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| of Le Merridien hotel chain. ] ] ]] | of Le Merridien hotel chain. ] ] ]] | ||
| '''Russophobia''' is a dislike or fear of ], ] or ]. Russophobia is the opposite of ] | '''Russophobia''' is a dislike or fear of ], ] or ]. Russophobia is the opposite of ]. | ||
| The term is used in two basic contexts: |
The term is primarilty used in two basic contexts: ] and ]s involving Russians. | ||
| ==Politics== | ==Politics== | ||
| Historically, "Russophobia" developed in East European neighbours of Russia as a ] of the policy of ] in the times of ] and ] and, more recently, in some non-Russian parts of the Russian Federation (e.g. ]), a backlash of the policies of modern Russian government. However, some Russian authors assert that Russophobia has a long tradition and already existed many centuries before ] became one of major powers in ]. | |||
| ⚫ | <div style="float: left; margin: 1em 1em 0 0; padding: 0.5em; background: #fffff4; border: 1px solid #ddddbb; width: 250px;"> | ||
| <small> | |||
| In the ], when Poland was not yet partitioned, ] was known for her words: ''"The Polish people hate us so deeply, that there is no other way out for us and our security, than to subordinate and to control them"''. | |||
| </small></div> | |||
| ⚫ | Some believe that the history of the long Russo-Polish rivalry for the heritage of the ancient ], eventually unsuccessful for both competitors, as well as the loss of ] imperial status contributed to the broad Russophobia throughout Polish society. Some people attribute russophobic motivation to the concept of ], brought by ] chief of state ] or even rhetoric of ] to manifest of these sentiments. | ||
| <div style="float: right; margin: 1em 1em 0 0; padding: 0.5em; background: #fffff4; border: 1px solid #ddddbb; width: 250px;"> | |||
| <small> | <small> | ||
| "Partition of Russia is fundamental for our policy in the East. Our position will depend on who will take part in that partition. Poland shouldn't stand aside in this remarkable moment of history. Our task is to prepare ourselves both morally and materially. Our principal aim is weakening and defeat of Russia" (report of the Polish General Staff, 1938, «Z dziejow stosunkow polsko-radzieckich. Studia i materialy», T.III. Warszawa, 1968, S. 262, 287.). | "Partition of Russia is fundamental for our policy in the East. Our position will depend on who will take part in that partition. Poland shouldn't stand aside in this remarkable moment of history. Our task is to prepare ourselves both morally and materially. Our principal aim is weakening and defeat of Russia" (report of the Polish General Staff, 1938, «Z dziejow stosunkow polsko-radzieckich. Studia i materialy», T.III. Warszawa, 1968, S. 262, 287.). | ||
| </small></div> | </small></div> | ||
| ⚫ | During the ] the competition with Russia for the spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. ] and ]) was a possible reason for spread of Russophobia in ]. British media of that time portrayed ] as uncultivated ]tic barbarians. These views spread to other parts of the world and are frequently reflected in literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. | ||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | A wave of fear and anger towards growing Slavic national consciousness (see ]) and eastern orientation of many of its ] constituents hit ] in the second half of the ]. The Austro-Hungarian elite started to see ] and ] as the main enemy and the initiator of its potential collapse. The public opinion became more and more radicalized and Russophobic, the common anti-Russian stereotypes fell not only on a fertile ground, but became also manifolded using a pseudo-scientific framework. | ||
| ⚫ | During the ] the competition with Russia for the spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. ] and ]) was a possible reason for |
||
| ] during the ].]] | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| In the ]s, ] attempted to strengthen the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of ]s, in part to |
In the ]s, ] attempted to strengthen the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of ]s, in part to justify the ] invasion of ] and the atrocities committed against its population. | ||
| The ] in the ], the ], and the associated negative portrayal of "Russkies" in cinema and fiction significantly contributed to Russophobia among Americans. ] | The ] in the ], the ], and the associated negative portrayal of "Russkies" in cinema and fiction significantly contributed to Russophobia among Americans. ] | ||
| ⚫ | In modern international politics this term is also used more specifically to describe ] and outdated attitudes towards modern ] preserved from the times of the ]. Many ]s, whether justified or simply introduced as elements of political war against the ], are still observed in the discussions of the relations with ]. | ||
| ⚫ | The history of the influence or direct control of the ] over ]n countries may feed the Russophobia there. Some people of Eastern Europe blame the repression during the ] era and economical stagnation |
||
| ⚫ | The history of the influence or direct control of the ] over ]n countries may feed the Russophobia there. Some people of Eastern Europe blame the repression during the ] era and economical stagnation afterwards on the local Russian population. That, according to some Russian media reports causes violations of the human rights of the ]n minorities residing in those countries. | ||
| ⚫ | On the individual level it is difficult to draw a distinction from a casual ], observable for any two peoples living side by side or even intermixed and historically involved in armed conflicts. Also it might not be always |
||
| <div style="float: left; margin: 1em 1em 0 0; padding: 0.5em; background: #fffff4; border: 1px solid #ddddbb; width: 250px;"> | |||
| ⚫ | ==Religious aspects== | ||
| ⚫ | Russophobia is closely connected with ] aspects. In the centuries following the ] of ], the ] led several efforts aimed at gaining control of ]n territory and converting its inhabitants into ] (see, for example, the ] of the ] and ] in ] and ]). ] Christians were vilified as heathens and heretics, and ]y itself labeled backwards and barbarian |
||
| ⚫ | |||
| <small> | <small> | ||
| "Need, hunger, lack of comfort have been the lot of Russians for centuries. No false compassion, as their stomaches are perfectly extensible. Don't try to impose the German standards and to change their style of life. Their only wish is to be ruled by the Germans. Help yourselves, and the God will help you!" ("12 precepts for the German officer in the East", 1941, ) | "Need, hunger, lack of comfort have been the lot of Russians for centuries. No false compassion, as their stomaches are perfectly extensible. Don't try to impose the German standards and to change their style of life. Their only wish is to be ruled by the Germans. Help yourselves, and the God will help you!" ("12 precepts for the German officer in the East", 1941, ) | ||
| </small></div> | </small></div> | ||
| ⚫ | On the individual level it is difficult to draw a distinction from a casual ], observable for any two peoples living side by side or even intermixed and historically involved in armed conflicts. Also it might not be always possible to separate unpopular in Russia actions caused by rational political concerns of its neighbors from the actions caused by an irrational Russophobia. The opinions on these mater are highly subjective and may vary a great deal between different historians. | ||
| "Russophobia" and "Russophobic" are the terms used to denote anti-Russian sentiments in politics and literature. | |||
| ⚫ | ==Religious aspects== | ||
| ⚫ | In modern international politics this term is also used more specifically to describe ] and outdated attitudes towards modern ] preserved from the times of the ]. Many ]s, whether justified or simply introduced as elements of political war against the ], are still observed in the discussions of the relations with ]. | ||
| ⚫ | Russophobia is closely connected with ] aspects. In the centuries following the ] of ], the ] led several efforts aimed at gaining control of ]n territory and converting its inhabitants into ] (see, for example, the ] of the ] and ] in ] and ]). ] Christians were vilified as heathens and heretics, and ]y itself labeled backwards and barbarian. | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
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| * | * | ||
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| * | * in The Moscow Times | ||
| ] | ] | ||
Revision as of 09:35, 12 November 2005
Russophobia is a dislike or fear of Russia, Russians or Russian culture. Russophobia is the opposite of Russophilia.
The term is primarilty used in two basic contexts: international politics and ethnic conflicts involving Russians.
Politics
Historically, "Russophobia" developed in East European neighbours of Russia as a backlash of the policy of Russification in the times of Imperial Russia and Soviet Union and, more recently, in some non-Russian parts of the Russian Federation (e.g. Chechnya), a backlash of the policies of modern Russian government. However, some Russian authors assert that Russophobia has a long tradition and already existed many centuries before Russia became one of major powers in Europe.
In the 18th century, when Poland was not yet partitioned, Catherine the Great was known for her words: "The Polish people hate us so deeply, that there is no other way out for us and our security, than to subordinate and to control them".
Some believe that the history of the long Russo-Polish rivalry for the heritage of the ancient Kievan Rus, eventually unsuccessful for both competitors, as well as the loss of Polish imperial status contributed to the broad Russophobia throughout Polish society. Some people attribute russophobic motivation to the concept of Prometheism, brought by Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski or even rhetoric of Zbigniew Brzezinski to manifest of these sentiments.
"Partition of Russia is fundamental for our policy in the East. Our position will depend on who will take part in that partition. Poland shouldn't stand aside in this remarkable moment of history. Our task is to prepare ourselves both morally and materially. Our principal aim is weakening and defeat of Russia" (report of the Polish General Staff, 1938, «Z dziejow stosunkow polsko-radzieckich. Studia i materialy», T.III. Warszawa, 1968, S. 262, 287.).
During the 19th century the competition with Russia for the spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. The Great Game and Berlin Congress) was a possible reason for spread of Russophobia in Great Britain. British media of that time portrayed Russians as uncultivated Asiatic barbarians. These views spread to other parts of the world and are frequently reflected in literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
A wave of fear and anger towards growing Slavic national consciousness (see panslavism) and eastern orientation of many of its Slavic constituents hit Austria-Hungary in the second half of the 19th century. The Austro-Hungarian elite started to see Russia and Russians as the main enemy and the initiator of its potential collapse. The public opinion became more and more radicalized and Russophobic, the common anti-Russian stereotypes fell not only on a fertile ground, but became also manifolded using a pseudo-scientific framework.
In the 1930s, Adolf Hitler attempted to strengthen the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of subhumans, in part to justify the German invasion of Russia and the atrocities committed against its population.
The Red Scare in the United States, the Cold War, and the associated negative portrayal of "Russkies" in cinema and fiction significantly contributed to Russophobia among Americans.
In modern international politics this term is also used more specifically to describe cliches and outdated attitudes towards modern Russia preserved from the times of the Cold War. Many prejudices, whether justified or simply introduced as elements of political war against the Soviet Union, are still observed in the discussions of the relations with Russia.
The history of the influence or direct control of the USSR over Eastern Europen countries may feed the Russophobia there. Some people of Eastern Europe blame the repression during the Stalin era and economical stagnation afterwards on the local Russian population. That, according to some Russian media reports causes violations of the human rights of the Russian minorities residing in those countries.
"Need, hunger, lack of comfort have been the lot of Russians for centuries. No false compassion, as their stomaches are perfectly extensible. Don't try to impose the German standards and to change their style of life. Their only wish is to be ruled by the Germans. Help yourselves, and the God will help you!" ("12 precepts for the German officer in the East", 1941, )
On the individual level it is difficult to draw a distinction from a casual xenophobia, observable for any two peoples living side by side or even intermixed and historically involved in armed conflicts. Also it might not be always possible to separate unpopular in Russia actions caused by rational political concerns of its neighbors from the actions caused by an irrational Russophobia. The opinions on these mater are highly subjective and may vary a great deal between different historians.
Religious aspects
Russophobia is closely connected with religious aspects. In the centuries following the East-West Schism of 1054, the Roman Catholic Church led several efforts aimed at gaining control of Russian territory and converting its inhabitants into Catholicism (see, for example, the Northern Crusades of the Teutonic Knights and Polonization in Ukraine and Belarus). Orthodox Christians were vilified as heathens and heretics, and Orthodoxy itself labeled backwards and barbarian.
See also
References
- The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain
- Anatol Lieven, "Against Russophobia", World Policy Journal, Volume XVII, No 4, Winter 2000/01; a review of a modern Russophobia in international politics, available online.
- New York Times After Centuries of Enmity, Relations Between Poland and Russia Are as Bad as Ever, July 3, 2005 (subscription may be required for full text)
- Sergei Yastrzhembsky: Russophobia Still Rampant
- More Russophobia in International Press
- Corruption, Russophobia Weigh on Poland in The Moscow Times