ], even though the movement was founded in the ] in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/potbible.htm|title=Marijuana and the Bible|publisher=Schaffer Library of Drug Policy|author=The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> Like the Rastafari, some modern ] Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rastafari.tribe.net/thread/0838144c-cce9-45ac-982b-5f0e5fccd07d|title=Zion Light Ministry|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Chris Bennett, Lynn & Osburn, Judy Osburn| title=Green Gold: the Tree of LifeMarijuana in Magic & Religion| publisher=Access Unlimited | year=1938| isbn=0-9629-8722-0|page=418}}</ref> Other organized ] founded in the 20th century that treat cannabis as a ] are the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thc-ministry.org/|title=The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> the ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebeneezer.net/ritual/vegetable/offsite/Cantheist.html|title=Cantheism|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cannabisassembly.org/|title=Cannabis Assembly|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> and the ]. | |||
| ==Truth serum== | |||
| ] (white). These plant parts contain the highest concentration of psychoactive compounds.]] | |||
| Cannabis was used as a ] by the ] (OSS), a US government ] formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at ]; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."<ref name='Whiteout'>{{cite book | last = ] | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = ] | title = Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press | publisher = Verso | year = 1998 | location = | pages = 117–118| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s5qIj_h_PtkC&printsec=frontcover#PPA118,M1 | doi = | id = | isbn = 1859841392 }}</ref> | |||
| In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS ] operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster ]. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with ] concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's ] operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.<ref name='Whiteout'/> | |||
| ==Adulterants== | |||
| Adulterants in cannabis are less common than in other drugs of abuse. ] (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used at times to make marijuana appear to be higher quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/digitaaldepot/BriefrapportWiet.pdf |title= Electronenmicroscopisch onderzoek van vervuilde wietmonsters |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hss_md_3-2007.pdf |title=Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Contamination of herbal or 'skunk-type' cannabis with glass beads |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hss_md_11-2007__update.pdf |title=Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Update on seizures of cannabis contaminated with glass particles |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> Increasing the weight of ] products in Germany with ] caused lead intoxication in at least 29 cannabis users.<ref name="pmid18403778">{{cite journal |author=Busse F, Omidi L, Timper K, ''et al'' |title=Lead poisoning due to adulterated marijuana |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=15 |pages=1641–2 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18403778 |doi=10.1056/NEJMc0707784 |url=}}</ref> In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of ] (]) were found in adulterated marihuana.<ref name="pmid18945564">{{cite journal |author=Venhuis BJ, de Kaste D |title=Sildenafil analogs used for adulterating marihuana |journal=Forensic Sci. Int. |volume=182 |issue=1-3 |pages=e23–4 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=18945564 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.002 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| Occasionally, claims have been made that a 'hard drug' (such as heroin or cocaine) is added to cannabis,{{Fact|date=January 2009}} possibly in order to get the users addicted to a drug that is less addictive. However, this is considered a ] as the 'hard drugs' usually cost more gram-for-gram than 'soft drugs' so the dealer would lose money on such an operation.{{Fact|date=January 2009}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2;"> | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] ("The Hasheesh Eater") | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| * Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|format=PDF|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213|doi=10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1212|pmid=12446537}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf|format=PDF|author=Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig|title=Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction|year=2005|journal=Biol Psychiatry|volume=25|pages=1117 – 1127}} | |||
| * {{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html|title=One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis|first=Mark|last=Henderson|publisher=The Times|date=2005-04-12}} | |||
| * Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana (Aston Birmingham): {{cite news|url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=]|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|publisher=AlterNet}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc |title=Antitumor Effects of THC |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=10 |month=October |year=2000 |pages=Correspondence |author=James Huff and Po Chan |pmid=11097557}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Cannabis: A History |year=2005 |first=Martin |last=Booth |isbn=0-312-32220-8}} | |||
| * Long term impact of Cannabis use of 16 year olds {{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-113852471.html?refid=hbw_sw|date=]|title=Long-term impact of the Gatehouse Project on Cannabis use of 16-year-olds in Australia. (Research Papers)|publisher=journal of school health}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wiktionarypar|marijuana}} | |||
| {{commonscat|Cannabis}} | |||
| *] | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Cannabis resources}} | |||
| {{Cannabinoids}} | |||
| <!-- currently unused, need to merge back into the article | |||
| == History == | |||
| ] | |||
| Cannabis was known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound in some early societies, and has been used continuously in many parts of the world. Other societies have developed a social ] surrounding the drug. <!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), need sections --> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 20:00, 23 February 2009
only fagots smoke marajuana