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The Supermarine Spitfire, the only British fighter to be manufactured before, during and after the Second World War, was designed as a short-range interceptor for use over Britain and achieved legendary status fulfilling this role during the Battle of Britain. As the war continued the fighter evolved into a multi-role aircraft capable of operating in different environments. Post-war the Spitfire was to continue to serve as a front-line fighter and in secondary roles for several air forces well into the 1950s.

Early RAF service

The first Spitfire I to enter service with the RAF arrived at 19 Squadron, Duxford, on 4 August 1938, and over the next few weeks aircraft were delivered at the rate of one a week to both 19 and 66 Squadrons (also based at Duxford). The next to be equipped with Spitfires was 41 Squadron at Catterick, followed by a succession of squadrons stationed at Hornchurch in Essex. The public's first sight of the Spitfire in RAF colours was on Empire Air Day, 20 May 1939 during a display at Duxford in which the pilot "belly-landed" his aircraft, having forgotten to lower his undercarriage. He was fined £5 by the Air Ministry. By the outbreak of the Second World War, there were 306 Spitfires in service with the RAF, with another 71 in reserve and a further 2,000 on order. A total of 36 had been written off in accidents.

On 6 September 1939, in an incident known as the Battle of Barking Creek, a pair of Hawker Hurricanes from 56 Squadron were shot down by Spitfires of 74 Squadron in a friendly-fire incident over the river Medway, in Kent. One of the Hurricane pilots, P/O Montague Leslie Hulton-Harrop, was the first British pilot fatality of the Second World War. As a result the production of IFF equipment for RAF aircraft became a high priority.

On 16 October 1939 the Spitfire first saw action when three aircraft each from 602 and 603 Squadrons intercepted, over Rosyth, nine Junkers Ju 88s of 1/KG30 led by Hauptmann Helmuth Pohle that had managed a crack at the cruisers HMS Southampton and HMS Edimburgh of Royal Navy in the Firth of Forth. Two Ju 88s were shot down, and another heavily damaged.

On 23 May 1940 Spitfires of 54 Squadron were the first to shoot down Bf 109s: the first of these is usually credited to either Flying Officer Alan Deere of New Zealand, who shot down two, or Flg. Off. "Johnny" Allen who shot down one.

While the Spitfires of Fighter Command continued to be based in Britain, at the insistence of Air Vice Marshal Hugh Dowding, from late 1939 there were early photo-reconnaissance Spitfires of "No 2 Camouflage Unit" operating from Seclin in France, gathering photo-intelligence of German defences and cities. Throughout the Second World War, photo-reconnaissance Spitfires would keep up a constant flow of photographic intelligence, in a role far removed from that of short-range interceptor fighter.

Spitfire nightfighter

Attempts were also made to use the Spitfire as a nightfighter: the documentation to specification F.10/35, which was framed around the Spitfire, was headed "Requirements for Single-engine Day and Night Fighter" and stipulated that the aircraft be equipped with "(c) Night flying equipment".

As a result Spitfire Is, IIs, VAs and VBs were fitted with a powerful, retractable landing-light in each wing. Dorsal (just behind the aerial mast) and ventral (orange, under the wing centre section) identification lights could be operated in Morse code by the pilot using a small morse key in the cockpit. In an attempt to shield the pilot's eyes from the bright exhaust flames many Spitfires were also fitted with rectangular light-alloy "blinkers" secured to light-alloy brackets fixed to the sides of the fuel-tank housing: these could be easily removed.

The most successful night interceptions took place on the night of 18/19 June 1940 when Flt. Lt. "Sailor" Malan of 74 Squadron shot down two Heinkel He 111s of Kampfgeschwader 4 (roughly "Bomber Wing 4" abbreviated KG 4), while Flg. Off.s John Petre and George Ball of 19 Squadron each shot down one He 111 of KG 4. A week later, on the night of 26/27 June, Pilot Officers R. Smith and R. Marples of 616 Squadron shot down another He 111 of KG 4; Flt. Lt. H. MacDonald of 603 Squadron shot down an He 111 of KG 26 and another He 111 of KG 26 was shot down, possibly with the help of A.A guns by Flg. Off.s A. Johnstone of 602 Squadron and J. Haig of 603 Squadron.

Although Spitfires continued to be used on night patrols, the Luftwaffe bombers learned to fly well above the altitudes at which they could be effectively picked up by searchlights and the Spitfires were never to achieve the same success.

Battle of Britain

Overall performance

The Battle of Britain (which officially started on 10 July 1940 and ended 31 October) was the first major test of both the Spitfire and of Fighter Command. During the Luftwaffe's onslaught important lessons were learned about the Spitfire's capabilities and its drawbacks.

The battle-performance of the Spitfire was frequently compared with that of the Hawker Hurricane, which was used in greater numbers during the critical stages of 1940. The Hurricane had thick wings and their structure was such that four guns were easily installed, grouped closely together, with 334 rounds per gun. Installing the guns in the Spitfire was more complicated, because it had a thinner wing and the ammunition boxes had to be widely spaced. That dispersion of firepower was a weakness and at least in this respect the Hurricane - which was also a more stable gunnery platform - was better than the Spitfire.

Whenever possible, the RAF tactic during the Battle of Britain was to use Hurricane squadrons to attack the bombers and Spitfires to counter German escort fighters. In total numbers, Hurricanes shot down more Luftwaffe aircraft of all types than the Spitfire, mainly due to the higher proportion of Hurricanes in the air. Seven of every ten German aircraft destroyed during the Battle of Britain were shot down by Hurricane pilots. Losses were also higher among the more numerous Hurricane units. Post-war analysis showed that the Spitfire's kill ratio was marginally better than the Hurricane's.

The majority of Mk Is and Mk IIs were armed with eight .303 Browning machine guns. Throughout the battle Luftwaffe aircraft often returned to base with .303 bullet holes, but no critical damage as they had received armour plating in critical areas and self-sealing fuel tanks became common in bombers. Several Mark Is of 19 Squadron were fitted with two 20-mm Hispano-Suiza cannon in 1940, although frequent stoppages meant the types were replaced by conventionally-armed aircraft in September 1940. Supermarine and BSA, who manufactured the Hispano under licence, continued work on a reliable cannon installation, with a number of Mk Is armed with two cannon and four .303 machine-guns entering operations by late 1940: this version was referred to as the Mk IB, the machine-gun-armed Spitfires were retrospectively called the Mk IA.

Although the Merlin III engine of Spitfire Is had a power rating of 1,030 hp (768 kW), supplies of 100 octane fuel from the United States started reaching Britain in March 1940. This meant that an "emergency boost" of +12 inches was available for five minutes, with pilots able to call on 1,160 hp (973 kW) at 9,000 feet (2,743 m). The effect was that the rate of climb especially was increased, although use of the extra boost was potentially damaging to the engine.

Between 1 August 1940 and 31 October, Spitfire losses amounted to 208 lost in combat, seven destroyed on the ground, and 42 in flying accidents.

The Bf 109 and combat tactics

At the time, the Luftwaffe's main single-engine, single-seat fighter was the Messerschmitt Bf 109. Some advantages helped the Spitfires win dogfights, most notably manoeuvrability: the Spitfire had a higher rate of turn and a smaller turning circle than the Messerschmitt. The minimum radius of turn was estimated in Britain as 696 ft at 133 mph for the Spitfire I and 885 ft at 129 mph for the Bf 109E. The turns rates were Spitfire: 33 degrees per second, Me 109: 26 degrees per second. There are several accounts of Bf 109 pilots being able to out-turn Spitfires, mainly through inexperienced pilots who did not turn as tightly as was possible through fear of getting into a high-speed stall.

Both the Spitfire and Hurricane could keep up with the Bf 109 in a dive although the 109 was able to escape by pulling out of the dive and climbing at a low airspeed and a steep angle because its Handley Page wing slats allowed it to fly extremely well close to the stall. Spitfires, especially those equipped with constant speed propellers, could keep on the tail of the Bf 109 in a climb, although the steeper climb angle of the German fighter meant that the gunsight of the Spitfire could not get a good sighting line. 100 Octane fuel during the battle allowed the Merlin engine to operate with a five minute emergency boost of +12 lbs which conferred a substantial increase in the rate of climb, especially at lower altitudes. The maximum speed of 353 mph (568 km/h) at 20,000 ft (6,100 m) for a typical Battle of Britain Spitfire equipped with a constant speed propeller was some 8 mph faster than that of a Bf 109 which, according to the handbook data, had a top speed of 345 mph (555 km/h) at 19,865 ft (6,055 m). The Bf 109, with its direct fuel injected engine, accelerated better at all heights while the Spitfire's superior roll rate at lower speeds progressively diminished at speeds exceeding 350 mph. In terms of ammunition supply the machine gun equipped Bf 109E-1 could fire for a much longer time than the British fighters. The latter carried 300 rounds for each of their eight machine-guns, enough for sixteen seconds of fire. The two rifle-caliber MG 17 of the Messerschmitt had a supply of 1,000 rounds each, good for about a minute of fire. The wing guns had a supply of 500 rpg, good for about 30 seconds. However the 60 rounds per gun of the 20mm MG/FF cannon on the E-3 and E-4 meant that these weapons were emptied after some seven seconds of fire.

Overall the aircraft were closely matched in performance and the outcome of combat was largely decided by tactics, position and the skill of the opposing pilots.

One advantage enjoyed by the German Jagdgeschwadern was the use of better tactics. In the late 1930s Fighter Command were not expecting to be facing single-engine fighters over Britain, only bombers. With this in mind a series of "Fighting Area Tactics" were formulated, involving manoeuvres designed to concentrate a squadron's firepower to bring down bombers: with no apparent prospect of escorting fighters to worry about, RAF fighter pilots flew in tight, vee-shaped sections of three. The pilots were forced to concentrate on watching each other, rather than being free to keep a lookout for enemy aircraft. "Fighting Area Tactics" also stipulated that RAF fighter pilots were to open fire at long-range, usually 300 to 400 yards (274 to 365 m), and then break off without closing in. The usual practice was to bore-sight their guns on the ground to create a shotgun pattern at this distance.

The Luftwaffe, using its experiences during the Spanish Civil War, devised a loose section of two, based on a leader followed to starboard and to the rear by his wingman, who was trained to stay with his leader at all times. While the leader was free to search for enemy aircraft, and could cover his wingman's blind-spots, his wingman was able to concentrate on searching the airspace in the leader's blind-spots, behind and below. Two of these sections were usually teamed up into a Schwarm, where all of the pilots could watch what was happening around them. Because the 109s were well spread, the Schwarm was hard to spot, unlike the RAF vee formation, and all of the 109s were able to attack and defend, or retreat in pairs, whereas the RAF formations were often split up into individual aircraft which were then extremely vulnerable. The loose Schwarm, because of the reduced risk of collision between aircraft, were also able to climb faster and higher than the tightly grouped RAF fighters, which is one of the reasons why RAF formations often found themselves being "bounced" from above.

With the Germans able to base their 109s in the Pas de Calais, close to the English Channel the "Fighting Area Tactics" became obsolete. Many of the RAF fighter squadrons which had not been engaged in combat over Dunkirk were slow to adapt to the fact that they would be encountering the potent German fighter over Britain. Some RAF units adopted "weavers", a single aircraft which flew a pattern behind the main squadron, which still flew in vees. The weavers were usually the first to be picked off in a "bounce" by the German fighters: more often than not the rest of the squadron did not even know they were under attack. RAF squadrons that did not learn from the Luftwaffe and adopt similar tactics suffered heavy casualties during the Battle. Leaders like "Sailor" Malan were instrumental in devising better tactics for the RAF fighters. It is no coincidence that some of the most successful RAF pilots were the Polish pilots who had been trained pre-war by their air force to fly in loose formations and open fire from close-range.

The biggest disadvantage faced by Bf 109 pilots was that, without the benefit of long-range drop tanks (which were introduced in very limited numbers in the late stages of the Battle), the 109s had an endurance of just over an hour. Once over Britain the 109 pilots had to keep an eye on a red "low fuel" light on the instrument panel: once this was illuminated they were forced to turn back and head for France. With the prospect of two long over-water flights, and knowing that their range was substantially reduced when escorting bombers or in the event of combat, the Jagdflieger coined the term Kanalkrankheit or "Channel sickness".

The Bf 110 and the bombers

Another regularly encountered German fighter, the Messerschmitt Bf 110, was a larger, two-seat, twin-engined fighter which was designed as a long range "Destroyer" (Zerstörer). Although reasonably fast (Bf 110C about 340 mph ) and possessing a respectable combat radius as well as carrying a heavy armament of two 20 mm MG FF/M cannon and four 7.92 mm MG 17s concentrated in the forward fuselage, along with a single 7.92 mm MG 15 mounted for rear defence in the rear cockpit, the 110 was only slightly more manoeuvrable than the bombers they were meant to escort. Against modern fighters like the Spitfire and Hurricane the Zerstörergruppen (roughly "Destroyer Groups") suffered heavy casualties and, after 18 August fewer of them were encountered over Britain because the rate of attrition was outpacing production.

Of the four types of Luftwaffe bombers, the Dornier Do 17, Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 87 and Junkers Ju 88, the Ju 88 was considered to be the most difficult to shoot down. As a bomber it was relatively manoeuvrable and, especially at low altitudes with no bomb load, it was fast enough to ensure that a Spitfire caught in a tail-chase would be hard pressed to catch up. The He 111 was nearly 100 mph slower than the Spitfire and didn't present much of a challenge to catch, although the heavy armour, self-sealing fuel tanks and progressively uprated defensive armament meant that it was still a challenge to shoot down. The Do 17 was also easy to catch but, with its radial engines with no vulnerable cooling systems and self-sealing fuel tanks, it was capable of taking an amazing amount of punishment. The Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber was badly outclassed in all respects and, after taking some savage beatings, the Sturzkampfgeschwader were withdrawn from the Battle.

When being attacked by British fighters the standard warning of "Achtung, Indianer!" (Look Out, Red Indians!") often became "Achtung! Spitfire", even if the aircraft were Hurricanes. This was later called the "Spitfire complex."

European offensive 1941–43

In early 1941 the 11 Group commander Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory inaugurated a policy of "leaning forward into France" With this new policy, fighter sweeps ("Rhubarbs") and bomber escort missions ("Circuses") were mounted over France and other occupied territories, with the express purpose of forcing a response from Luftwaffe fighters. Leigh Mallory was fully supported by Air Chief Marshal Sir William Sholto Douglas who had replaced Sir Hugh Dowding as Commander of Fighter Command in November 1940. As a result of Leigh-Mallory's experience in command of 12 Group during the Battle of Britain, RAF fighter squadrons were increasingly organised into "Wings" of two or more squadrons which flew together under the command of a Wing Leader).

With the change to offensive tactics the Spitfire, Hurricane and new Westland Whirlwind units found themselves facing the same disadvantages over France as the 109 units had faced over Britain. The limited combat radius of the RAF fighters meant that the Luftwaffe could engage in combat, or break off on their own terms, knowing that they were over friendly territory and with plenty of airfields at which they could land to rearm and refuel. The RAF fighters were the ones who were now having to face the prospect of two long over-water passages, returning in many cases with combat damage.

By late 1940 Luftwaffe fighter units were being re-equipped with the formidable new Bf 109F-1 and F-2, considered by many Luftwaffe pilots to be the best of the many variants of this fighter. The F-1s and F-2s easily outperformed the Spitfire Mk Is and IIs and it closely matched that of the Mk Vs which were just about to enter service. In the hands of pilots like Adolf Galland it was a daunting proposition to be facing this aircraft over France. On 10 July 1941, a 109 F-2 flown by Hauptmann Rolf Pingel of I./JG 26. followed a Short Stirling heavy bomber he had intercepted across the Channel. Return fire from the Stirling hit his fighter's cooling system, forcing him to "crash-land" in a field near Dover. The 109 was repaired and tested at Air Fighting Development Unit (AFDU) until it crashed, killing the pilot, on 20 October 1941. The results of these tests helped in the development of tactics to counter the new fighter.

Compared with the massive bomber raids mounted by the Luftwaffe in 1939 and 1940 the RAF Bomber Command Circus operations were very small and rarely damaging. Circuses consisted of one or at most two squadrons of Bristol Blenheims (later Short Stirlings were also used) which were usually escorted by large, conspicuous "Beehives" of five or more fighter squadrons. The primary intent was to lure the German fighters into combat rather than causing damage by bombing. The Luftwaffe, with the assistance of radar, could afford to oppose these "Circuses" with relatively small numbers of fighters, which could pick and choose whether or not to take on the escorting fighters. Douglas Bader, flying a Mk Va, was shot down and captured on 9 August 1941 while leading the Tangmere Wing during a "Circus" raid.

Another type of operation flown by Fighter Command was the "Rhubarb": a low-level ground-attack mission by small numbers of fighters, usually under low cloud. Against aircraft flying these missions the 20 mm and 37 mm flak guns were the most successful opponents. Another well-known Wing Commander, "Bob" Tuck, was shot down by a multi-barrel, 20 mm Flakvierling 38 position and captured by German troops on 28 January 1942 while flying a "Rhubarb". Many other Spitfires were shot down by German fighters.

By mid-1941, with Operation Barbarossa soon to be under way, the only Luftwaffe fighter units left to guard against the RAF were JG 2 and JG 26.These two units, manned for the most part with experienced and aggressive pilots, were fully capable of mounting a highly successful defence, particularly when they started re-equipping with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190

The Fw 190 Challenge

The introduction of the Fw 190 in late 1941 along the Channel front came as a complete surprise to Fighter Command. At first it was assumed that the new radial-engined fighters were Curtiss 75-C1s which had been captured from the French. It soon became clear that the new aircraft easily outperformed the Spitfire V and appeared to be more heavily armed. Very little was known about this fighter until 23 June 1942 when Oberleutnant Armin Faber of JG 2 landed his FW 190A-3 at RAF Pembrey by mistake. In comparison tests the new German fighter proved superior to the then-current Mk Vb in all aspects except turning radius.

The Fw 190 was at least 25 to 30 mph faster than the Spitfire V, and could climb and accelerate to combat speeds more quickly. Spitfire pilots who flew over enemy territory using the standard technique of flying at low rpm and high boost pressures to economise on fuel often found themselves in trouble when intercepted by Fw 190s. If "bounced" while cruising at low speeds it could take a Spitfire up to two minutes to accelerate to top speed. The only way it was thought that a Spitfire could evade attack was to cruise at high speed and go into a shallow dive with the throttle open. Provided the Fw 190 was seen in time, it could be forced into a long stern chase. As a result of the high number of casualties being inflicted on Spitfires the Air Tactics Department (A.T.D) issued a guide on the optimum engine settings to use while flying over enemy territory: in part it read:

2. At the present stage of the war, the enemy in France is equipped with the Fw 190, a fighter with an excellent rate of climb and good acceleration. To defeat this aircraft and to avoid casualties on our side, our aircraft must fly as fast as possible whenever they are in the combat zone.

"The Focke Wulf 190 certainly gave the British a shock", wrote Douglas Bader in his autobiography Fight for the sky; "it out-climbed and out-dived the Spitfire. Now for the first time the Germans were out-flying our pilots." They were also out-gunning them. For the best part of the year, and until the arrival of the Spitfire Mk IX {the Fw 190] commanded the skies.

From late 1942, in an attempt to achieve some degree of parity with the Fw 190, some squadrons received the L.F Mark VB. This version had reduced diameter supercharger impeller blades on the Merlin for optimum performance at lower altitudes and the wing-tips were removed and replaced by short fairings to improve their rate of roll. These aircraft were unofficially known by their pilots as "clipped, clapped and cropped Spits," referring to the fact that many of these Spitfires, thus modified, had seen better days.

The flight performance of an early Mk IX, which was flown against the Focke-Wulf in July 1942, was found to be closely comparable. Still, at altitudes of 18-20,000 ft and at 3,000 ft and below, the AFDU noted the Fw 190 was "a little faster". Once again the Mk IX had a superior turning radius although it could be out-dived and out-rolled by the German fighter. The Spitfire being tested was hampered through being fitted with an old float-type carburettor: the great majority of Mk IXs were fitted with negative-G carburettors. These results contributed to the further development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin 61 series engine into versions optimised for High (70 series) Medium (63) and Low (66) altitude performance: this led to the use of the prefixes H.F, F, and L.F which were later applied to the Mks VII through to IX, depending on which version of the engine was installed, eg, L.F Mk. IX.

The Spitfire V units continued to take heavy casualties, often inflicting little damage in return, throughout 1941 and well into 1942. Once the Mk IX started arriving in sufficient numbers this trend started to even out, although the 190s in particular continued to be a serious threat. Hans "Assi" Hahn claimed 53 of his 108 kills against Spitfires and Josef "Pips" Priller claimed 68 of his 101 victories against the type, making him the highest scoring "Spitfire killer" in the Luftwaffe Most of these victories were against the Mark V.

"Operation Jubilee", the amphibious raid on Dieppe on 19 August 1942, was supported by 48 Spitfire squadrons and would prove to be a turning point in RAF operations over Europe. While Fighter Command claimed to have inflicted heavy casualties on the Luftwaffe the balance sheet showed the reverse. Allied aircraft losses amounted to 106, including 88 RAF fighters and 18 bombers. Of the fighter losses 29 were from flak, one ran out of fuel, two collided, and one was a victim of friendly fire. Against this, 48 Luftwaffe aircraft were lost. Included in that total were 28 bombers, half of them Dornier Do 217s from KG 2. One of the two Jagdgeschwader's, JG 2, lost 14 Fw 190s and eight pilots killed. JG 26 lost six Fw 190s with their pilots. Spitfire losses stood at 70 destroyed and damaged to all causes. The Spitfire squadrons (42 with Mark Vs, and four with Mark IXs) were tasked with ground-attack, escort and air-superiority missions, so the exact number of Spitfire losses to the Fw 190 is unknown. The Luftwaffe claimed 61 of the 106 RAF machines lost, which included all types (JG 2 claimed 40 and JG 26 claimed 21 kills).

On the plus side this operation saw the successful combat debut of the Spitfire Mk IX and the lessons learned from "Jubilee" would contribute to the formation of the 2nd Tactical Air Force (2 TAF). 2 TAF would combine RAF fighter, fighter/bomber and light and medium bomber squadrons into a powerful army support organisation which would help lead to the successful outcome of D-Day. Experience from the Desert Air Force in particular, had shown that the most successful and adaptable instrument of close support for the ground forces was the fighter-bomber. In accordance with this, many of the Spitfire squadrons incorporated into 2 TAF would later take on the fighter-bomber role as their primary mission

Operating within the RAF were three "Eagle" squadrons: units manned by American pilots who had joined the RAF. First formed in 1940 and initially equipped with Hurricanes, these units converted to Spitfire Vbs in 1941. They were re-equipped with Spitfire IXs in early September 1942 and were disbanded in late-September 1942 as their aircrew and aircraft were transferred to the fledgling USAAF's Eighth Air Force to become the nucleus of the 4th Fighter Group.

AFDU tactical trials: Bf 109F and Fw 190

According to the AFDU, the Bf 109F and Spitfire V were evenly matched in terms of performance. Tests concluded that the outcome of a dogfight would depend on the qualities of the pilot. In October 1941, "Tactical Bulletin No 5" included a report of a test between a Spitfire V and the Bf 109F:

Up to 21,000 ft the Spitfire V, at a loading of 6450lbs, is nearly 8 mph faster than the Bf 109F at an all-up weight of 6,090 lbs. This difference is reduced to 2mph at 22,000 ft but increases to nearly 4 mph at 26,000 ft. At 5,000 with the Spitfire V at 2,860 engine rpm and the Bf 109F at 2,600 rpm the Bf 109F climbs 500ft/min faster than the Spitfire, but at 20,000 ft under the same conditions, this Bf 109F has only 100ft/min in hand. The engine used in the Bf 109F was not functioning properly and it is possible therefore that the rate of climb might be higher and thereby greater in comparison with the Spitfire.

The AFDU also made some comparison tests with captured Fw 190s. In combat with the Spitfire Vb, the Fw 190 proved to 25-30 mph faster at 1,000 ft. At the altitude of 3,000 ft the Fw 190 achieved its maximum speed advantage over the Vb, reaching speeds that ranged from 30-35 mph faster. This advantage fell as altitude was increased, falling to an advantage of 20 mph at 20,000 ft. The rate of climb of the Focke-Wulf was also superior, at all heights. Tests indicate the 190 to be 450 ft per minute faster up to 25,000ft. It was also revealed the Fw 190 could outclimb the Spitfire from a high-speed cruise position and, when pulling out of a dive and into a climb position, the Fw 190 would outrun the Spitfire easily. The dive tests revealed once again, that the Fw 190 could outpace the Spitfire "with ease". Manoeuvrability advantages were not so one-sided. Overall the 190 was significantly better, except when in a turning circle. The Spitfire Vb could "pull" a much tighter turn, and enter the Fw 190's turning circle, "with ease".

The high-altitude bombers

Towards the end of August 1942, the Luftwaffe began launching high-level bombing raids against England. A unit called the Höhenkampfkommando der Versuchsstelle für Höhenflüge, equipped with a small number of Junkers Ju 86R bombers, was able to bomb England from above 40,000 ft without impediment from RAF fighters, or from anti-aircraft guns. On one such attack on 28 August a single bomb dropped on Bristol killed 48 people and injured another 46. To counter the threat, the "High Altitude Flight" was formed at RAF Northolt; this unit used a pair of Spitfire Mk Vcs which were converted into IXs by Rolls-Royce at the Hucknall plant. These were stripped of everything not required for the role of high-level interception, lightening them by 450 lb each. On 12 September 1942 BS273, flown by Flying Officer Emanuel Galitzine successfully intercepted a Ju 86R piloted by Fw Horst Götz and commanded by Ltn. Erich Sommer above Southampton at 41,000 ft. The ensuing battle went up to 43,000 ft and was the highest air battle of the war. However, problems were caused by the freezing air at that altitude and the combat was not decisive: the port cannon suffered a jam and, whenever the pilot fired a burst, the aircraft would slew and fall out of the sky. The bomber escaped safely with just one hit to its port wing, but having proven to be vulnerable to the RAF at high altitudes, the Luftwaffe launched no further high-altitude attacks against England.

Debut of the Griffon engine Mk XII

During February 1943, the first of the Rolls-Royce Griffon engine variants the LF Mk XII entered service, at first with 41 Squadron, soon followed by 91 Squadron. This version had superb performance at low and medium altitudes, though the performance dropped away above about 15,000 feet. In spite of a reluctance on the part of German fighters to be drawn into low-altitude combat the Spitfire XIIs scored several successes against low-flying fighter-bomber Fw 190s and Bf 109 Gs attacking targets in and around the south-eastern coastal towns of Britain. These two units, the only ones to be fully equipped with this version, formed the Tangmere Wing on 28 June 1943, led by Wing Cdr. Rhys Thomas. The Wing carried out "Ramrods", escorting B-17 Flying Fortresses, B-25 Mitchells, B-26 Marauders, as well as Typhoons to attack targets in France. During these missions the Wing would often sweep ahead of the main bomber formation, to catch German fighters on the ground, or as they were still climbing to intercept the American bombers. At other times they would provide target support, withdrawal support or escort cover. During these missions several victories were scored against 109s and 190s.

As the American strategic (B-17 and B-24) and medium (B-26 and A-20) bombing campaigns gathered momentum in mid-1943, the need for fighter escort meant much of Fighter Command's Spitfire force was utilised in this role while the U.S. fighter groups worked up to operational status. The limited combat radius of the Spitfire, however, meant the RAF support operations were limited to the North Sea-coastal regions of Belgium and north-western France and across the English Channel to Normandy. As the battle intensified over occupied Europe, USAAF fighters like the P-47, P-38 and, from early 1944, P-51 bore the brunt of bomber protection. Spitfire IX squadrons had to bide their time until the invasion of Europe before fully engaging the Luftwaffe's Jagdwaffe.

Most successful Spitfire: EN398

From surviving records it would appear that the most successful individual Spitfire was EN398, an F. Mk IX fitted with a Merlin 63. This aircraft was built at Chattis Hill, a Shadow factory run by Supermarine, making its first flight on 13 February 1943. Five days later EN398 was delivered to 402(RCAF) Squadron which was part of the Kenley Wing. On 16 March Acting Wing Commander "Johnnie" Johnson arrived to take command of the four Canadian units based at Kenley. EN398 was still undergoing acceptance tests in a hanger:

I found the engineer officer and together we had a look at her, gleaming and bright in a new spring coat of camouflage paint. Later I took her up for a few aerobatics to get the feel of her, for this was the first time I had flown a 9. She seemed very fast, the engine was sweet and she responded to the controls as only a thoroughbred can. I decided she should be mine, and I never had occasion to regret the choice.

As a wing commander, Johnson was allowed to paint his initials JE-J on the sides of the fuselage, in place of the usual squadron code letters AE- He also had the Spitfire's guns re-harmonised to converge their fire to a single point ahead of the aircraft, rather than the standard pattern which spread the rounds evenly over a circle a few yards across. The first successful engagement for Johnson in EN398 was on 3 April 1943 when he shot down an Fw 190. By the time Johnson relinquished command of the Kenley Wing in September 1943 he had shot down 12 enemy aircraft, shared in the destruction of five more, inflicted damage on six and shared in damaging one, all while flying EN398. Also, Squadron Leader Robert "Buck" McNair shot down an Fw 190 while flying this Spitfire on 20 July 1943. EN398 was eventually sold for scrap in October 1949.

The next most successful Spitfire appears to have been MK392, built at Castle Bromwich, an L.F Mk IX, powered by a Merlin 66. It was delivered to 441(RCAF) Squadron, a unit of 144 Wing, 2 TAF, based at Ford in March 1944. MK392 was another aircraft flown as JE-J by Wing Commander Johnson. While flying MK392 Johnson shot down 12 enemy aircraft (all Fw 190s and Bf 109s), with one shared destroyed on the ground and one damaged. Johnson's last kill of the war was scored in this Spitfire on 27 September 1944.

D-day to VE Day

Normandy: June - August 1944

After the Normandy landings, some Spitfires (Griffon and Merlin engine marks) were retained in Britain to counter the V-1 flying bomb offensive in mid-1944 as part of the ADGB. Supplies of a new aviation fuel, which was called "150 Grade", arrived from America in March 1944 and sufficient quantities were available to be used by ADGB fighters as the V-1 offensive started. The new fuel enabled the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Griffon engines to operate at higher boost pressures, especially at lower altitudes, for the duration of the anti-V-1 campaign.

The bulk of the Spitfire squadrons, which by D-Day were incorporated into the 2 TAF, were progressively moved across the Channel, operating from forward airfields in Normandy, close behind the front-lines. From late August 1944, as the Allied ground forces over-ran German forces in France and moved forward into Belgium and parts of The Netherlands, the Spitfire units of 2 TAF moved to new airfields in support. By this time, as air supremacy had been achieved, and in line with 2 TAF's doctrine on the use of fighter-bombers most of the Merlin engined Mk IX and XVI units were used in the fighter-bomber role. This meant that these units concentrated on roaming over German territory, attacking ground targets of opportunity and providing tactical ground support to the army units. In this role there were fewer opportunities to engage Luftwaffe fighters. The Merlin's water and glycol cooling system, as with all liquid-cooled aero-engines, proved vulnerable to small arms fire, with one hit in the radiator or coolant pipes often being enough to drain the system, eventually causing the engine to seize or catch fire. Although some pilots were able to gain enough altitude to glide back to a forward airfield, the low altitudes normally flown during ground attack missions meant that light (up to 30 mm) flak claimed most of the Spitfire IXs and XVIs lost while operating as fighter-bombers. Just 21 of the 152 Spitfires that were destroyed or damaged from all causes from 1–30 June 1944 were shot down by German fighters.

A notable incident occurred on 17 July 1944, when a Spitfire of 602 Squadron attacked the staff car of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel, wounding him and removing him from command of Army Group B.

Flight Lieutenant Raymond Baxter, who had flown Spitfires almost continually since 1941, flew Mk XVIs on fighter-bomber operations while commanding 'A' Flight of 602 Squadron attacking V-2 rocket launching sites in Holland:

In addition to our offensive patrols and interdiction sorties, we often carried out pre-planned dive bombing attacks on suspected rocket storage areas and launching sites. Sometimes such a target would appear, from the air, as no more than a ring of wheel tracks on some scrubby heathland; even a careful study of aerial reconnaissance photographs often failed to reveal more. The usual force to attack these small targets was four to six Spitfires, each with either one 500 and two 250 pound bombs or two 250 pounders and a long range tanks... As we crossed into enemy territory we were liable to be engaged with predicted fire from heavy 88mm guns. But in a Spitfire this was no great danger, provided one continually changed one's direction and altitude in a series of long climbing or diving turns... the V-2 targets were defended with light flak so when we reached the target area our approach tactics would vary...Accurate bombing was dependant on accurate flying during the dive...the speed would build up quite rapidly, to a maximum of about 360 mph before the release. When he judged the altitude to be about 3,000 ft each pilot let go of his bombs in a salvo, then did a 5G pull-up to bring the nose up to horizontal... the drill was to make a high-speed getaway using the ground for cover.

Air superiority fighter

In September 1944, with the end of the anti-"Diver" campaign, the Griffon-engined Mk XIV units 41, 350 and 610 Squadrons were transferred from the ADGB to 2 TAF and began operating from RAF Lympne. At about the same time 322(Dutch) Squadron, which had been equipped with the Mk XIV, reverted back to Spitfire IXs. On the last day of September 130 and 402(RCAF) Squadrons, also equipped with Mk XIVs, flew to airfield B.82, Grave, Holland. Their arrival was timely as they, along with the Hawker Tempest units, were needed to counter the growing menace of Me 262 nuisance raids. In December the three Lympne based units flew to join the others on the Continent, eventually becoming part of 125 Wing. Further deliveries of the potent Mk XIV would be to fighter-reconnaissance units and, in February 1945, 610 Squadron was disbanded to help maintain the level of aircraft and pilots of these units. Along with the Hawker Tempest squadrons, the Spitfire XIVs would provide the 2 TAF with modern fighters for air-superiority, with the Spitfire being the primary high-altitude fighter, while the Tempest fulfilled the low-to-medium altitude role.

403(RCAF) Squadron was equipped with F.R. Mk XIVs and, although its primary role was tactical reconnaissance, the unit also engaged in fighter sweeps resulting in successful encounters with Luftwaffe aircraft, including an attack on an Me 262.

December 1944 to May 1945

Flight Lieutenant Pierre Clostermann, D.F.C., a veteran Spitfire pilot of Normandy, took leave off operations (tour expired) in July 1944 and did not return to 2 TAF, until January 1945 when he joined 122 Wing in Holland. He did not become operational until 8 March 1945 when he was posted to 274 Squadron flying Tempest Vs He was to write of Spitfire operations over Europe at the time:

The Spitfires were powerless. There was only one Wing of three Spitfire XIV Squadrons and the rest were equipped with Spitfire IXs or Spit XVIs (Spit IXs with Rolls-Royce engines built by Packard in the U.S.A.). In any case all the Spit IX Squadrons operated most of the time as fighter-bombers. The Huns, knowing the Spits quality in dogfight, carefully avoided taking them on, and the poor Spits had neither the speed nor the range to force the new German fighters to fight.

Spitfires took part in the Defence of the Reich campaign, and were tasked with providing Avro Lancaster bombers with fighter escort. Targets ranged from German occupied Dutch territory into the heart of Germany. The Second Tactical Air Force notes identified flak, and specialist "flak trains" as the main threat during this period. In response the Germans developed special flak wagons to protect valuable transport trains from air attack and "set traps" for unwary Allied fighter pilots. The Trains would be heavily tampered with to seem vulnerable and tempting targets, which would then open up its "wagons" to reveal powerful concentrations of firepower which inflicted inevitable losses on the Spitfire units.

Pilots still had to be aware that they were still in hostile skies, and care had to be taken not to be caught by surprise. On 8 December the 2nd TAF performed a number of sweeps over the Dulmen-Munster area. While attacking a train they were bounced by a dozen German fighters, Fw 190s and Bf 109s. Flt Lt Harry Walmsley described the Spitfire XIV's performance against the Bf 109:

They definitely caught us by surprise. I think they had been on patrol, or had been scrambled, and when they saw the smoke from the train they knew where we were and attacked out of the cloud. The Spitfire XIV is definitely better than the Me 109, as I could do a better climbing turn even with my drop tanks still on!

During this engagement Walmsley dispatched his third, of his future total of 12 kills. On a number of missions Spitfires were attacked in error by USAAF P-51s. On such incident came about on 31 December 1944, when 610 Squadron RAF was attacked. Using the Spitfire's "stunning" climb performance, pilots were "easily" able to escape and evade the Mustangs. In December 1944, RAF Fighter Command lost 53 Spitfires on the western front to all causes. Just eight fell to enemy aircraft. On 1 January 1945 the Luftwaffe launched Operation Bodenplatte. Spitfire units took part in the heavy air fighting that day, destroying at least 32 German fighters for the loss of 13 Spitfires. Of these, seven were shot down in aerial combat, the remainder were straffed on the ground.

AFDU Tactical Trials: Spitfire Mark XIV (Report No. 117)

As before, the main threat from enemy fighter aircraft came from the Bf 109 and FW 190. The latest Spitfire variant proved to be more capable than the earlier versions of its counterparts, according to the testing of captured Messerschmitt and Focke-Wulf examples against the Spitfire XIV. On 29 February 1944, RB179, one of the first production F Mk XIVs powered by a Griffon 65, was used in a series of flights where it was compared with a (BMW.801D equipped) FW 190A and a Bf 109G, both of which had been captured earlier. The results were written as a report by Wing Commander A.R Wright and was published on 19 March 1944 as Document A.D.G.B/S.29156/Air Tactics:

FW 190A

Against the Fw 190 the Spitfire was, according to the report, superior in speed at most altitudes by 60 mph. Between 0-5,000 and 15,000-20,000 ft this advantage shrank to 20 mph. The Fw 190 was also found to have a significantly inferior climb rate and turning circle, though in the case of a right-hand turn, this difference was not so quite pronounced. In dives it was found that after the initial part of the dive, during which the FW 190 gained slightly, the Mk XIV had a slight advantage. The Fw 190 retained its roll rate advantage, being 'very much better'. It was concluded that in defence, the Spitfire XIV should use its remarkable maximum climb and turning circle against any enemy aircraft; in the attack it could afford to "mix it" but should beware of the quick roll and dive. If this manoeuvre was used by the FW.190 and the Spitfire XIV followed, it was probably not be able to close the range until the Fw 190 had pulled out of its dive.

Bf 109G

When flown in comparison tests against a Bf 109 G the Spitfire Mk XIV was recorded as being 40 mph faster at all altitudes except near 16,000 ft, where this advantage fell to 10 mph. The climb rate comparisons yielded similar results, with the Mk XIV having the advantage above and below 16,000 ft; at 16,000 ft the rates of climb were identical. Zoom climb - without opening the throttle was practically identical, at full throttle the Mk XVI drew easily away from the Bf 109. Diving performance was much closer; the 109 had the advantage and pulled away at the initial part of the dive, but as soon as the 380 mph mark was passed, the Spitfire began to gain on the Bf 109G. In turn radius and rate of roll the XIV was deemed superior.

Regarding the captured Fw 190A and the Bf 109G against which the Spitfire XIV was tested, it should be borne in mind that were in each case relatively early versions with performances somewhat lower than the latest sub-types the Luftwaffe had in service early in 1944. The tested Bf 109 was more than likely to have been a G-2/trop of JG 77, 'Black Six' which was captured SE of Tobruk in November 1942. By early 1944 the aircraft had suffered a considerable amount of damage, and although repairs had been carried out, the aircraft was probably in far from perfect condition. By this time too, the Bf 109 G-6, some variants of which had uprated AS engines, was the latest and most numerous Bf 109G sub-type in the Luftwaffe.

Spitfire Spotters

During D-Day Spitfires were operated as Spotters by VCS-7 in support of United States Navy and Royal Navy cruisers and battleships bombarding land targets. In this role the Spitfires would locate targets and guide the fire of the ships on to that target.

US spotting units normally used floatplanes, either SOC Seagulls or OS2U Kingfishers, but because of their vulnerability against fighters, it was decided that 17 Cruiser Spotter (VCS) and Battleship Observation (VO) pilots aboard the heavy cruisers Augusta (CA 31), Tuscaloosa (CA 37) and Quincy (CA 71), and the battleships Arkansas (BB 33), Texas (BB 35) and Nevada (BB 36) would be trained to fly RAF Spitfire Mk Vbs and Seafire IIIs. This unit, along with two RAF squadrons, 26 and 63, also flying Spitfire Vbs and four FAA squadrons 808 , 885, 886 and 897 flying Seafire IIIs, provided valuable target coordinates and fire control during 20 days of operations. On D-Day "pooling" of the spotting units' aircraft meant that all units flew either Spitfires or Seafires.

Normally two aircraft were used; the lead aircraft functioned as the spotter while covered by a wingman, who kept a lookout for intruders.. The standard altitude flown was 6,000 feet, although poor weather often meant that missions were flown at between 1,500 to 2,000 ft or lower in some cases. Drop tanks were carried and a sortie could last up to 2 hours. Encounters against Luftwaffe fighters were rare, with four VCS-7 pilots able to evade attacks by Bf 109s and Fw 190s. Flak accounted for the only operational loss. After the bombardment of Cherbourg on 26 June Naval gunfire support missions were stopped because the battle had moved inland, out of the range of the battleships and cruisers. VCS-7 was disbanded.

During 20 days of combat operations, the aviators of VCS-7 were awarded nine Distinguished Flying Crosses, six Air Medals and five Gold Stars in lieu of additional Air Medals. Ten VCS-7 aviators went on to participate in the invasion of southern France and three others took part in the invasions of Iwo Jima and Okinawa in the Pacific during 1945.

Photo Reconnaissance

Before the Second World War long range photographic reconnaissance was not considered to be a priority by the RAF, which relied on Bristol Blenheims to carry out photo-reconnaissance as a secondary task. Short range photo-reconnaissance was left to the Army Cooperation Command's Westland Lysanders. Neither aircraft had the speed or altitude performance to avoid enemy fighters, and their light armament meant that expecting them to fight their way through to a target to take photographs was a forlorn hope. Both aircraft types took heavy casualties when faced with modern fighters and A.A fire.

Early photo-reconnaissance Spitfires

Shortly before the Second World War started Flg. Off. Maurice Longbottom submitted a paper to the Air Ministry in which he proposed that the RAF equip itself with small, unarmed aircraft which, stripped of unnecessary weight and equipped with cameras and extra fuel, could rely on high speed, a fast climb and high altitude to avoid enemy defences. He was thinking primarily about the Spitfire which, he argued, was the ideal aircraft for the role. Although his idea was received with interest, it was shelved because there were not yet enough Spitfires available to allow any to be diverted from equipping Fighter Command.

When early operations proved the vulnerability of the Blenheims and Lysanders, in October 1939 the Australian Sidney Cotton, Acting Wing Commander of the newly formed and highly secret "Heston Flight", met with Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, AOC of Fighter Command and persuaded him to release two Spitfires to his unit. Cotton had already proved Longbottom's theory to be right in practice by using a modified Lockheed Electra on clandestine photo-reconnaissance missions over Germany.

The two Spitfires were "Cottonised" by removing the radio, stripping out the armament, and adding downward-facing F.24 5" focal-length cameras to replace the inner-wing guns. All panel lines and the gun-ports were filled in with plaster of Paris and a special light "Camoutint Green" was applied to the aircraft which was then polished. Thus modified, the Spitfire was capable of reaching over 390 mph.

While the fighter versions of the Spitfire stayed in Britain, the first PR missions were flown from bases in France by Cotton's unit which was renamed "No. 2 Camouflage Unit". The first RAF high- speed, high-altitude photo-reconnaissance mission of the war took place on 18 November 1939 when Flt. Lt. "Shorty" Longbottom took off from Seclin and attempted to photograph Aachen from 33,000 ft (10,000 m).

After the initial successes of these aircraft more Mk I Spitfires were converted in different ways to accomplish different types of reconnaissance missions. On 17 January 1940 2 Camouflage Unit was renamed the "Photographic Development Unit" (PDU), while another PR Unit, 212 Squadron was formed in France. Five months later, on 17 June 1940, Sidney Cotton was removed from his role in the RAF for taking money to fly a French businessman to the UK while he was evacuating British agents from Paris. In the following year, he was awarded an OBE in recognition of his contribution to the development of photographic reconnaissance. The PDU was expanded, eventually becoming 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (1 PRU) in November 1940, operating from RAF Benson as part of RAF Coastal Command.

On 3 June 1940 Hauptmann Werner Mölders of III./JG53 claimed a lone Spitfire shot down near Paris: it is more than likely that this was a Spitfire of 212 Squadron. On 13 June 1940, Flg. Off. George Patterson Christie, a Canadian pilot of the PDU, attacked a Fiat BR.20 bomber off the coast of Monaco and, by repeatedly diving at it, forced it to land in the sea. Patterson was awarded the DFC for this feat. He was also reprimanded by Cotton for playing at being a fighter pilot when his primary duty was to bring back photographs.

On 22 February 1941, at the request of Dr R V Jones, a PRU type G Spitfire, flown by Flg. Off. W.K Manifould, took the first clear photographs of Germany's Freya radar. In retaliation for an incident six days earlier, when a Sgt Parrot failed to bring back photos due to heavy flak, Manifould also strafed the AA posts and radar station, rendering the latter useless. On 5 December 1941, again at the request of Dr Jones, a PRU Spitfire flown by Flt. Lt Tony Hill was able to photograph from a height of 200 ft a Würzburg radar which was sited at Bruneval on the French coast. This led directly to the Bruneval raid in which Würzburg components and radar operators were captured from the Germans.

Flying PR missions was not an easy occupation. Spitfire pilots often flew missions lasting seven hours or more; the cramped cockpit was uncomfortable, although the introduction of heating and, later in the war, pressurization, relieved some of the discomfort. Early PR Spitfires lacked radios and, in later versions which did have radio, the pilot was expected to maintain radio silence throughout the flight. The pilot of a high-flying Spitfire would keep constant watch on the rear- view mirror to make sure that a contrail would not betray its presence, and he also had to keep an eye out for enemy fighters trying to intercept. Without the help of another crew member a PR Spitfire pilot had to be a good navigator, usually relying on dead reckoning. Once over the target to be photographed, a precise course and altitude was set and maintained. Even a small deviation from straight and level flight could mean that the cameras would miss a small target by hundreds of yards. Several different paint schemes were used by the early photo-reconnaissance Spitfires until an overall "PRU Blue" was adopted for the majority of PR aircraft from late 1941.

Low-altitude ("dicing") missions, such as the one on the Bruneval Würzburg and Freya radar position, were usually flown under low cloud, with the pilot constantly on the lookout for enemy fighters and flak positions. These missions were much more dangerous than the high-altitude missions. At high speed and low altitude there was little time to aim the oblique camera: a tiny black + on the side of the canopy was lined up with a small black stripe painted on the aileron and, as the aircraft flew by the target, the pilot had to estimate when to start taking photographs. The only way to successfully take pictures and survive was to take the defences by surprise. Failing that the pilot was supposed to give up and fly home, and he was not allowed to fly over the same target again that day, or the next. Spitfires engaged in low-altitude "dicing" missions were often painted in either overall white or in a very pale "Camoutint Pink", which was an ideal colour against cloud cover.

PRU Spitfires also kept a constant watch on the German capital ships in based in Brest harbour throughout 1941 to February 1942, as well as maintaining operations over Norway.

The first Spitfire to be posted to the Mediterranean theatre was one operated by 1 PRU which arrived on Malta on 22 September 1941. This aircraft was then grounded for three weeks while awaiting replacements for its badly worn tyres. PR Spitfires continued to operate off Malta in ones and twos, usually being re-allocated while en-route to North Africa.

Other overseas deployments of Spitfires had seen three Mk IVs being sent to Vaenga, in North Russia, to keep on eye on German warships during the operation to get Convoy PQ-18 through to Russia. While there, they carried Soviet markings. These aircraft were later formally handed on to the Soviet Air Force.

Late photo-reconnaissance Spitfires

In 1942 the advent of the two-stage Merlin 60 series meant that this new engine was also available for the photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The first fifteen Spitfires with the new engine were conversions of standard Mk IXs made by the workshops of 1 PRU at Heston. One of the most famous reconnaissance photos of the war, showing the Moehne Dam breached after the "Operation Chastise" attack by 617 Squadron, was taken in the early hours of 18 May 1943 by Flying Officer F D Fray of 542 Squadron flying one of these conversions (called P.R Mk IX). The P.R Mk XI, which was the first version of the Spitfire to be built specifically as a photo-reconnaissance aircraft, started replacing all of the earlier conversions of Mk Is, IIs and Vs from mid-1943. Another PR version which started operating at about this time was the PR Mk XIII, which replaced the PR Mk VII.

By late 1942 the early PRUs had been expanded and formalised into several squadrons, and with the formation of the Second Tactical Air Force (or 2nd TAF) in 1943, Army Co-operation Command was wound up and many of its units became dedicated PR Squadrons. The photo-reconnaissance squadrons, especially those units in theatres outside Britain, were self-contained intelligence units; not only did they have the usual aircraft and maintenance crews but they also incorporated a large photographic section, which processed the exposed film in mobile laboratories almost as soon as the aircraft had landed. There were also photo interpreters, photo-printing staff, an intelligence section plus communications staff.

On 15 May 1942, after photographing German destroyers berthed at the port of Kiel, Flight Lieutenant D. W. Stevenson photographed heavy construction work at the Peenemünde V-2 rocket facility, although it was not recognised as such;

some extraordinary circular embankments on the photos (of Test Stand VII) were initially dismissed

In March 1943, British intelligence analysts secretly taped conversations between two German generals that confirmed the Germans were building rockets. On 22 April 1943 a large cloud of steam was photographed near the embankments, which was later identified as coming from a rocket engine being test-fired. On 14 May 1943, an "unusually high level of activity" was visible at "the Ellipse" on photos from two sorties on 14 May, which was the date the Reich Director of Manpower (Gauleiter Fritz Sauckel) was a visitor at a V-2 rocket launch. The first solid evidence came with a sortie (N/853) on 12 June when a Spitfire flown by Sqn Ldr Gordon Hughes photographed an object on a railway truck which was identified by Dr Jones as

a whiteish cylinder about 35 feet long and 5 or so feet in diameter with a blueish nose and fins at the other end.

This evidence and another photograph taken by a Spitfire flown by Flight Sergeant Peek on 23 June was presented to a full meeting of the War Cabinet Defence Committee which had been called by Winston Churchill and, after some discussion, it was agreed that Peenemunde should be attacked by Bomber Command on the heaviest possible scale on the first occasion when conditions were suitable. Operation Hydra took place on the night of 17/18 August and, it is estimated, delayed the rocket programme by about two months, by destroying many of the production facilities as well as killing some key personnel.

During this same period the Luftwaffe was also working on a secret weapon; this weapon, with its different names (Fieseler Fi 103, or Flakzielgerät, or FZG 76,) was most famously known as the V-1 flying bomb. Through early- and mid-1943, decrypted Enigma signals and reports of German construction work, smuggled out of France and Belgium by Resistance operatives, all pointed to an organisation being set up by the Germans to fire "rocket-propelled" flying bombs against Britain. When earlier photos from Peenemunde were re-examined a WAAF Flight Officer, Constance Babington-Smith, spotted a very small aircraft mounted on a sloped ramp and rails which were pointed seawards. Photo-reconnaissance sorties, mostly carried out by Spitfires, were ordered to cover the whole of the Pas-de-Calais and, almost immediately, large numbers of sites with similar ramps and small bunkers and buildings (one of which was ski-shaped) were discovered. On the strength of this information a new campaign, "Operation Bodyline/ Crossbow", was started, resulting in the destruction of most of the "ski sites". The Germans were forced to abandon the ski-sites and design simplified launch facilities. There were also other problems and the V-1 campaign, intended to start in late 1943, was delayed until the night of 12/13 June 1944.

During D-Day and the subsequent Allied offensives through France, photo-reconnaissance Spitfires of the 2nd TAF flew in support of the Allied armies. For example, the primary role of 16 Squadron (part of 34 P.R Wing) was to provide strategic aerial reconnaissance from heights of 30,000 ft (9,144 m) or more, using the PR Mk XI. The unit's secondary role was to provide tactical reconnaissance using the F.R Mk IX in low altitude "dicer" missions. 16 Squadron F.R Mk IXs provided some of the photographic evidence that German tanks were present in the area around Arnhem just before Operation Market Garden, and during the battle a detachment of F.R IXs, operating from RAF Northolt flew missions in support of the paratroops.

Mediterranean service

The Mk Vb was the first Spitfire to see extensive overseas service. On 7 March 1942, 15 Mk Vs carrying 90-gallon fuel tanks under their fuselages took off from HMS Eagle off the coast of Algeria on a 600-mile flight to Malta.

In the months that followed, some 275 Mk Vb and Vc Spitfires were delivered to the beleaguered island, with the Americans generously providing help by allowing the USS Wasp to be used to fly two lots of Spitfires in on 20 April ("Operation Calender" - 47 Spitfires and pilots of 601 and 603 Squadrons) and 9 May 1942 ("Operation Bowery" - 50 from Wasp plus 14 from Eagle, 60 landed on Malta). The carriers out at sea, though, were thought to be vulnerable to attack from the Luftwaffe. So, in late October through to early November, a total of 12 Spitfire Vcs, equipped with a single huge 170-gallon drop tank, flew direct from Gibraltar, a distance of 1,000 miles. This meant a flight time of more than five hours.

All of these Spitfires were involved in combating and finally blunting the constant air attacks being made on the island by the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica. The most successful Spitfire pilot was the Canadian Plt. Off. George Beurling of 249 Squadron who was credited with shooting down 26⅓ German and Italian aircraft between June and late October 1942.

The first Spitfire to be modified to carry underwing bombs was a Malta-based Mk Vc, EP201 X-V of 229 Squadron, which was adapted to carry one 250 lb bomb under each wing in September 1942. Many Mk V Spitfires equipped to carry a pair of 250-lb bombs attached beneath their wings were used as make-shift bombers, raiding Sicilian fortifications and air bases, and releasing their bombs at 7,000 feet as they dived at an optimum angle of 60 degrees.

To counter the prevalent dusty conditions, the Spitfires were fitted with a large Vokes air filter under the nose, which lowered the performance of the aircraft through increased drag. The Vb and Vc(trop) (fitted with large Vokes anti-sand air filters) would also equip units of the Desert Air Force during the North African campaign by August 1942.

Here, the Mk Vcs were used as tactical fighter-bombers in addition to their interception role by being equipped with a maximum clearance load of 500 lb of bombs. Mark Vbs equipped the 4th, 31st and 52nd Fighter Groups of the USAAF in the summer of 1942, and the latter two groups continued flying them until succeeded by Mk VIIIs in mid-1943. By this time, Spitfire Mk Vcs with stronger wings and extra ammunition began to carry four 20 mm cannon. Many Mk Vs also had the new, smaller and much more efficient "Aboukir" filter instead of the ram air effect nullifying Vokes filter. The new filter was named as such due to its creation in Aboukir, Egypt by RAF mechanics.

The Spitfire V and, later, much-improved, longer-range Spitfire VIIIs also soon became available in the North African theatre and, henceforth, featured heavily with the RAF, South African Air Force and USAAF during the campaigns in Sicily and Italy.

In the Mediterranean theatre and in Italy, the Mk VIII also fought with the United States Army Air Force. The 31st and 52nd Fighter Groups operated the fighter for some time until, in March 1944, their aircraft were replaced by the P-51B/C Mustang, a change which didn't thrill most of the pilots according to many 31st FG members. However, the American fighter was adopted because of its long-range escort capability. Over 300 kills were claimed by the two fighter groups while flying Spitfires.

After the fall of Mussolini and the 9 September 1943 Armistice, the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force (ICAF) was equipped with surplus Spitfire Mk Vs with the first ground-attack mission flown by 20 imo Gruppo, 51 imo Stormo on 23 October 1944 over Albania. By 31 December 1944 there were 17 Mk V Spitfires on charge (a total of 40 Mk Vs were eventually acquired). Two Italian Spitfires flew the last mission of the European conflict on 5 May 1945.

Spitfire versus Italian fighters

In the Mediterranean theatre, the Spitfire VC encountered the Macchi C.202 "Folgore", an aircraft which was a close match. It was widely considered superior to both the Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks it fought against, at first on the Libyan front from November 1941, and the equal of the Mk V. It was claimed that it was able to out-turn all three, although the Spitfire had a superior rate of climb. In 1943 the C.202 was partly superseded by the Macchi C.205 "Veltro" which was an improved version of the "Folgore". The Veltro was much respected by Allied and Luftwaffe pilots alike. In action, they proved to be extremely effective. One of the top-scoring British fighter pilots of the Second World War, G. Capt. Duncan Smith DSO DFC, greatly respected the Macchi fighters, stating: "In encounters with Macchi 205s particularly we were up against aircraft that could turn and dog-fight with our Spitfires extremely well."

Another Italian figher, the Reggiane Re.2005, although built in limited numbers was occasionally encountered by Spitfires over Sicily. G. Capt. Duncan-Smith considered: "The Re 2005 'Sagittario' was a potent aircraft. Having had a dog-fight with one of them, I am convinced we would have been hard pressed to cope in our Spitfires operationally, if the Italians or Germans had had a few squadrons equipped with these aircraft at the beginning of the Sicily campaign or in operations from Malta."

Italian Cobelligerant Air Force

On 17 August 1944, after training at Canne airfield, 12 km south of Termoli, a RAF Squadron with Yugoslavian pilots provided 53 Spitfire Vs to the Italian Cobelligerant Air Force. Only 33 would be used in front service with 20° Gruppo of 51° Stormo becoming the first unit to receive the Spitfire with its first offensive mission on 23 October. From then on, Italian Spitfire missions included escorting transport aircraft, reconnaissance flights and ground attacks. Two Spitfire Vs of 20° Gruppo flew the Regia Aeronautica's last wartime mission on 5 May 1945, a visual reconnaissance of Zagabria. By 8 May, 13 Spitfire (eight operative) were at Canne airport with 356a and 360a Squadriglia of 20° Gruppo. Two more Spitfires were located at Frosinone airport, at Scuola Addestramento Bombardamento e Caccia.

Spitfires of the USSR

In February 1943 the first Spitfires started being received into Soviet service. These were Mk Vbs, most of which had already seen extensive service with the RAF. One of the first units to receive the Spitfire was the 36th Fighter Aviation Regiment, which was part of the Voyenno-Vozdushnyye Sily or VVS. According to Senior Lieutenant Anatoli Ivanov:

We knew that at the time the English had a better fighter, the Spitfire IX, and the word was that it was good. The aircraft our allies had presented to us, however, were of a much older version... and these Spitfires had taken some knocks before they were repaired and transferred to us...Its speed was not much greater than that of the I-16...The Soviet fighters designed by Lavochkin and Yakovlev had significantly better performance...

In the Soviet "open press" the trend of the times was that foreign-built items were never to be shown as better than home-built products. By this time the VVS was being re-equipped with Lavochkin La-5s and Yakovlev Yak-1s and Yak-9s which were extremely good low-to-medium-altitude fighters and, with their rugged construction and wide-track undercarriages were well suited to operating from the frontline airfields. As far as can be ascertained the total numbers of Spitfire which were delivered are as follows:

• Vb: = 143
• PR IV: = 9 (number not confirmed)
• LF IX: = 1183
• HF XI: = 2
• LF XVI: = 9

Asia and the Pacific

The Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal Indian Air Force and the RAF also used Spitfires against Japanese forces in the Pacific theatre. The first Spitfires in the Far East were two photo-reconnaissance (PR IV) aircraft which operated from airfields in India from October 1942.

Japanese air raids on Northern Australia hastened the formation in late 1942 of 1 Wing RAAF (54 Squadron, 452(RAAF) and 457(RAAF) squadrons) under the command of Group Captain Clive Caldwell, flying the Spitfire Vc(trop). The wing arrived at Darwin in February 1943, and saw constant action until September. The Mk Vc versions received by the RAAF proved unreliable and – initially at least – had a relatively high loss rate. This was due to several factors, including pilot inexperience, engine over-speed due to the loss of oil from the propeller speed reduction unit (a problem resolved by the use of a heavier grade of oil), and the practice of draining glycol coolant before shipment, resulting in internal corrosion of the Merlin engines.

Another factor in the initial high attrition rate was the relatively short endurance of the Spitfire: most of the sorties were, as a matter of course, flown over the wide expanse of ocean between Australia, New Guinea and Timor. Even when fitted with drop tanks the Spitfires could not afford to fly too far from base without the danger of running out of fuel over water. As a result, when an incoming raid was detected, the Spitfires were forced to climb as fast as possible in an attempt to get into a favourable position. In the prevailing hot, humid climate this meant that the Merlin engines were often overheating even before combat was joined. The Spitfires were fitted with the Vokes tropical filters which reduced performance: in an attempt to increase performance the filters on several Spitfires were removed and replaced by the standard non-tropicalised air intake and lower engine cowlings which had been manufactured by the base workshops. The experiment proved to be a failure and the Spitfires were quickly refitted with the tropical filters.

Many of the Australian and British airmen who flew in 1 Wing were experienced combat veterans, some of whom who had flown P-40s with the Desert Air Force in North Africa, while others had flown Spitfires over Europe. They were used to being able to outmanoeuvre opposing fighters and were shocked to discover that the Zeros they were now flying against were able to outmanoeuvre the Spitfire. Several Spitfires were lost before the pilots learned not to attempt to get into a turning dogfight with the agile Japanese fighters. In spite of these problems the Spitfires were reasonably successful and at times were able to catch the Mitsubishi Ki-46 reconnaissance aircraft which had hitherto flown fast enough and high enough to evade interception.

The first of 410 Spitfire Mk VIIIs started replacing the Mk Vcs from October 1943, although, in the event, they were to see very limited air-to-air combat. By mid-1943 the heavy losses imposed on the Japanese Navy in the Solomon Islands campaign and in New Guinea meant that the JNAF could not keep up its attacks on northern Australia. Other units equipped with the Spitfires included 79 Squadron, 85 Squadron, 548 Squadron and 549 Squadron.

Politics also played a part; the supreme commander of the South-West Pacific theatre Douglas MacArthur did not want Australians or any other non-Americans to share in his triumphant return to the Philippines. As a result of this, RAAF Spitfire Vs and VIIIs were increasingly used in the fighter-bomber role in mopping-up operations against the large pockets of Japanese forces still remaining in New Guinea, and some Australian based units did not get to see any combat at all. The Australian pilots regarded the situation as intolerable and saw this as a waste of effort and lives, especially as many of them were experienced and battle-hardened. By the end of the Pacific war 80 (Fighter) Wing was based on the Morotai Island in the Halmaheras Group assisting Australian ground troops in Borneo. It was here that the so-called Morotai Mutiny took place.

In the China Burma India (CBI) theatre, the first Spitfire Vcs reached three squadrons on the India-Burma front in November 1943. These aircraft started being replaced by the first Mk VIIIs in February 1944. Spitfires were a major part of the defence against the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF) during the Kohima and Imphal campaign of early to mid 1944, in which the Japanese Army attempted to destroy the British 14th Army and invade India. General William Slim, the commander of the 14th Army, had planned to use the new Spitfire VIII to protect C-46 Commando transports which were supplying the 14th Army by air. After days of battling with Ki-43 "Oscars" and Ki-44 "Tojos", the airlift proceeded as the Japanese troops and aircraft withdrew.

Postwar service

Following the Second World War, the Spitfire remained in use with many air forces around the world.

Europe

Soon after the end of the Second World War, the Swedish Air Force equipped a photo-reconnaissance wing, F 11 in Nyköping (just south of Stockholm), with 50 Mk XIXs, designated S 31. Several S 31 photographic missions in the late 1940s entailed flagrant violations of Soviet and, at least once, Finnish airspace in order to document activities at the air and naval installations in the Baltic and Kola regions. At that time, no Soviet fighter was able to reach the operational altitude of the S 31. No Swedish aircraft were lost during those clandestine operations. However, by the early 1950s, Soviet air defences had become so effective that such practices had to cease. The S 31s were replaced by jet-powered SAAB S 29Cs in the mid-1950s.

The Norwegian Air Force also used Spitfires for photo-reconnaissance in the late 1940s.

In the Greek Civil War, Spitfires played a major role, being flown by the RAF and SAAF during October–December 1944, and by the Hellenic Air Force from 1946 to the end of the war in August 1949.

Italy

After the Second World War, eight flyable Italian Air Force Mk Vs were supplemented by 145 Mk IXs (obtained in two batches of 60 and 85 aircraft). The Spitfire went into service with 51 and 5 imo Stormo (wing) flying reconnaissance missions over the Balkans as well as acting in cooperation with the Italian Army and providing a defensive force. Well-liked by pilots, the Spitfires were involved in several postwar air races and trophy competitions including the Zerbinati Trophy. Italian P-51s and Spitfires were entered in the handicap race with P-51s penalized by a minute for speed, and Spitfires penalised a similar amount in climb rate. The Spitfire Mk IX remained in service until 1950–1952 when 30 survivors were supplied to the Israeli Air Force (HHA). Eventually, these ex-Italian aircraft were sent to Burma in 1954–55. Today, one ex-Italian Air Force Spitfire Mk IX, MM4084, is on display at Vigna di Valle, Rome.

Middle East

Spitfires last saw air-to air combat during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, when, in a strange twist, Israeli Air Force Spitfires flown by former RAF pilots such as Ezer Weizman engaged Egyptian Spitfires and Royal Air Force Spitfires, the only recorded "Spitfire vs Spitfire" combats. On 22 May 1948, over Palestine, a unique incident took place in the Spitfire's operational history when three Spitfire users came into conflict. On this date, two Egyptian Air Force Spitfires were engaged by RAF Spitfires after attacking Ramat David airfield and destroying a number of aircraft. The engagement ended with the REAF aircraft fleeing without result. Not long afterwards, RAF Spitfires shot down three of the REAF's. On 21 October, IAF Spitfires shot down one Egyptian Spitfire and damaged two others. On 7 January 1949 IAF Spitfires intercepted Spitfires from No. 208 Squadron RAF and shot down three of the British fighters.

South Asia

Spitfires were employed by the Indian Air Force in the 1947 Indo-Pakistan War against invading tribals in Kashmir. They remained in service with India until 1957.

The Union of Burma Air Force operated a mix of Spitfire Mk XVIIIs and modified Seafire Mk XVs on counter-insurgency missions against separatist forces, remaining in service until at least 1954.

Private

One notable variant was the privately-owned LV-NMZ (Argentine registration). This was a PR XI, PL-972, purchased by James Elwyn Storey and his brother Jack to perform aerial photography for the Argentine government. Both served in the RAF during the Second World War. James flew his Spitfire from Bournemouth (UK) to Gibraltar, on to Dakar in Senegal, from Dakar to Natal in Brazil, then Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre and finally Buenos Aires. Using external wing tanks and a belly ferry tank, he established two records: one for the heaviest fuel load ever carried by a Spitfire and one for the longest flight for a Spitfire – the Dakar to Natal leg of approximately 1,870 miles.

Some air forces retained Spitfires in service well into the 1960s.

See also

• British military history of World War II
• Military history of the Soviet Union

References

Footnotes

• This unit was later renamed 1 Photo Reconnaissance Unit (1 PRU)
• Most Mk IBs were converted to the Mark Vc which entered service in early 1941. The "B" configuration of two 20 mm cannon and four .303 machine guns was standard during the mid-war years.
• This came from the popularity of the German author Karl May who wrote books set in the American Old West.
• Wg Cdr Bader preferred the eight .303 machine-gun armament to the two 20 mm cannon and four .303 machine guns which was the standard armament. His score while flying Spitfire Is and IIs was nine destroyed and four shared destroyed, five and one shared probably destroyed and seven damaged.
• The serial number BF273, which should have belonged to a Bristol Blenheim was applied in error by the groundcrew.
• Erich Sommer was later to command the first unit equipped with the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance bomber.
• The four units which made up the Kenley Wing in March 1943 were all RCAF units: 403(RCAF) and 416(RCAF) Squadrons with Spitfire XIs and 411(RCAF) and 421(RCAF) Squadrons with Spitfire Mk Vbs. 411 and 421 Squadrons re-equipped with Mk IXs later in the year.
• Canadian Robert "Buck" McNair by war's end had shot down 16 enemy aircraft destroyed, with five probably destroyed and 14 damaged.
• Freya and Würzburg were often used in complementary installations.
• Bowman claims that on 22 April 1943, Bill White and Ron Prescott in a de Havilland Mosquito DZ473, not a Spitfire—were sent from Leuchars to photograph damage from Allied bombing at the Stettin railyards: "On leaving Stettin, we left our cameras running all down the north coast of Germany, and when the film was developed, it was found to contain pictures of Peenemünde." The Medmenham interpreters studied the elliptical earthworks (originally photographed in May 1942) and noticed an "object" 25 feet (7.6 m) long projecting from what was thought to be a service building, although it had mysteriously disappeared on the next frame.
• This was described by Constance Babington Smith in her book Evidence in Camera(2004).

Citations

1. ^ Price 2002, p.35
2. Price 1991, p. 10.
3. Price 2002, pp 70–72.
4. ^ Price 2002, p. 73.
5. Glancey 2006, p. 64.
6. Price 1996, p. 10.
7. Price 1999, p. 35.
8. Deere 1974, pp. 48–53.
9. ^ Price 2002, p. 95.
10. Price 2002, p. 77.
11. ^ Price 1996, pp. 14–16.
12. ^ Ramsay, 1989
13. ^ Williams and Gustin 2003, p. 93.
14. ^ Bungay 2006
15. Price 2002, p.72.
16. ^ Price 2002, p. 78.
17. Price 2002, p. 80.
18. Morgan and Shacklady 2000, pp. 55–56.
19. Delve 2007, p. 50.
20. ^ Green 1980, p. 70.
21. ^ Spick, 1983. p. 59
22. Green 1980, p. 69.
23. Wood and Dempster 1990, p. 87.
24. Price 2002, p. 82.
25. Cross and Swanborough 1972, p. 69.
26. Williams and Emmanuel Gustin 2003, p. 98.
27. Bungay 2000, p. 51.
28. Cross and Swanborough 1972, p. 65.
29. Price 1980, pp. 13–15
30. Weal 1999, pp. 50–51.
31. Price 1980, pp. 6–9
32. Bungay 2000, p. 82.
33. Price 1996, p. 56.
34. Sarkar 1995
35. Green 1980, pp. 86–87.
36. ^ Delve 2007, p. 69.
37. Caldwell 1991 pp. 90–91.
38. Price 1991, pp. 50–54.
39. Price 1991, p. 53.
40. Caldwell 1991, p. 96.
41. Price 1991, p. 57.
42. Sarkar 1995, pp. 119–121.
43. Quill 1983, p. 193.
44. ^ Price 2002, pp. 143–144.
45. ^ Price 1991, p. 192.
46. Glancey 2006, p. 152.
47. Price 2002, pp. 139–140, 144-145.
48. ^ Price 1997
49. ^ Price 2002, p. 169.
50. Delve 2007, p. 80.
51. Price 2002, p. 154.
52. Franks 1998, pp. 56–62.
53. ^ Weal 1996, p. 26.
54. Franks 1998, p. 56-62.
55. Delve 2007, p. 73.
56. ^ Shores and Thomas 2004, pp. 12–16.
57. Price 1991, pp. 76–83.
58. ^ Delve 2007, p. 222.
59. Delve 2007, pp. 222–223.
60. Ramsay 1990, pp. 158–161.
61. Luftwaffe attacks on Bristol Retrieved: 14 July 2008.
62. Delve 2007, p. 79.
63. Price 1995, pp. 12–13.
64. Price 2002, p. 153.
65. Price 2002, pp. 191–192.
66. Price 2002, p. 190.
67. Thomas 2008
68. ^ Price 2002, p. 157.
69. Price 1995, pp. 34, 89.
70. Price 2002, pp. 156–157.
71. Price 2002, pp. 158–159.
72. Price 2002, p. 163.
73. Price 2002, p. 165.
74. Spitfire production MK339-MK590 Retrieved: 3 November 2008.
75. Price 1995, pp. 38, 92.
76. Price 1991, pp. 116–117.
77. Price 1996, p. 67.
78. Shores and Thomas 2005, pp. 278, 295.
79. Delve 2007, p. 99.
80. Thomas and Shores 1988, pp. 202–211.
81. Price 1991, pp. 112–115.
82. Franks 1998, pp. 40–62.
83. Delve 2007, p. 89.
84. Price 1991, pp. 126–131.
85. Shores and Thomas 2005, p. 297.
86. Shores and Thomas 2005, p. 298.
87. Thomas 1988, p. 121.
88. Price, Wings of Fame 1999, p. 52.
89. Shores and Thomas, 2005, pp. 352, 366–367, 379–380.
90. Shores and Thomas 2005, p. 203.
91. Shores and Thomas 2006, p. 447.
92. Clostermann 2004, pp. 214–215.
93. Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. 257–258.
94. Delve 2007, p. 98.
95. Thomas 2008, p. 31.
96. Thomas 2008, p. 32.
97. Thomas 2008, p. 41–42.
98. Franks 2000, p. 120–129.
99. Manhro and Putz 2004, pp. 276–284.
100. Manhro and Putz 2004, p. 290.
101. Franks 1998, pp. 130–132.
102. Delve 2007, p. 253.
103. Price 2002, pp. 213–216.
104. ^ Price 2002, p. 215.
105. Price 2002, p. 216.
106. Snadden 1993, pp. 170–171.
107. Simpson, Andrew. Messerschmitt Bf 109G-2/TROP W/NR.10639 "Black 6." Royal Air Force Museum, 2007, p. 5.
108. Feist 1993, p.?
109. Naval Aviation News, May-June, pp. 30–35.
110. VCS-7 Retrieved: 2 February 2008.
111. Price 1991, pp. 108–112.
112. ^ Naval Aviation News, May-June 1994, p. 32.
113. ^ Naval Aviation News, May-June 1994, p. 33.
114. ^ Price 2002, p. 93.
115. Matusiak 2007, pp. 4–5.
116. Matusiak 2007, p. 5.
117. Matusiak 2007, p. 6.
118. Watson, Jeff. "Picture-perfect spy." Air Force, The Official Newspaper of the Royal Australian Air Force. Retrieved: 14 May 2009.
119. Matusiak 2007, p. 8.
120. Matusiak 2007, p. 9.
121. G P Christie Retrieved: 22 February 2008.
122. Matusiak 2007, p. 13.
123. Jones 1979, p. 251.
124. Price 1991, p. 61.
125. Jones 1979, p. 294.
126. Matusiak 2007, pp. 5, 6, 12, 15.
127. Matusiak 2007, pp. 12–13.
128. Matusiak 2007, p. 12.
129. Price 2002, pp. 96–103.
130. Price 2002, pp. 100–106.
131. ^ Shores et al 1991
132. ^ Price 1991, pp. 184–185.
133. Laird 1997, p. 5.
134. Smallwood 1996, pp. 29–33.
135. ^ Irving 1964, pp. 20, 48–50, 56-58, 65.
136. Ordway 1979, pp. 114, 295.
137. Jones 1979, p. 433.
138. Jones 1979, p. 434.
139. Jones 1979, pp. 437–441.
140. Jones 1979, pp. 445–482, 523-542.
141. ^ Smallwood 1996
142. Glancey 2006, pp. 102–103.
143. Glancey 2006, p. 102.
144. Glancey 2006, p. 103.
145. Shores et al. 1991, p. 650.
146. Cull 2005, pp. 372, 380.
147. Glancey 2006. pp. 103–104.
148. 31st FG History Retrieved: 3 February 2008.
149. ^ Gueli 1998, pp. 4–14.
150. Glancey 2006, pp. 152–154.
151. Duncan-Smith 1981, p. 151.
152. Duncan-Smith 1981, p. 173.
153. "Dimensione Cielo Aerei Italiani nella 2a Guerra Mondiale." Caccia Assalto. Roma: Edizioni Bizzarri, 1972.
154. Note: More details about Spitfires operating with the 5th GIAP can be found here: Spitfires over the Kuban Retrieved: 8 February 2008.
155. ^ Price 2002, p. 140.
156. Russian GPW aviation Retrieved: 7 September 2008.
157. ADF Aircraft Serial Numbers Retrieved: 3 February 2008.
158. Spitfire V in Combat Retrieved: 5 February 2008.
159. Price 1995, p. 79.
160. Price 1995, pp. 79–81.
161. Bortom Horisonten : Svensk Flygspaning mot Sovjetunionen 1946-1952 by Andersson, Lennart, Hellström, Leif
162. Bortom Horisonten : Svensk Flygspaning mot Sovjetunionen 1946-1952 by Andersson, Lennart, Hellström, Leif
163. Delve 2007, p. 161.
164. Delve 2007, p. 166.
165. Singh, Polly. “Lord Let Thy Servant go in Peace Now."
166. Price Wings of Fame 1999, p. 82.
167. Price Wings of Fame 1999, p. 84.
168. Price 1996, pp. 41, 62, 91.
169. Price 1995, p.12.
170. Price 2002, p. 156.
171. Price 1995, pp.46, 95.

Bibliography

• Bader, Douglas. Fight for the Sky: The Story of the Spitfire and Hurricane. London: Cassell Military Books, 2004. ISBN 0-30435-674-3.
• Bungay, Stephen. The Most Dangerous Enemy: A History of the Battle of Britain. London: Aurum Press, 2000. ISBN 1-85410-721-6 (hardcover), ISBN 1-85410-801-8 (paperback 2002).
• Clostermann, Pierre. The Big Show.. London, Cassel Military Paperbacks, 2005. ISBN 0 304 36624 2.
• Cull, Brian with Fredrick Galea. Spitfires Over Malta: The Epic Air Battles of 1942. London: Grub Street, 2005. ISBN 1-904943-30-6.
• Deere, Alan C. Nine Lives. London: Coronet books, Hodder Paberbacks Ltd, 1974. ISBN 0-340-01441-5
• Delve, Ken. The Story of the Spitfire: An Operational and Combat History. London: Greenhill books, 2007. ISBN 978-1-85367-725-0.
• Duncan-Smith, Wilfred (Grp. Capt ret). Spitfire into Battle. Feltham, Middlesex, UK: Hamlyn Paperbacks, 1981. ISBN 0-71953-831-9.
• Franks, Norman L. R. Royal Air Force Losses of the Second World War. Volume 2. Operational Losses: Aircraft and crews 1942-1943. London: Midland Publishing Limited, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-075-3.
• Franks, Norman L. R. Royal Air Force Losses of the Second World War. Volume 3. Operational Losses: Aircraft and crews 1944-1945 (incorporating Air Defence Great Britain and 2nd TAF. London: Midland Publishing Limited, 1998. ISBN 1-85780-093-1.
• Glancey, Jonathan. Spitfire: The Illustrated Biography. London: Atlantic Books, 2006. ISBN 978-1-84354-528-6.
• Gueli, Marco. "Spitfire con Coccarde Italiane (Spitfire in Italian Service)." (in Italian) Storia Militare n.62, November 1998.
• Holmes, Tony. Spitfire vs Bf 109: Battle of Britain. London: Osprey Aerospace, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84603-190-8.
• Laird, Malcolm and Steve Mackenzie. Spitfire the ANZACS; The RAF through Colonial Eyes. Wellington, NZ: Ventura Publications, 1997. ISBN 0-9583594-1-5.
• Matusiak, Wojtek. Merlin PR Spitfires; Classic Warbirds No.10. Wellington, New Zealand: Ventura Publications, 2007. ISBN 0-9582296-2-7
• Morgan, Eric B. and Edward Shacklady. Spitfire: The History. Stamford: Key Books Ltd, 2000. ISBN 0-946219-48-6.
• Price, Alfred. Battle Of Britain: The Hardest Day, 18 August 1940. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980. ISBN 978-1684165032.
• Price, Alfred. Spitfire a Complete Fighting History. Enderby, Leicester, UK: The Promotional Reprint Company Limited, 1991. ISBN 1-85648-015-1.
• Price, Alfred. Late Marque Spitfire Aces 1942 - 1945. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85532-575-6.
• Price, Alfred. "Supermarine Spitfire (Merlin-engined variants)". Wings of Fame, Volume 9. London: Aerospace, 1997. pp. 30–93. ISBN 1-86184-001-2.
• Price, Alfred. "Supermarine Spitfire (Griffon-engined variants and Seafire)" Wings of Fame, Volume 16. London: Aerospace, 1999, pp. 30–85. ISBN 1-86184-037-3.
• Price, Alfred. Spitfire Mark I/II Aces 1939-41. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1996. ISBN 1-85532-627-2.
• Price, Alfred. Spitfire Mark V Aces 1941-45. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1997. ISBN 1-85532-635-3.
• Price, Alfred. The Spitfire Story: Revised second edition. Enderby, Leicester, UK: Siverdale Books, 2002. ISBN 1-885605-702-X.
• Quill, Jeffrey. Spitfire: A Test Pilot’s Story. London: Arrow Books, 1983. ISBN 0-09-937020-4.
• Ramsay, Winston, ed. The Battle of Britain Then and Now: Volume V. London: Battle of Britain Prints International Ltd, 1989. ISBN 0-900913-46-0.
• Ramsay, Winston, ed. The Blitz Then and Now: Volume 3. London: Battle of Britain Prints International Ltd, 1990. ISBN 0-900913-58-4.
• Sarkar, Dilip. A Few of the Many: Air War 1939-45. St Peters, Worcestershire, UK: Ramrod Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-9519832-3-7.
• Shores, Christopher and Brian Cull with Nicola Malizia. Malta: The Spitfire Year. London: Grub Street, 1991. ISBN 0-948817-16-X.
• Shores, Christopher and Chris Thomas. 2nd Tactical Air Force. Volume II: Breakout to Bodenplatte; July 1944 to January 1945. Hersham, UK: Ian Allen Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-903223-41-5.
• Shores, Christopher and Chris Thomas. 2nd Tactical Air Force. Volume III: From the Rhine to Victory: January to May 1945. Hersham, UK: Ian Allen Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-903223-60-1.
• Smallwood, Hugh. Spitfire in Blue. London: Osprey Aerospace, 1996. ISBN 1-85532-615-9.
• Smith, G. Capt. Duncan DSO DFC RAF (Ret).Spitfire into Battle. Feltham, Middlesex, UK: Hamlyn Paperbacks, 1981. ISBN 0-600-20606-8.
• Thomas, Andrew.Griffon Spitfire Aces: Aircraft of the Aces 81. London: Osprey Aerospace, 2008. ISBN 1-84603-289-1.

Books on other aircraft types or on subjects not directly related to the Spitfire

• Arena, Nino. Macchi 205 "Veltro". Modena: Mucchi Editore, 1994.
• Babington Smith, Constance. Evidence In Camera: New edited edition. London: The History Press Ltd, 2004. ISBN 0-75093-648-7.
• Caldwell, Donald L. JG 26: Top Guns of the Luftwaffe. New York: Ballantine Books, 1991. ISBN 0-8041-1050-6.
• Caldwell, Donald and Richard Muller. The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich. London: Greenhill Books, 2007. ISBN 978-1-85367-712-0.
• Green, William. Messerschmitt Bf 109: The Augsburg Eagle; A Documentary History. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishing Group Ltd., 1980. ISBN 0-7106-0005-4.
• Hill, Steven D. "Invasion! Fortress Europe: Naval aviation in France, summer 1944" Naval Aviation News May-June 1994.
• Irving, David. The Mare's Nest. London: William Kimber and Co, 1964.
• Jones, R. V. Most Secret War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939-1945. Sevenoaks, Kent, UK: Coronet Books, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. ISBN 0-340-24169-1 (paperback).
• Manrho, John and Ron Putz. Bodenplatte: The Luftwaffe's Last Hope–The Attack on Allied Airfields, New Year's Day 1945. Ottringham, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2004. ISBN 1-902109-40-6.
• Neulen, Hans Werner. In the Skies of Europe: Air Forces Allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2000. ISBN 1-86126-799-1.
• Ordway, Frederick and Mitchell Sharpe. The Rocket Team (Apogee Books Space Series #36). New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1979. ISBN 978-026265013.
• Shores, Christopher, Hans Ring and William N. Hess. Fighters Over Tunisia. London: Neville Spearman Limited, 1975. ISBN 85435-210-4.
• Snadden, Russ. Black 6: The extraordinary restoration of a Messerschmitt Bf 109. Somerset, UK: Patrick Stephens Limited, 1993. ISBN 1-85260-425-5.
• Spick, Mike . Fighter Pilot Tactics.Cambridge, Patrick Stephens, 1983. ISBN 0-85059-617-3
• Thomas, Chris and Christopher Shores.The Typhoon and Tempest Story. London: Arms & Armour Press, 1988. ISBN 0-85368-878-6.
• Weal, John. Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Aces of the Western Front. London, Osprey. 1996. ISBN 978-1-85532-595-1
• Weal, John. Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstōrer Aces of World War 2. Botley, Oxford UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1-85532-753-8.
• Williams, Anthony G and Gustin, Emmanual. Flying Guns World War II. London: Airlife Publishing Limited 2003. ISBN 1-840-37227-3
• Wood, Derek and Derek Dempster. "The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power" London: Tri-Service Press, third revised edition, 1990. ISBN 1-854-88027-6.
• Dimensione Cielo Aerei italiani nella 2 guerra mondiale Caccia Assalto. Roma: Edizioni Bizzarri, 1972

External links

• The Spitfire Site
• The Spitfire Society
• Alan Le Marinel hosts Supermarine Spitfire
• Spitfire Performance Testing
• Combat History of the Supermarine Spitfire - The Defence of Malta (1942)
• Spitfire/Seafire Serial Numbers, production contracts and aircraft histories
• The Supermarine Spitfire in Indian Air Force Service
• Spitfires over the Kuban
• Spitfire Mk VIII *Mk XVI Temora Aviation Museum page
• Examples of Photographic Reconnaissance Spitfires

• Propeller aircraft
• Low wing aircraft
• British fighter aircraft 1930-1939
• Single engine aircraft
• Carrier-based aircraft
• Royal Air Force
• 1938 introductions