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| {{Infobox Historical Era | |||
| | name = Victorian Era | |||
| | image = Queen Victoria 1887.jpg | |||
| | caption = ], after whom the era is named. | |||
| | start = 1837 | |||
| | end = 1901 | |||
| | before = Georgian era | |||
| | after = Edwardian era | |||
| | monarch = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Periods in English History}} | |||
| The '''Victorian era''' of the ] was the period of ] reign from June 1837 until her death on the 22nd of January 1901. <ref>Swisher, Clarice, ed. ''Victorian England''. San Diego, CA : Greenhaven Press, 2000.</ref> The reign was a long period of prosperity for the ], as profits gained from the overseas ], as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed an educated ] to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of the period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games that have come to be associated with the Victorians—back five years to the passage of the ]. | |||
| The era was preceded by the ] and succeeded by the ]. The latter half of the Victorian era roughly coincided with the first portion of the '']'' era of ] and the ] of the United States. | |||
| The era is often characterized as a long period of peace, known as the '']'', and economic, ], and industrial consolidation, temporarily disrupted by the ], although Britain was at war every year during this time. Towards the end of the century, the policies of ] led to increasing colonial conflicts and eventually the ] and the ]. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of gradual ] and the widening of the ]. | |||
| The ] had almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901.<ref>, statistics.gov.uk</ref> ]’s population decreased rapidly, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901.<ref></ref> At the same time around 15 million ] left the United Kingdom in the Victorian era and settled mostly in the United States, Canada and Australia.<ref>. National Museum of Australia</ref> | |||
| During the early part of the era, the ] was headed by the two parties, the ] and the ]. From the late 1850s onwards, the Whigs became the ]; the Tories became the ]. These parties were led by many prominent statesmen including ], Sir ], ], ], ], ] and ]. The unsolved problems relating to ] played a great part in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in view of Gladstone's determination to achieve a political settlement. Indeed these issues would eventually lead to the ] of 1916 and the subsequent ] that would play a large part in the fall of the empire. | |||
| The reign of Victoria was the longest in British history, and is foreseeably likely to be exceeded only if the present monarch (]) remains on the throne to 2017. | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{See also|Victorianism|Victorian architecture|Victorian decorative arts|Victorian fashion|Victorian working class leisure}} | |||
| ] became increasingly significant in the period, leading to the ] between Gothic and ] ideals. ]'s architecture for the new ], which had been badly damaged in an ], built in the ] of ], the surviving part of the building. It constructed a narrative of cultural continuity, set in opposition to the violent disjunctions of ], a comparison common to the period, as expressed in ]'s '']'' and ]' '']''. Gothic was also supported by the critic ], who argued that it epitomised communal and inclusive social values, as opposed to Classicism, which he considered to epitomise mechanical standardisation. | |||
| The middle of the 19th century saw ] of 1851, the first ], and showcased the greatest innovations of the century. At its centre was ], an enormous, modular glass and iron structure - the first of its kind. It was condemned by Ruskin as the very model of mechanical dehumanisation in design, but later came to be presented as the prototype of ]. The ], which was showcased at the Great Exhibition, resulted in significant changes in Victorian art with Queen Victoria being the first British Monarch to be photographed. ] was influenced by photography (notably in his portrait of Ruskin) as were other ] artists. It later became associated with the ] and ] techniques that would dominate the later years of the period in the work of artists such as ] and ]. | |||
| ==Events== | |||
| ;1832: Passage of the first ].<ref name="greenhavenpress">Swisher, Clarice, ed. ''Victorian England''. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2000. pgs 248-250</ref> | |||
| ;1837: Accession of Queen Victoria to the throne.<ref name="greenhavenpress"/> | |||
| ;1840: ] becomes a British colony, through the ]. | |||
| ;1840: ] marries ] | |||
| ;1840: Birth of the Queen's first child ] | |||
| ;1841: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1842: ] by the ] in ] results in the death or incarceration of 16,500 soldiers and civilians.<small><ref></ref></small> The ] banned women/children from working in ], ], ] and ] ].<ref name="greenhavenpress"/> '']'' was first published.<ref></ref> | |||
| ;1843: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1844: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1845: The ] begins. Within 5 years it would become the UK's ], with starvation and emigration reducing the population of Ireland itself by over 50%. The famine permanently changed Ireland’s demographics and became a rallying point for nationalist sentiment that pervaded British politics for much of the following century. | |||
| ;1846: Repeal of the ].<ref name="greenhavenpress"/> | |||
| ;1846: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1848: Death of around 2,000 people a week in a ] ]. | |||
| ;1848: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1850: Restoration of the ] hierarchy in Britain. | |||
| ;1850: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1851: ] (the first World's Fair) was held at the Crystal Palace<ref name="greenhavenpress"/>, with great success and international attention. The ]. In ten years the ]n population nearly tripled.<ref>. Robert Whaples, Wake Forest University.</ref> | |||
| ;1853: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1854: ]: The United Kingdom declared war on ]. | |||
| ;1857: The ], a widespread revolt in ] against the rule of the ], was sparked by '']s'' (native Indian soldiers) in the Company's army. The rebellion, involving not just sepoys but many sectors of the Indian population as well, was largely quashed within a year. In response to the ], the East India Company was abolished in August 1858 and India came under the direct rule of the ], beginning the period of the ]. | |||
| ;1857: Birth of ] | |||
| ;1858: The ], Lord Palmerston, responded to the ] plot against ] emperor ], the bombs for which were purchased in ], by attempting to make such acts a ], but the resulting uproar forced him to resign. | |||
| ;1859: ] published '']'', which led to ].<ref name="greenhavenpress"/> | |||
| ;1861: Death of ]<ref name="greenhavenpress"/>; Queen Victoria refused to go out in public for many years, and when she did she wore a widow's ] instead of the crown. | |||
| ;1866: An angry crowd in ], protesting against ]'s resignation as Prime Minister, was barred from ] by the ]; they tore down iron ]s and trampled on ]s. Disturbances like this convinced Derby and Disraeli of the need for further parliamentary reform. | |||
| ;1867: The ] passes and ] becomes ]. | |||
| ;1875: Britain purchased ]'s shares in the ]<ref name="greenhavenpress"/> as the ]n nation was forced to raise money to pay off its ]s. | |||
| ;1878: ]. ] becomes a ]. | |||
| ;1882: ] began the ] by taking the Suez Canal, in order to secure the vital ] and passage to India, and the country became a ]. | |||
| ;1884: The ] was founded in London by a group of middle class intellectuals, including ] ], ], and ], to promote ].<ref>http://www.fabians.org.uk/publications/extracts/is-this-what-labours-next-clause-four-should-say</ref> | |||
| ;1886: Prime Minister ] and the Liberal Party tries passing the ], but the bill is rejected by the ]. | |||
| ;1888: The ] known as ] murdered and mutilated five (and possibly more) ] on the streets of London.<ref name="greenhavenpress"/> | |||
| ;1870 - 1891: Under the ], basic ] became free for every child under the age of 10.<ref name="1870 Edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Leducation70.htm|title=1870 Education Act|accessdate=2009-09-27}}</ref> | |||
| ;1901: The death of the much-loved Victoria saw the end of this era, and the ascension of her eldest son, Edward, began the ], another time of great change. | |||
| ==Entertainment== | |||
| Popular forms of entertainment varied by ]. Victorian Britain, like the periods before it, was interested in ] and ], and ], ], and ] were widely attended. There were, however, other forms of entertainment. ] at cards in establishments popularly called ]s was wildly popular during the period: so much so that evangelical and reform movements specifically targeted such establishments in their efforts to stop gambling, ], and prostitution. | |||
| ] and 'The ]' became popular in the Victorian era. The band stand was a simple construction that not only created an ornamental focal point, but also served acoustic requirements whilst providing shelter from the changeable ]. It was common to hear the sound of a brass band whilst strolling through ]. At this time musical recording was still very much a novelty. | |||
| Another form of entertainment involved 'spectacles' where paranormal events, such as ], communication with the dead (by way of ] or channelling), ] conjuring and the like, were carried out to the delight of crowds and participants. Such activities were more popular at this time than in other periods of recent Western history. | |||
| ==Technology and engineering== | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| A great engineering feat in the Victorian Era was the ]. It was designed by ] in 1858. He proposed to build {{convert|82|mi|abbr=on}} of ] linked with over {{convert|1000|mi|abbr=on}} of street ]s. Many problems were encountered but the ] were completed. After this, Bazalgette designed the ] which housed sewers, ]s and the ]. During the same period London's ] network was expanded and improved, and a ] ] for ] and ] was introduced in the 1880s. | |||
| During the Victorian era, ] grew into the discipline it is today. In addition to the increasing professionalism of university science, many Victorian gentlemen devoted their time to the study of ]. This study of natural history was most powerfully advanced by Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution first published in his book ''On the Origin of Species'' in 1859. | |||
| ] ] in 1871]] | |||
| ] was realized in 1829 by ] in France and ] in the UK. By 1900, hand-held cameras were available. | |||
| Although initially developed in the early years of the 19th century, gas lighting became widespread during the Victorian era in industry, homes, public buildings and the ]. The invention of the ] gas ] in the 1890s greatly improved light output and ensured its survival as late as the 1960s. Hundreds of ] were constructed in cities and towns across the country. In 1882, incandescent ]s were introduced to London streets, although it took many years before they were installed everywhere. | |||
| == Health and medicine == | |||
| Medicine progressed during Queen Victoria's reign.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| ] were being used{{Clarify|date=September 2009}}{{Who|date=September 2009}}, so surgery became painless.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| In July 1831, the American physician ] discovered ], but faced strong criticism{{Clarify|date=September 2009}}.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Queen Victoria is credited{{Who|date=September 2009}} for stifling criticism{{Clarify|date=September 2009}} of the anaesthetic as she used it{{When|date=September 2009}} during childbirth.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| ==Poverty== | |||
| ] life in Victorian ], ]]] | |||
| 19th century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid ] stimulated by the ]. The large numbers of skilled and unskilled people looking for work kept wages down to barely subsistence level. Available housing was scarce and expensive, resulting in overcrowding. These problems were magnified in London, where the population grew at record rates. Large houses were turned into flats and tenements, and as landlords failed to maintain these dwellings ] housing developed. ] described the situation as follows: "Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room." (The Victorian Underworld)<ref name="dan">Barbara Daniels, </ref> | |||
| ==Child labour== | |||
| ] tub in ]. From official report of the parliamentary commission in the mid 19th century.<ref name="ashley"> Laura Del Col, West Virginia University</ref>]] | |||
| The Victorian era became notorious for ] in factories and mines and as ]s.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, </ref> Child labour, often brought about by economic hardship, played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset: Charles Dickens, for example, worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in a ]. In 1840 only about 20 percent of the children in London had any schooling. By 1860 about half of the children between 5 and 15 were in school (including ]).<ref name="cody"/> | |||
| The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low wages.<ref name="dan"/> Agile boys were employed by the chimney sweeps; small children were employed to scramble under machinery to retrieve cotton bobbins; and children were also employed to work in ], crawling through tunnels too narrow and low for adults. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, or shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers, and other cheap goods.<ref name="dan"/> Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building, or as ] (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid ]). Working hours were long: builders might work 64 hours a week in summer and 52 in winter, while domestic servants worked 80 hour weeks. Many young people worked as ]s (the majority of prostitutes in London were between 15 and 22 years of age).<ref name="cody"/> | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "Mother bides at home, she is troubled with bad breath, and is sair weak in her body from early labour. I am wrought with sister and brother, it is very sore work; cannot say how many rakes or journeys I make from pit's bottom to wall face and back, thinks about 30 or 25 on the average; the distance varies from 100 to 250 fathom. I carry about 1 cwt. and a quarter on my back; have to stoop much and creep through water, which is frequently up to the calves of my legs." (Isabella Read, 12 years old, coal-bearer, testimony gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission 1842<ref name="ashley"/> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "My father has been dead about a year; my mother is living and has ten children, five lads and five lasses; the oldest is about thirty, the youngest is four; three lasses go to mill; all the lads are colliers, two getters and three hurriers; one lives at home and does nothing; mother does nought but look after home. | |||
| All my sisters have been hurriers, but three went to the mill. Alice went because her legs swelled from hurrying in cold water when she was hot. I never went to day-school; I go to Sunday-school, but I cannot read or write; I go to pit at five o'clock in the morning and come out at five in the evening; I get my breakfast of porridge and milk first; I take my dinner with me, a cake, and eat it as I go; I do not stop or rest any time for the purpose; I get nothing else until I get home, and then have potatoes and meat, not every day meat. I hurry in the clothes I have now got on, trousers and ragged jacket; the bald place upon my head is made by thrusting the corves; my legs have never swelled, but sisters' did when they went to mill; I hurry the corves a mile and more under ground and back; they weigh 300 cwt.; I hurry 11 a-day; I wear a belt and chain at the workings, to get the corves out;" (Patience Kershaw, 17 years old, coal-bearer, testimony gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission 1842)<ref name="ashley"/> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Children as young as three were put to work. In coal mines children began work at the age of 5 and generally died before the age of 25. Many children (and adults) worked 16 hour days. As early as 1802 and 1819, ] were passed to limit the working hours of ] children in factories and ]s to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a ] recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine should no longer be permitted to work. This act, however, only applied to the ], and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10 hour working days.<ref name="cody"> David Cody, Hartwick College </ref> | |||
| ==Prostitution== | |||
| {{See also|Victorian morality|Women in the Victorian era}} | |||
| Beginning in the late ], major news organizations, clergymen, and single women became increasingly concerned about prostitution, which came to be known as "The Great Social Evil". Although estimates of the number of prostitutes in London by the ] vary widely (in his landmark study, ''Prostitution'', ] reported that the police estimated there were 8,600 in London alone in 1857), it is enough to say that the number of women working the streets became increasingly difficult to ignore. When the ] publicly revealed a 4% demographic imbalance in favour of women (i.e., 4% more women than men), the problem of prostitution began to shift from a moral/religious cause to a ] one. The 1851 census showed that the population of Great Britain was roughly 18 million; this meant that roughly 750,000 women would remain unmarried simply because there were not enough men. These women came to be referred to as "superfluous women" or "redundant women", and many essays were published discussing what, precisely, ought to be done with them.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| While the ]s had been "reforming" prostitutes since the mid-], the years between 1848 and 1870 saw a veritable explosion in the number of institutions working to "reclaim" these "fallen women" from the streets and retrain them for entry into respectable society — usually for work as domestic servants. The theme of prostitution and the "fallen woman" (an umbrella term used to describe any women who had ] out of ]) became a staple feature of mid-] and politics. In the writings of ], ], and others, prostitution began to be seen as a ].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| When ] passed the first of the ] in ] (which allowed the local constabulary to force any woman suspected of ] to submit to its inspection), ]'s crusade to repeal the CD Acts yoked the anti-prostitution cause with the emergent ]. Butler attacked the long-established ] of ].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| Prostitutes were often presented as victims in ] such as ]'s poem '']'', ]'s novel '']'', and Dickens' novel '']''. The emphasis on the purity of women found in such works as ]'s '']'' led to the portrayal of the prostitute and fallen woman as soiled, corrupted, and in need of cleansing.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| This emphasis on female purity was allied to the stress on the ] role of women, who helped to create a space free from the pollution and corruption of the city. In this respect, the prostitute came to have symbolic significance as the embodiment of the violation of that divide. The double standard remained in force. ] legislation introduced in 1857 allowed for a man to divorce his wife for ], but a woman could only divorce if adultery were accompanied by cruelty. The anonymity of the city led to a large increase in prostitution and unsanctioned sexual relationships. Dickens and other writers associated prostitution with the mechanisation and industrialisation of modern life, portraying prostitutes as human ] consumed and thrown away like refuse when they were used up. Moral reform movements attempted to close down ]s, something that has sometimes been argued to have been a factor in the concentration of street-prostitution in ], in the ], by the ].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * ]. ''Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for the Modern Reader of Victorian Literature''. W.W. Norton & Company: 1974. ISBN 0-393-09376-X. | |||
| * Burton, Antoinette (editor). ''Politics and Empire in Victorian Britain: A Reader''. Palgrave Macmillan: 2001. ISBN 0-312-29335-6. | |||
| * ], ''The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud'', 5 volumes, Oxford University Press, 1984-1989 | |||
| * Janowski, Diane, ''Victorian Pride - Forgotten Songs of America'', 6 volumes, New York History Review Press, 2007-2008. | |||
| * Flanders, Judith. ''Inside the Victorian Home: A Portrait of Domestic Life in Victorian England''. W.W. Norton & Company: 2004. ISBN 0-393-05209-5. | |||
| * Mitchell, Sally. ''Daily Life in Victorian England''. Greenwood Press: 1996. ISBN 0-313-29467-4. | |||
| * ] ''The Victorians''. Arrow Books: 2002. ISBN 0-09-945186-7 | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <references/> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * A collection of primary-source documents drawn from Victorian periodicals. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * An exploration of vagrancy and streetwalkers in late Victorian London | |||
| {{United Kingdom topics|state=collapsed}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Victorian Era}} | |||
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