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| {{Redirect|Origin of Species}} | |||
| {{Infobox Book | |||
| | name = On the Origin of Species | |||
| | title_orig = | |||
| | translator = | |||
| | image = ] | |||
| | image_caption = The title page of the 1859 edition<br />of ''On the Origin of Species'' | |||
| | author = ] | |||
| | illustrator = | |||
| | cover_artist = | |||
| | country = ] | |||
| | language = ] | |||
| | series = | |||
| | subject = ]<br>] | |||
| | genre = | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | release_date = 24 November 1859 | |||
| | english_release_date = | |||
| | media_type = Print (]) | |||
| | pages = | |||
| | isbn = N/A | |||
| | preceded_by = | |||
| | followed_by = | |||
| }} | |||
| ]'s '''''On the Origin of Species''''', published on 24 November ], is a seminal work of ], considered to be the foundation of ]. Its full title was '''''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'''''. For the sixth edition of 1872, the short title was changed to '''''The Origin of Species'''''. Darwin's book introduced the ] that populations ] over the course of generations through a process of ]. It presented a body of evidence that ] arose through a ] and ]. Darwin included evidence that he had accumulated on ] in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation. | |||
| ] had already been proposed to explain ]. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the ], while science was part of ]. Ideas about the ] were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream. | |||
| The book was written to be read by non-specialists and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by ] and his fellow members of the ] to ] science by promoting ]. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During the "]" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the ] in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, now the unifying concept of the ]s. | |||
| ==Summary of Darwin's theory== | |||
| ] | |||
| Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key ]s and the ]s drawn from them, which biologist ] summarised as follows:<ref>{{harvnb|Mayr|1982|pp=479–480}}</ref> | |||
| * Every ] is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce the population would grow (fact). | |||
| * Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size (fact). | |||
| * Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time (fact). | |||
| * A struggle for survival ensues (inference). | |||
| * Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another (fact). | |||
| * Much of this variation is ] (fact). | |||
| * Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their inheritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of ] (inference). | |||
| * This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species (inference). | |||
| ==Background== | |||
| {{seealso|History of evolutionary thought|History of biology}} | |||
| ===Developments before Darwin's theory=== | |||
| In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as ];<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|p=}}</ref> the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher ].<ref>{{Citation|author=Aristotle|title=Physics|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.2.ii.html|accessdate=2009-04-23|publisher=translated by Hardie, R. P. and Gayle, R. K. and hosted by MIT's Internet Classics Archive}}</ref> Early ] ] and ]an scholars interpreted the ] allegorically rather than through strictly literal meanings;<ref>{{harvnb|Forster|Marston|1999|pp=26–27}}</ref> organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and ] of life.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=27, 43, 45}}</ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| The ] inspired ], with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an ] seeking explanations congruent with the ] of ] and the ] of the ]. After the turmoil of the ], the ] wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. ] developed an influential ] of rational order; in his ], ] were static and fixed, their ] and complexity designed by God, and ] showed minor differences caused by local conditions. In God's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by ] was a ]. The ] introduced by ] in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, ] suggested that some similar species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers, and leopards, might be varieties descended from a common ancestor. The ] of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world. ]ians thought ] were ], but ] proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=27–36, 39–42, 57–62, 67, 70, 77–80}}</ref> | |||
| Charles Darwin's grandfather ] outlined a hypothesis of ] in the 1790s, and ] published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that ] produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called ]. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=84–90}}</ref> ] contended that ] transformations of organisms in past ]s when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by ]. ] strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|1989|pp=47–54}}</ref> His ] in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local ], followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=111–114}}</ref> | |||
| In Britain, ]'s ''Natural Theology'' saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial ] acting through natural laws. All naturalists in English universities were ] clergymen, and science became a search for these laws.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=91, 129}}</ref> Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=115–117}}</ref> Some anatomists such as ] were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy, but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=34–35}}</ref> | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ===Inception of Darwin's theory=== | |||
| {{seealso|Charles Darwin's education|Inception of Darwin's theory}} | |||
| Darwin went to ] in 1825. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for ] and spent four months assisting ]'s research into ]s. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, but Darwin rejected it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=80–88}}</ref> At ] starting in 1827, Darwin learnt science as ] from botanist ], and read ], ] and ]. Filled with zeal for science, he studied ] ] with ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=148–149}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=133–140}}</ref> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| In December 1831, he joined the ] as a geologist and naturalist. He read ]'s '']'' and from the first stop ashore, at ], found ] a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge ]s, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their "centre of creation".<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=59–62}}</ref> The three ] missionaries the expedition returned to ] were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages",<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1845|pp=}}</ref> and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=244–250}}</ref> As the ''Beagle'' neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.<ref name=xix>{{Harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=}}; {{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> | |||
| ] showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist ] announced that ] was a separate species from the previously described ] (though their territories overlapped), that ]s collected on the ] represented three separate species each ] a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=24–25}}</ref> Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a ] branching of a single ], discarding Lamarck's independent ] progressing to higher forms.<ref>{{harvnb|Herbert|1980|pp=}}. {{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008|p=44}}; {{Citation | url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1|title=Darwin's Notebook B: Transmutation of species. pp. 1–13, 26, 36, 74|accessdate=2009-03-16}}</ref> Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of ] and ] as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the ] seemed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=240–244}}</ref> | |||
| In late September 1838, he started reading ]'s '']'' with its statistical proof that human populations breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist ] "warring of the species" in plants; he immediately envisioned "a force like a hundred thousand wedges" pushing well-adapted variations into "gaps in the economy of nature", so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed.<ref name=wyhe/><ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=66–70}}; {{Citation|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112|title=Darwin's Notebook D: Transmutation of species. pp. 134–135|accessdate=2009-04-08}}</ref> By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected".<ref>{{Citation |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63|title=Darwin's Notebook E: Transmutation of species. p. 75|accessdate=2009-03-14}}</ref> | |||
| Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=}}</ref> but he was fully occupied with his career as a geologist and held off writing a sketch of his theory until his book on '']'' was completed in May 1842.<ref name=vw186>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|p=436}}</ref> | |||
| ===Further development=== | |||
| {{seealso|Development of Darwin's theory}} | |||
| Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the ''Beagle'' voyage.<ref name=vw186/> He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842;<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=292}}</ref> then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=436–437}}</ref> Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist ] in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p=188}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| In November 1844, the anonymously published ] book '']'', written by Scottish journalist ], widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. ''Vestiges'' used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin's work in progress, and it ignored ]. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology,<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814—Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)|accessdate=2008-11-24}}</ref> but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including ], attacked its morality and scientific errors.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=461–465}}</ref> ''Vestiges'' had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated ''Origin'' by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, ] became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=135–140}}</ref> | |||
| Hooker was persuaded to take away a copy of the "Essay" in January 1847, and eventually sent a page of notes giving Darwin much needed feedback. Reminded of his lack of expertise in ], Darwin began an eight year study of ]s, becoming the leading expert on their classification. Using his theory, he discovered ] showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and he found an ] in the evolution of ].<ref name=bowl169>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=169–173}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his ''Beagle''-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that ], as on islands, to an emphasis on ]; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ]s. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in ] breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son ]) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.<ref name=bowl169/><ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=138–142}}</ref> | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Publication== | |||
| {{main|Publication of Darwin's theory}} | |||
| ===Events leading to publication=== | |||
| ] in 1862]] | |||
| An 1855 paper on the "introduction" of species, written by ], claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of species and fossils could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species.<ref>{{citation | last=Wallace | first=Alfred R. | title=On the law which has regulated the introduction of new species |journal= Annals and Magazine of Natural History, including Zoology, Botany, and Geology | year=1855 | volume=16 | pages=184–196 | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A11&pageseq=1}}</ref> ] recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in the spring of 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. He decided he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. On 14 May 1856, he began a "sketch" account, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species.<ref name=Quammen135-158>{{Harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=135–158}}</ref> | |||
| Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on '']'', when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who was working in ]. It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory.<ref name=Quammen135-158/> Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed".<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-2285.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2285—Darwin to Lyell (June 1858)|accessdate=2008-03-15}}</ref> Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint paper should be presented at the ], and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled '']'', by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the ] practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to ], and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=74–75}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=162–163}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=175–176}}</ref> | |||
| On 20 July 1858, Darwin started work on an "abstract" trimmed from his ''Natural Selection'', writing much of it from memory. Lyell made arrangements with publisher ], who agreed to publish the manuscript sight unseen and to pay Darwin two-thirds of the net proceeds. Darwin had initially decided to call his book ''An abstract of an Essay/on the/Origin/of/Species and Varieties/Through natural selection/'', but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: ''On the Origin of Species'', with the title page adding ''by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''. Here the term ''"]"'' is used as an alternative for ''"]"'' and does not carry the modern connotation of ]—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}</ref> | |||
| ===Time taken to publish=== | |||
| By December 1838, Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work", yet when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858 Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It is commonly thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public, and scholars have suggested various reasons, including fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. ] caused repeated delays. His paper on ] had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. ] has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.<ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=84–92}}</ref> | |||
| A more recent study by science historian ] has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another he had been researching, and he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. While he firmly intended to publish, it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full time. His estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years was optimistic.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007}}</ref> | |||
| ===Publication and subsequent editions=== | |||
| ''On the Origin of Species'' was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen ]s. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for ] copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale.<ref name="Freeman 1977">{{harvnb|Freeman|1977}}</ref> The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860,<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=}}</ref> and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from ], and the phrase "by the Creator" amended to the closing sentence.<ref name=b95/> During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, ''An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species'',<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1861|p=}}</ref> while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "]", which had been coined by the philosopher ] in his ''Principles of Biology'' (1864).<ref name=sotf>"This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life." {{harvnb|Spencer|1864|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| In January 1871, ]'s ''On the Genesis of Species'' listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false ].<ref name=miv>{{harvnb|Mivart|1871}}</ref> Darwin made revisions to the sixth edition of the ''Origin'', using the word "evolution" for the first time,<ref>Used in the transformist sense by ] in 1832, '']'' vol 2, p. 11; and previously by Darwin in the '']'' in 1871.</ref> and added a new chapter VII, ''Miscellaneous objections'', to address Mivart's arguments.<ref name=6th>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=577, 582, 590, 592–593}}; {{harvnb|Freeman|1977}}</ref> The sixth edition was published by Murray on 19 February 1872 with "On" dropped from the title. Darwin had told Murray of working men in ] clubbing together to buy the 5th edition at fifteen shillings and wanted it made more widely available; the price was halved to 7] 6] by printing in a smaller ]. It includes a glossary compiled by W.S. Dallas. Book sales increased from 60 to 250 per month.<ref name=6th/> | |||
| ===Publication outside Great Britain=== | |||
| ] | |||
| In the United States, ] negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international ] to print ''Origin''.<ref name=Letter2592>{{Citation |url= http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-2592.html#mark-2592.f3 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2592—Darwin, C. R. to Gray, Asa, 21 Dec (1859) |format= |work= |accessdate=2008-12-06}}</ref> Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits.<ref name=Letter2665>{{Citation |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-2665.html#back-mark-2665.f9 |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2665—Darwin, C. R. to Gray, Asa, 28 Jan (1860) |accessdate=2008-12-06}}</ref> Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with ] of New York,<ref name=Letter2706>{{Citation |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-2706.html |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2706—Gray, Asa to Darwin, C. R., 20 Feb 1860 |accessdate=2008-12-06}}</ref> who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.<ref name="Freeman 1977"/><ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=492}}</ref> | |||
| The book was widely translated in Darwin's life time, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda.<ref name=browne256/> Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist ], but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to '']''.<ref name=browne140>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=140–142}}</ref> In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack.<ref name=correspondence1862/> Darwin corresponded closely with ], who published an improved translation in 1867.<ref name=correspondence1866>{{Citation |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/32/38/ |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 14: 1866 |accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref> Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by ] published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating ] and ], as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions.<ref name=correspondence1862>{{Citation |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/28/38/ |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 10: 1862 |format= |work= |accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref><ref name=browne142>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=142–144}}</ref> He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876.<ref name="Freeman 1977"/> In 1864, translations were published in Dutch, Italian and Russian.<ref name=browne256>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=256–259}}</ref> In Darwin's lifetime, ''Origin'' was published in Swedish in 1869, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.<ref name=free101>{{harvnb|Freeman|1977|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| ==Content== | |||
| ===Title pages and introduction=== | |||
| ]'s illustration of ] was published in 1841. The existence of two rhea species with overlapping ranges influenced Darwin.]] | |||
| Page ii contains quotations by ] and ] on the theology of ],<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=.}}</ref> harmonising science and religion in accordance with ]'s belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos.<ref name=scicreate>{{harvnb|Phipps|1983}}</ref> In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from ] affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through ], in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends.<ref name=b95>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=95–96}}</ref> The ''Introduction'' establishes Darwin's credentials as a naturalist and author,<ref>{{harvnb|Secord|2000|p=510}}</ref> then refers to ]'s letter suggesting that the origin of species "would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process":<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p=197}}</ref> | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| WHEN on board H.M.S. 'Beagle,' as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species—that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=.}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species ], and to that of the ]s and ]s. He mentions his years of work on his theory, and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion which led him to "publish this Abstract" of his incomplete work. He outlines his ideas, and sets out the essence of his theory: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=.}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Starting with the third edition, Darwin prefaced the introduction with a historical sketch that traced the development of evolutionary ideas.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1861|p=.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=1}}</ref> | |||
| ===Variation under domestication and under nature=== | |||
| Chapter I covers ] and ], going back to ]. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by ].<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=7}}</ref> As an illustration of ], he describes ] breeding,<ref name=q184/> noting that "he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of ].<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons).<ref name=rez>David Reznick (2009) ''The Origin Then and Now'', Princeton University Press, p.49.</ref> Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution. | |||
| In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between ] and ] is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that "a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species" and that "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=.}}</ref> | |||
| He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=44}}</ref> Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the ] of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.<ref name=q184>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=184–186}}</ref> | |||
| ===Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence=== | |||
| In Chapter III, Darwin asks how varieties "which I have called incipient species" become distinct species, and in answer introduces the key concept he calls "]";<ref name=dar5960>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> in the fifth edition he adds, "But the expression often used by Mr. ], of the ], is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1869|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring ... I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection.<ref name=dar5960/><br /> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| He notes that both ] and ] had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasises that he used the phrase "struggle for existence" in "a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another"; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: "It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms." He discusses checks to such increase including complex ] interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| Chapter IV details natural selection under the "infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}</ref> Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| But how, it may be asked, can any analogous principle apply in nature? I believe it can and does apply most efficiently, from the simple circumstance that the more diversified the descendants from any one species become in structure, constitution, and habits, by so much will they be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of nature, and so be enabled to increase in numbers.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Historians have remarked that here Darwin anticipated the modern concept of an ].<ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|p=189}}</ref> He did not suggest that every favourable variation must be selected, nor that the favoured animals were better or higher, but merely more adapted to their surroundings. | |||
| ] | |||
| Darwin proposes ], driven by competition between males for mates, to explain ] features such as lion manes, deer antlers, peacock tails, bird songs, and the bright plumage of some male birds.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> He analysed sexual selection more fully in '']'' (1871). Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species, but given the effectiveness of artificial selection, he could "see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection". Using a ] and calculations, he indicates the "divergence of character" from original species into new species and genera. He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred, while new branches formed in "the great ] ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=.}}</ref> | |||
| ===Variation and heredity=== | |||
| In Darwin's time there was no agreed-upon model of ];<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=85}}</ref> in Chapter I Darwin admitted, "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}</ref> He accepted a version of the ] (which after Darwin's death came to be called ]), and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse; he wrote that he thought "there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited", and that this also applied in nature.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=.}}</ref> Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse, such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects, might be produced by natural selection. In later additions of ''Origin'', Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations, but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors.<ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=86–87}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> However, one thing was clear: whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations, Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection.<ref name=rez /> The ''observation'' that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of ''understanding'' of the underlying hereditary mechanism. | |||
| It was not until the ] in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation. Some histories of evolution and genetics, written by scientists rather than historians, have claimed that the lack of an adequate model of heredity caused suspicion of the theory of natural selection. Historians of science, however, have documented that this was not the source of most 19th century objections to Darwin, and that later scientists, such as the ] school, developed models of evolution by natural selection with a "blending" model of heredity like that used by Darwin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bowler|1989}}</ref> | |||
| ===Difficulties for the theory=== | |||
| Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed. Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> The rest of the chapter deals with whether natural selection could produce complex specialised structures, and the behaviours to use them, when it would be difficult to imagine how intermediate forms could be functional. Darwin said: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| Secondly, is it possible that an animal having, for instance, the structure and habits of a bat, could have been formed by the modification of some animal with wholly different habits? Can we believe that natural selection could produce, on the one hand, organs of trifling importance, such as the tail of a giraffe, which serves as a fly-flapper, and, on the other hand, organs of such wonderful structure, as the eye, of which we hardly as yet fully understand the inimitable perfection?<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional. He presented ], and ] as examples of how bats might have evolved from non-flying ancestors.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment, as examples of how the ]. Darwin concludes: "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees which make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| Finally, it may not be a logical deduction, but to my imagination it is far more satisfactory to look at such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, —ants making slaves, —the larvæ of ichneumonidæ feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars, —not as specially endowed or created instincts, but as small consequences of one general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII (renumbering the subsequent chapters) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions, including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection. He said some such features could have been by-products of adaptive changes to other features, and that often features seemed non-adaptive because their function was unknown, as shown by his book on '']'' that explained how their elaborate structures facilitated pollination by insects. Much of the chapter responds to ]'s criticisms, including his claim that features such as ] filters in whales, ] with both eyes on one side and the camouflage of ] could not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate stages would not have been adaptive. Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| ===Geologic record=== | |||
| Chapter IX deals with the fact that the ] appears to show forms of life suddenly arising, without the innumerable ]s expected from gradual changes. Darwin borrowed ]'s argument in '']'' that the record is extremely imperfect as ]isation is a very rare occurrence, spread over vast periods of time; since few areas had been geologically explored, there could only be fragmentary knowledge of ], and fossil collections were very poor. Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species. Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history, but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms.<ref name=bowl182>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=182}}</ref><ref name=punkeek>{{Citation |url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/punc-eq.html#pe-vs-pg |title=Punctuated Equilibria |author=Wesley R. Elsberry |authorlink=Wesley R. Elsberry |date=1996 |accessdate=2009-04-30}}</ref> To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly, he again cited ''Principles of Geology'' and other observations based on sedimentation and erosion, including an estimate that erosion of ] had taken 300 million years.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil-bearing layers, now known as the ], posed a problem. Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures, but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> Fossil evidence of ] life has since been found, extending the history of life back for billions of years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schopf|2000}}</ref> | |||
| Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at ] – some organisms such as ] were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment.<ref name=darX/> This distanced his theory from ] laws of inevitable progress.<ref name=bowl182/> It has been argued that this anticipated the ] hypothesis,<ref name=punkeek/><ref>{{harvnb|Rhodes|1987}}</ref> but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=108}}</ref> He cited ]'s findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor.<ref name=bowl182/> Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and ] had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.<ref name=darX>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| ===Geographic distribution=== | |||
| Chapter XI deals with evidence from ], starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the ] was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. He went on to say: "On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| Chapter XII continues the discussion of biogeography. After a brief discussion of freshwater species, it returns to oceanic islands and their peculiarities; for example on some islands roles played by mammals on continents were played by other animals such as flightless birds or reptiles. The summary of both chapters says: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| ... I think all the grand leading facts of geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration (generally of the more dominant forms of life), together with subsequent modification and the multiplication of new forms. We can thus understand the high importance of barriers, whether of land or water, which separate our several zoological and botanical provinces. We can thus understand the localisation of sub-genera, genera, and families; and how it is that under different latitudes, for instance in South America, the inhabitants of the plains and mountains, of the forests, marshes, and deserts, are in so mysterious a manner linked together by affinity, and are likewise linked to the extinct beings which formerly inhabited the same continent ... On these same principles, we can understand, as I have endeavoured to show, why oceanic islands should have few inhabitants, but of these a great number should be endemic or peculiar; ...<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ===Classification, morphology, embryology, rudimentary organs=== | |||
| Chapter XIII starts by observing that classification depends on species being grouped together in a multilevel system of groups and sub groups based on varying degrees of resemblance. After discussing classification issues, Darwin concludes: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| All the foregoing rules and aids and difficulties in classification are explained, if I do not greatly deceive myself, on the view that the natural system is founded on descent with modification; that the characters which naturalists consider as showing true affinity between any two or more species, are those which have been inherited from a common parent, and, in so far, all true classification is genealogical; that community of descent is the hidden bond which naturalists have been unconsciously seeking, ...<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Darwin discusses ], including the importance of ]. He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}</ref> He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar ]. Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in ], are found only in embryonic stages. | |||
| ===Concluding remarks=== | |||
| The final chapter reviews points from earlier chapters, and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history. He ends with a passage that became well known and much quoted: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us ... Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|pp=}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ==Structure and style== | |||
| ===Nature and structure of Darwin's argument === | |||
| Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that ] had been the chief agent of change.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=}}</ref> He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from '']'', and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism.<ref name=sec/> Therefore the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary ].<ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=183–188}}</ref><ref name=bowl180>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=180–181}}</ref> | |||
| Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism. Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines, showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created.<ref name=bowl180/><ref>{{Harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=190, 200–201}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=88–89}}</ref> The structure of Darwin's argument showed the influence of ], whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a ''vera causa'' (true cause) if three things could be demonstrated: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=xvii}}</ref> | |||
| ===Literary style=== | |||
| The ''Examiner'' review of 3 December 1859 commented, "Much of Mr. Darwin's volume is what ordinary readers would call 'tough reading;' that is, writing which to comprehend requires concentrated attention and some preparation for the task. All, however, is by no means of this description, and many parts of the book abound in information, easy to comprehend and both instructive and entertaining."<ref name=sec/><ref>{{Harvnb|Crawford|1859}}</ref> | |||
| While the book was readable enough to sell, its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction. Unlike the still-popular ''Vestiges'', it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation, though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments.<ref name=sec>{{harvnb|Secord|2000|pp=508–511}}</ref> ] has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience, but noted that Darwin's literary style was uneven: in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read; in other places his writing was beautiful. Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics, and recommended the first edition.<ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=176–181}}</ref> James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay, it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on, which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail. He added that parts of ''Origin'' are dense, but parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=ix}}</ref> | |||
| ==Reception== | |||
| {{seealso|Reaction to Darwin's theory}} | |||
| ] or ] body emphasised his significance in transforming ideas, and contributed to widespread identification of ] with ].<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=376–379}}</ref>]] | |||
| The book aroused international interest<ref name=wyhe48>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008|pp=48–49}}</ref> and a widespread debate, with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications.<ref name=bowler177>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=177–180}}</ref> Much of the initial reaction was hostile, but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science. There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication '']'', which had been rejected by scientists,<ref name=wyhe48/> but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws.<ref name=wyhe>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2009}}</ref> The ''Origin of Species'' as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform. Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals, and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work, though it failed to match the continuing sales of ''Vestiges''.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=102–103}}</ref> | |||
| Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms, and the newly coined term '']'' was used to cover the whole range of ], not just his own ideas. By the mid 1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.<ref name=bowler177/> | |||
| In the final chapter, Darwin coyly hinted that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man",<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=}}. The recent documentary ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'' describes this as a "crazily coy throwaway line".</ref> but the first review claimed it made a creed of the "men from monkeys" idea from ''Vestiges''.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=87}}; {{harvnb|Leifchild|1859}}</ref> ] became central to the debate and was strongly argued by ] who featured it in his popular "working-men's lectures". Darwin did not publish his own views on this until 1871.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=207–209}}<br />{{harvnb|Huxley|1863}}</ref> The ] of ] conflicted with presumptions of ] and while this could be reconciled by ], other mechanisms implying more progress or purpose were more acceptable. ] had already incorporated ] into his popular philosophy of progressive ] human society. He popularised the terms ''evolution'' and '']'', and many thought Spencer was central to evolutionary thinking.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=203–207, 220–222}}</ref> | |||
| ===Impact on the scientific community=== | |||
| {{seealso|History of evolutionary thought}} | |||
| Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to ], but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of ''Vestiges'' had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented ] as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as ] were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the ] of ]'s '']'', while opponents held to the idealist school of ]'s ''Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences'', in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=179–180, 197–198}}</ref> Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying ] and ecology, including ] in 1860, and ] in 1862. ] presented research in 1861 that explained ] using natural selection. ] discussed evidence from his ] research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=183–184, 189}}</ref> | |||
| ] used illustrations to show that humans and apes had the same basic skeletal structure.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=208}}</ref>]] | |||
| Evolution had less obvious applications to ] and ], and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist ].<ref name="Bowler184-185">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=184–185}}</ref> Despite this, Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species, and questioned if Darwin's ] was sufficient without ] to cause ]. Huxley wanted science to be secular, without religious interference, and his article in the April 1860 '']'' promoted ] over natural theology,<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=105–106}}</ref><ref name=westminster>{{harvnb|Huxley|1860}}</ref> praising Darwin for "extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated" and coining the term "]" as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=184}}</ref> Huxley gained influence, and initiated the ], which used the journal '']'' to promote evolution and naturalism, shaping much of late Victorian science. Later, the German morphologist ] would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and ] could be used to reconstruct ].<ref name="Bowler184-185"/><ref>{{harvnb|Larson|2004|p=108}}</ref> | |||
| The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist ], an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=124–126}}</ref> Owen's review of the ''Origin'' in the April 1860 ''Edinburgh Review'' bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a ] plan in a continuous "ordained becoming", with new species appearing by natural birth. Others that rejected natural selection, but supported "creation by birth", included the ] who explained beauty in plumage by design.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=490–491, 545–547}}<br />{{harvnb|Secord|2003|p=512}}</ref> Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the ] meeting featuring the legendary ].<ref name=oed>{{Harvnb|Lucas|1979}}<br />{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=464–465, 493–499}}</ref> In two years of acrimonious public dispute which ] satirised as the "]" and parodied in '']'' as the "great hippopotamus test", Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=160–161}}</ref> Others, including ] and ], thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. Darwin published his own explanation in the '']'' (1871).<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=208–211, 214–216}}</ref> | |||
| ====Impact outside Great Britain==== | |||
| ] | |||
| Evolutionary ideas, although not natural selection, were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of ] in ] from ]'s '']'' and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy. ]'s alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. ] was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of ] and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of '']''.<ref name=browne140/><ref name=bowler186/> Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the ] was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in ]. Haeckel used ] extensively in his ], which embodied a progressive, almost linear model of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that ] laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching.<ref name="Bowler190_191">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=169–170, 190–192}}</ref> | |||
| ] promoted and defended ''Origin'' against those American naturalists with an idealist approach, notably ] who viewed every species as a distinct fixed unit in the mind of the Creator, classifying as species what others considered merely varieties. ] and ] reconciled this view with evolutionism in a form of ] involving recapitulation theory.<ref name=bowler186>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=186–187, 237, 241}}</ref> | |||
| French speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by ], but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism.<ref name=browne142/> The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the ] aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by ] and by ], who had the character Levin in his novel '']'' voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.<ref name=browne256/> | |||
| ====Challenges to natural selection==== | |||
| There were serious scientific objections to the process of ] as the key mechanism of evolution, including ]'s insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. His estimate that the ] allowed gradual evolution was disputed by ], who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years. Darwin accepted ], but ] calculated that as it mixed traits, natural selection could not accumulate useful traits. Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition. ] supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. In response, Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century.<ref name=miv/><ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=198–200, 234–236}}</ref> | |||
| By the mid 1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "]" included forms of "]" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of ] claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of ], that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called ]. It was thought that the rediscovery of ] invalidated Darwin's views.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=225}}</ref><ref name=Quammen205-234>{{Harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp=205–234}}</ref> | |||
| ===Religious attitudes=== | |||
| The book produced a wide range of religious responses at a time of changing ideas and increasing secularisation. The issues raised were complex and there was a large middle ground. ] meant that there was little opposition based on a literal reading of ],<ref name=bowl202>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=202–208}}</ref> but defence of the ] and ] was central to debates over the book in the English speaking world.<ref name=Dewey26>{{Harvnb|Dewey|1994|p=26}}</ref><ref name=Larson89-92>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=89–92}}</ref> | |||
| ] defended evolutionary ideas by arguing that the introduction of new species should be considered a natural rather than a miraculous process.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=139}}</ref>]] | |||
| Natural theology was not a unified doctrine, and while some such as ] were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book, others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful.<ref name=bowl202/> In the ], some ] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric ] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name=Darwinanddesign>{{citation |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |title=Darwin and design: historical essay |year=2007 |publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project |accessdate=2008-09-17}}</ref><ref>{{citation | url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-2534.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 2534—Kingsley, Charles to Darwin, C. R., 18 Nov 1859|accessdate=2009-04-11}}</ref> In the second edition of January 1860, Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence, which from then on read "life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one".<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1860|p=.}}</ref> While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted,<ref name=b95/> Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature,<ref>{{harvnb|Quammen|2006|p=119}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref> and even in the first edition there are several references to "creation".<ref>{{harvnb|Barlow|1963|p=.}}</ref> | |||
| ] praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=487–488, 500}}</ref> In America, ] argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or ''modus operandi'', of the first cause, design,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dewey|1994|p=27}}</ref> and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of ], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology''.<ref name=Darwinanddesign/><ref name=miles>{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Gray | first = Asa | author-link = Asa Gray | year = 1860 | title =Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology | periodical =Atlantic Monthly | publisher = Darwin Correspondence Project – Essay: Natural selection & natural theology | url =http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/84/69/ | accessdate=2009-04-11}}</ref> Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and ] was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as ] were favoured as being more compatible with purpose.<ref name=bowl202/> | |||
| Even though the book had barely hinted at ], it was at the centre of debate as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial ], and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans, or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind's position at the head of nature.<ref name=bowl202/> While many conservative theologians accepted evolution, ] argued in his 1874 critique "What is Darwinism?" that "]", defined narrowly as including rejection of design, was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design.<ref>{{harvnb|Forster|Marston|1999|pp=37–40}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hodge|1874|p=177}}</ref> Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin's text.<ref name=GrayWhatisDarwinism?>{{Citation | last = Gray | first = Asa | author-link = Asa Gray |date=May 28, 1874|title=What is Darwinism? | periodical =The Nation |publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/86/71/ |accessdate=2009-03-03}}</ref> By the early 20th century, four noted authors of '']'' were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution,<ref>{{harvnb|Forster|Marston|1999|pp=41–43}}</ref> but ] inspired the American ] which began in the 1920s. Some conservative ] writers and influential ]s opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early ]s had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area.<ref>{{harvnb|Bolwer|2003|pp=323–324}}</ref> The ] stated its ] in a ] which stated that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.<ref>{{Citation | author = Pius XII | year = 1950 | title = Humani Generis | publisher = Vatican| url =http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_12081950_humani-generis_en.html | accessdate=2009-06-08}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kreeft|2001|p=49}}</ref> | |||
| ==Modern influence== | |||
| ] based on ] analysis shows the ].]] | |||
| Various evolutionary theories proposed during "]" became untenable as more was learned about inheritance and ]. The full significance of ] was at last accepted in the 1930s and 1940s as part of the ]. During that synthesis biologists and statisticians, including ], ] and ], merged Darwinian selection with a statistical understanding of ].<ref name=Quammen205-234/> | |||
| ] continues to develop. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, with its tree like model of branching ], has become the unifying theory of the ]s. The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment. It makes sense of the ], ], parallels in ]nic development, ], ], ] and other fields, with unrivalled explanatory power; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as ] and agriculture.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html |title=Biography |date=21 January, 2009 |publisher=] |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=287–288, 295}}</ref> Despite the scientific consensus, there still remains a religious based political ] over how evolution is taught in schools, especially in the United States.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|Costa|2009|p=x}}</ref> | |||
| Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the ], about his life and work. The text of ''Origin'' itself has been subject to much analysis including a ], detailing the changes made in every edition, first published in 1959,<ref>{{Harvnb|Peckham|1959}}, recently reprinted.</ref> and a ], an exhaustive external index published in 1981.<ref>{{Harvnb|Quammen|2006|pp= 179, 271–283}}</ref> Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' and the bicentenary of Darwin's birth were scheduled for 2009. They celebrate the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.darwin200.org/what-is.html |title=Darwin 200: Celebrating Charles Darwin's bicentenary – What is Darwin200? |publisher=The ] |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|colwidth=25em}} | |||
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| | accessdate = 2008-11-22 }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = Phipps | |||
| | first = William E. | |||
| | year = 1983 | |||
| | title = Darwin, the Scientific Creationist | |||
| | url = http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1681 | |||
| | journal = Christian Century | |||
| | issue = September 14–21, 1983 | |||
| | pages = 809–811 | |||
| |accessdate=2007-01-11}} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = Peckham | |||
| | first = Morse (ed.) | |||
| | title = The Origin of Species: a variorum text | |||
| | edition = 2006 reprint | |||
| | year = 1959 | |||
| | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press. | |||
| | location = Philadelphia | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-8122-1954-8 | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = Quammen | |||
| | first = David | |||
| | authorlink = David Quammen | |||
| | year = 2006 | |||
| | title = The Reluctant Mr. Darwin | |||
| | publisher = Atlas Books | |||
| | place = New York | |||
| | isbn = 0-393-05981-2}} | |||
| *{{Citation | |||
| | last = Rhodes | |||
| | first = Frank H.T. | |||
| | author-link = Frank H.T. Rhodes | |||
| | publication-date =Saturday, November 06, 2004 | |||
| | date = June, 1987 | |||
| | year = 1987 | |||
| | title = Darwinian Gradualism and Its Limits: The development of Darwin's Views on the Rate and Pattern of Evolutionary Change | |||
| | periodical = Journal of the History of Biology | |||
| | series = Humanities, Social Sciences and Law | |||
| | publisher = Springer Netherlands | |||
| | volume = 20 | |||
| | issue = 2 | |||
| | pages = 139–157 | |||
| | url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/p7u22v726028j1t7/ | |||
| | doi = 10.1007/BF00138435 }} | |||
| *{{Citation | |||
| | last = Schopf | |||
| | first = J. William | |||
| | last2 = Scheibel | |||
| | first2 = Arnold B. | |||
| | year = 1997 | |||
| | title = The Origin and Evolution of Intelligence | |||
| | publication-place = Boston | |||
| | publisher = Jones and Bartlett | |||
| | isbn = 0-7637-0365-6 }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Schopf | |||
| | first= J. William | |||
| | year=2000 | |||
| | title= Solution to Darwin's dilemma: Discovery of the missing Precambrian record of life | |||
| | pmid= 10860955 | |||
| | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA | |||
| | volume= 97 | |||
| | pages= 6947–6953 | |||
| | doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.6947 | |||
| | url= http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=34368 | |||
| | accessdate= 2009-04-21 | |||
| | issue= 13 | |||
| | pmc= 34368 | |||
| }} | |||
| *{{Citation | |||
| | last = Secord | |||
| | first = James A. | |||
| | title = Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation | |||
| | place = Chicago | |||
| | publisher = University of Chicago Press | |||
| | year = 2000 | |||
| | isbn = 0-226-74411-6 }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = Spencer | |||
| | first = Herbert | |||
| | author-link = Herbert Spencer | |||
| | year = 1864 | |||
| | title = The Principles of Biology, Vol. 1 | |||
| | place = London | |||
| | publisher = Williams and Norgate | |||
| | url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRkRAAAAYAAJ }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = van Wyhe | |||
| | first = John | |||
| | title = Mind the gap: Did Darwin Avoid Publishing his Theory for Many Years? | |||
| | journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society | |||
| | volume = 61 | |||
| | pages = 177–205 | |||
| | year = 2007 | |||
| | doi = 10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171 | |||
| | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1 | |||
| | accessdate = 2009-01-05 }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = van Wyhe | |||
| | first = John | |||
| | year = 2008 | |||
| | title = Darwin: The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution | |||
| | place = London | |||
| | publisher = Andre Deutsch | |||
| | isbn = 0-233-00251-0 }} | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last = van Wyhe | |||
| | first = John | |||
| | year = 2009 | |||
| | title = Charles Darwin: Gentleman Naturalist: A Biographical Sketch | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html | |||
| | accessdate = 2009-06-06 }} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ===Documentaries=== | |||
| {{refbegin}} | |||
| ] (2009). "Life and Death". ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'', part three. BBC Two. | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| *] (2007). ''Darwin's Origin of Species: A Biography''. ISBN 978-0871139535 | |||
| ===Contemporary reviews=== | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Carpenter | |||
| | first= William Benjamin | |||
| | author-link = William Benjamin Carpenter | |||
| | year=1859 | |||
| | title= Darwin on the Origin of Species | |||
| | magazine= ] | |||
| | volume= 10 | |||
| | issue= December 1859 | |||
| | pages= 188–214 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A17&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. Published anonymously. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Gray | |||
| | first= Asa | |||
| | author-link= Asa Gray | |||
| | title= (Review of) The Origin of Species | |||
| | journal= ] | |||
| | year= 1860 | |||
| | issue= 1710: 4 August 1860 | |||
| | page= 161 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A213&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. Extract from ''Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences'' '''4''' (1860): 411–415. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Huxley | |||
| | first= Thomas Henry | |||
| | author-link = Thomas Henry Huxley | |||
| | title= Time and Life: Mr Darwin's "Origin of Species" | |||
| | journal= Macmillan's Magazine | |||
| | year= 1859 | |||
| | volume= 1 | |||
| | pages= 142–148 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A43&viewtype=image&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Huxley | |||
| | first= Thomas Henry | |||
| | title= Darwin on the Origin of Species | |||
| | journal= ] | |||
| | year= 1859 | |||
| | issue= 26 December 1859 | |||
| | pages= 8–9 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A166&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. Published anonymously. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Jenkin | |||
| | first= Fleeming | |||
| | author-link= Fleeming Jenkin | |||
| | title= (Review of) The Origin of Species | |||
| | journal= North British Review | |||
| | year= 1867 | |||
| | volume= 46 | |||
| | issue= June 1867 | |||
| | pages= 277–318 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A24&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. Published anonymously. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Murray | |||
| | first= Andrew | |||
| | author-link= Andrew Murray (botanist) | |||
| | title= On Mr Darwin's Theory of the Origin of Species | |||
| | journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh | |||
| | year= 1860 | |||
| | volume= 4 | |||
| | pages= 274–291 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A14&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Owen | |||
| | first= Richard | |||
| | author-link= Richard Owen | |||
| | title= Review of Darwin's Origin of Species | |||
| | journal= ] | |||
| | year= 1860 | |||
| | volume= 3 | |||
| | issue= April 1860 | |||
| | pages= 487–532 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A30&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. Published anonymously. | |||
| *{{citation | |||
| | last= Wilberforce | |||
| | first= Samuel | |||
| | author-link= Samuel Wilberforce | |||
| | title= (Review of) On the Origin of Species, by means of Natural Selection; or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life | |||
| | journal= ] | |||
| | year= 1860 | |||
| | volume= 108 | |||
| | issue= 215: July 1860 | |||
| | pages= 225–264 | |||
| | url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A19&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 | |||
| }}. Published anonymously. | |||
| *For further reviews, see {{citation |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/reviews.html |title=Darwin Online: Reviews & Responses to Darwin |author= |authorlink= |date=10 March 2009 |publisher=Darwin Online |accessdate=2009-06-18}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Commonscat|The Origin of Species}} | |||
| {{Wikisourcepar}} | |||
| {{Portal|Evolutionary biology|Tree_of_life.svg}} | |||
| *]: , bibliography of : <br />Both web pages provide links to text and images of all editions of ''The Origin of Species'', including translations in German, Danish, and Russian. | |||
| *, A short, accessible outline of the book. | |||
| *, full text with embedded audio. | |||
| * | |||
| *, University Library, Cambridge. | |||
| {{Darwin}} | |||
| {{evolution}} | |||
| {{featured article}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Origin Of Species, The}} | |||
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Revision as of 02:51, 24 November 2009
Why don’t you ask the kids at Tiananmen Square? Is there a reason why they were there?