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| Dislike of Russians, which is sometimes described as "Russophobia", is sometimes a ] of the policy of ] in the times of ] and ] and, in some non-Russian parts of the Russian Federation (e.g. ]), a backlash of the policies of modern Russian government. However, some authors assert that Russophobia has a long tradition and already existed many centuries before ] became one of major powers in ]. | Dislike of Russians, which is sometimes described as "Russophobia", is sometimes a ] of the policy of ] in the times of ] and ] and, in some non-Russian parts of the Russian Federation (e.g. ]), a backlash of the policies of modern Russian government. However, some authors assert that Russophobia has a long tradition and already existed many centuries before ] became one of major powers in ]. | ||
| Some people believe that the history of the long Russo-Polish conflict for the heritage of the ancient ] (which ] eventually lost) and the loss of ] imperial status contributed to these dislikes. In the ], when Poland was not yet partitioned, ] was known for her words: ''"The Polish people hate us so deeply, that there is no other way out for us and our security, than to subordinate and to control them"'' {{fact}}. Some people attribute russophobic motivation to the concept of ], brought by ] chief of state ] or even rhetoric of ] to manifest of these sentiments. | |||
| Russian nationalist see Russophobia as any attempt to oppose Russia's expansion or empire building, for example ], brought by ] chief of state ] | |||
| which aimed at liberation of all nations that were conquered by Russian Empire. | |||
| During the ] the competition with Russia for the spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. ]) was a possible reason for the Russophobia in ]. British propaganda of the time portrayed ] as uncultivated ]tic barbarians. These views spread to other parts of the world and are frequently reflected in literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. | During the ] the competition with Russia for the spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. ]) was a possible reason for the Russophobia in ]. British propaganda of the time portrayed ] as uncultivated ]tic barbarians. These views spread to other parts of the world and are frequently reflected in literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. | ||
| In the second half of the ], a wave of backlash against a growing Slavic national consciousness (see ]) and eastern orientation of many of its ] constituents hit ]. |
In the second half of the ], a wave of backlash against a growing Slavic national consciousness (see ]) and eastern orientation of many of its ] constituents hit ]. The Austro-Hungarian elite started to see ] and ] as the main enemy and the initiator of its potential collapse. The public opinion became more and more radicalized and Russophobic, the common anti-Russian stereotypes fell not only on a fertile ground, but became also manifolded using a pseudo-scientific framework. | ||
| In the ]s, ] attempted to strengthen the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of ]s, in part to rationalize and justify the ] invasion of ] and the atrocities committed against its populace. | In the ]s, ] attempted to strengthen the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of ]s, in part to rationalize and justify the ] invasion of ] and the atrocities committed against its populace. | ||
| The ] in the ], the ], and the associated negative portrayal of "Russkies" in cinema and fiction significantly contributed to Russophobia among Americans. | The ] in the ], the ], and the associated negative portrayal of "Russkies" in cinema and fiction significantly contributed to Russophobia among Americans. | ||
| The history of the influence or direct control of the ] over ]n countries may feed the Russophobia there. Some people of Eastern Europe blame the repression during the ] era and economical stagnation afterwords on the local Russian population. That, according to some Russian media reports causes violations of the human rights of the ] minorities residing in those countries. | |||
| On the individual level it is difficult to draw a distinction from a casual ], observable for any two peoples living side by side or even intermixed and historically involved in armed conflicts. Also it might not be always easy to separate unpopular in Russia actions caused by rational political concerns of its neighbors from the actions caused by an irrational Russophobia. The opinions on these mater are highly subjective and may vary a great deal between different historians. | On the individual level it is difficult to draw a distinction from a casual ], observable for any two peoples living side by side or even intermixed and historically involved in armed conflicts. Also it might not be always easy to separate unpopular in Russia actions caused by rational political concerns of its neighbors from the actions caused by an irrational Russophobia. The opinions on these mater are highly subjective and may vary a great deal between different historians. | ||
| ==Religious aspects== | |||
| Russophobia is closely connected with ] aspects. In the centuries following the ] of ], the ] led several efforts aimed at gaining control of ] territory and converting its inhabitants into ] (see, for example, the ] of the ] and ] in ] and ]). ] Christians were vilified as heathens and heretics, and ]y itself labeled backwards and barbarian. Today, a similar anti-] view can be seen in some media accounts seeking to vilify ] due to their involvement in the ]. | |||
| ==International== | ==International== | ||
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| In modern international politics this term is also used more specifically to describe ] and outdated attitudes towards modern ] preserved from the times of the ]. Many ]s, whether justified or simply introduced as elements of political war against the ], are still observed in the discussions of the relations with ]. | In modern international politics this term is also used more specifically to describe ] and outdated attitudes towards modern ] preserved from the times of the ]. Many ]s, whether justified or simply introduced as elements of political war against the ], are still observed in the discussions of the relations with ]. | ||
| ==Vocabulary of Russophobia== | |||
| 'Muscovy' (the ] rendition of ]) is frequently used in Russophobic rhetoric to refer to ], its government, or its people, both in a historical context and in modern times. Ethnic ] are frequently labeled as 'Muscovites' or 'Moskvichi' by Russophobes. | |||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
Revision as of 11:23, 9 November 2005
Russophobia is a dislike or fear of Russia, Russians or Russian culture. Russophobia is the opposite of Russophilia
The term is used in two basic contexts: in ethnic conflicts involving Russians, and in international politics.
Politics
Dislike of Russians, which is sometimes described as "Russophobia", is sometimes a backlash of the policy of Russification in the times of Imperial Russia and Soviet Union and, in some non-Russian parts of the Russian Federation (e.g. Chechnya), a backlash of the policies of modern Russian government. However, some authors assert that Russophobia has a long tradition and already existed many centuries before Russia became one of major powers in Europe.
Some people believe that the history of the long Russo-Polish conflict for the heritage of the ancient Kievan Rus (which Poland eventually lost) and the loss of Polish imperial status contributed to these dislikes. In the 18th century, when Poland was not yet partitioned, Catherine the Great was known for her words: "The Polish people hate us so deeply, that there is no other way out for us and our security, than to subordinate and to control them" . Some people attribute russophobic motivation to the concept of Prometheism, brought by Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski or even rhetoric of Zbigniew Brzezinski to manifest of these sentiments.
During the 19th century the competition with Russia for the spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. The Great Game) was a possible reason for the Russophobia in Great Britain. British propaganda of the time portrayed Russians as uncultivated Asiatic barbarians. These views spread to other parts of the world and are frequently reflected in literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In the second half of the 19th century, a wave of backlash against a growing Slavic national consciousness (see panslavism) and eastern orientation of many of its Slavic constituents hit Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian elite started to see Russia and Russians as the main enemy and the initiator of its potential collapse. The public opinion became more and more radicalized and Russophobic, the common anti-Russian stereotypes fell not only on a fertile ground, but became also manifolded using a pseudo-scientific framework.
In the 1930s, Adolf Hitler attempted to strengthen the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of subhumans, in part to rationalize and justify the German invasion of Russia and the atrocities committed against its populace.
The Red Scare in the United States, the Cold War, and the associated negative portrayal of "Russkies" in cinema and fiction significantly contributed to Russophobia among Americans.
The history of the influence or direct control of the USSR over Eastern Europen countries may feed the Russophobia there. Some people of Eastern Europe blame the repression during the Stalin era and economical stagnation afterwords on the local Russian population. That, according to some Russian media reports causes violations of the human rights of the Russian minorities residing in those countries.
On the individual level it is difficult to draw a distinction from a casual xenophobia, observable for any two peoples living side by side or even intermixed and historically involved in armed conflicts. Also it might not be always easy to separate unpopular in Russia actions caused by rational political concerns of its neighbors from the actions caused by an irrational Russophobia. The opinions on these mater are highly subjective and may vary a great deal between different historians.
Religious aspects
Russophobia is closely connected with religious aspects. In the centuries following the East-West Schism of 1054, the Roman Catholic Church led several efforts aimed at gaining control of Russian territory and converting its inhabitants into Catholicism (see, for example, the Northern Crusades of the Teutonic Knights and Polonization in Ukraine and Belarus). Orthodox Christians were vilified as heathens and heretics, and Orthodoxy itself labeled backwards and barbarian. Today, a similar anti-Orthodox view can be seen in some media accounts seeking to vilify Serbs due to their involvement in the Yugoslav wars.
International
"Russophobia" and "Russophobic" are the terms used to denote anti-Russian sentiments in politics and literature.
In modern international politics this term is also used more specifically to describe cliches and outdated attitudes towards modern Russia preserved from the times of the Cold War. Many prejudices, whether justified or simply introduced as elements of political war against the Soviet Union, are still observed in the discussions of the relations with Russia.
Vocabulary of Russophobia
'Muscovy' (the Polish rendition of Moscow) is frequently used in Russophobic rhetoric to refer to Russia, its government, or its people, both in a historical context and in modern times. Ethnic Russians are frequently labeled as 'Muscovites' or 'Moskvichi' by Russophobes.
See also
References
- Anatol Lieven, "Against Russophobia", World Policy Journal, Volume XVII, No 4, Winter 2000/01; a review of a modern Russophobia in international politics, available online.
- New York Times After Centuries of Enmity, Relations Between Poland and Russia Are as Bad as Ever, July 3, 2005 (subscription may be required for full text)