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Silesia (-Latin, Polish: Śląsk, German: Schlesien, Czech: Slezsko) is a historical region in central Europe. Most of it is now within the borders of Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Silesia is located along the upper and middle Oder River (Odra) and along the Sudetes mountain range. In the local Silesian language or dialect, the region is called Ślonsk or Ślunsk. The largest city of Silesia is Wrocław.

The Polish portion of Silesia, which forms the larger bulk of the region, is now divided into the following voivodships (provinces):

• Greater Poland Voivodship
• Lesser Poland Voivodship
• Lower Silesian Voivodship
• Lubusz Voivodship
• Opole Voivodship
• Silesian Voivodship

The Opole and Silesian Voivodships are called Upper Silesia. The small portion in the Czech Republic known as Czech Silesia is joined with the northern part of Moravia and forms the Moravian-Silesian Region of that country, while the remainder forms a small part of the Olomouc Region. The German area of Silesia consists of the city of Görlitz and the Lower Silesian Upper Lusatia district in Saxony.

In the Middle Ages, Silesia was a Piast province, which became a possession of the Bohemian crown under the Holy Roman Empire and passed with that crown to the Austrian Habsburgs in 1526. In 1742, most of Silesia was seized by Frederick the Great of Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession. This part of Silesia constituted the Prussian provinces of Upper and Lower Silesia until 1945, when most of Silesia became part of Poland. The portion of Silesia that was retained by Austria is now within the borders of the Czech Republic.

Name of the region

One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, which most likely were a Vandalic people, who supposedly lived south of the Baltic Sea along the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula rivers in the 2nd century. When the Silingi moved from the area during the Migration Period, they left remnants of their society behind.

The most evident remnants are in the names of places, which were adopted (in Slavic form) by the new inhabitants, who were in fact Slavic (Polish Śląsk, Old Polish Śląžsk , Old Slavic *Sьlьąžьskъ , from Old Vandalic *Siling-isk ). These people became associated with the place, and were thenceforth known as Silesians (using a Latinized form of the name, Pol. Ślężanie), even though they had little in common with the original Silingi. Archeological finds from the 7th and 8th centuries have also uncovered former largely populated areas, protected by a dense system of fortifications from the west and south. The lack of such systems from the north or east supports the notion that Silesia was part of a larger state populated by early Slavic tribes.

History

Early people

Silesia was inhabited by various people that belonged to changing archeological cultures in the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages.

According to Tacitus, in the 1st century Silesia was inhabited by a multi-ethnic league dominated by the Lugii/Lygii. The Silingi were also part of this federation, and most likely a Vandalic people that lived south of the Baltic Sea in the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula river area.

Middle Ages

Early documents mention a couple of mostly Slavic tribes most probably living in Silesia. The Bavarian Geographer (ca. 845) specifies the following peoples: the Slenzanie, Dzhadoshanie, Opolanie, Lupiglaa, and Golenshitse. A document of a bishopric from Prague (1086) also mentions the Zlasane, Trebovyane, Poborane, and Dedositze.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the territory later called Silesia was subject to Moravian, and then Bohemian rulers of the neighbouring area covered by today's Czech Republic to the south. About 990, Silesia was incorporated into Poland by Mieszko I (although some historians move this date to 999 and the rule of Boleslaus I, duke of the Polanie and later king of Poland). During Poland's fragmentation (1138–1320) into duchies ruled by different branches of the Piast dynasty, Silesia was ruled by descendants of the former royal family.

In 1146, senior duke Wladislaus II the Exile acknowledged the overlordship of the Holy Roman Empire over Poland, but was driven into exile. Seventeen years later, in 1163, his two sons took possession of Silesia with imperial backing, dividing the land between them as dukes of Lower and Upper Silesia. Thus they created two main Piast lines in Silesia (Wrocławska of Wrocław) and Opolsko-Raciborska (of Opole and Racibórz). The policy of subdivision continued under their successors, with Silesia being divided into 16 principalities by the 1390s.

In 1241, the region experienced the Mongol invasion of Europe. After raiding Lesser Poland, the Mongols invaded Silesia and caused widespread panic and mass flight. They looted much of the region, but abandoned their siege of the castle of Wrocław, supposedly after being fended off by Blessed Cheslav's "miraculous fireball." They then annihilated the combined Polish and German forces at the Battle of Legnica, which took place at Legnickie Pole near modern Legnica. Upon the death of Ögedei Khan, the Mongols chose not to press forward further into Europe, but returned east to participate in the election of a new Grand Khan.

The ruling Silesian lords decided to rebuild their cities according to the latest administrative ideas. They founded or rebuilt some 160 cities and 1,500 towns and introduced the codified German city law (Magdeburg law) in place of the older, customary Polish laws. They also made up for the recent population loss by inviting new settlers, mostly Germans from the Holy Roman Empire. Since end of 13th century/beginning of 14th century, Silesian dukes invited many German settlers to improve their dukedoms. Germans settled mostly in cities, as did Jews and some Czechs. In the countryside, and especially in Upper Silesia, people with Polish origins dominated. With this, and with the ruling classes adopting German culture, the foundation for the ethnic tensions found later in Silesia were laid.

In the second half of the 13th century, various knightly orders also settled in Silesia – the Knights of the Red Star were the first, soon followed by the Hospitaller and the Teutonic Knights.

Many Piast dukes tried to reunite Silesia with Poland and even reunite Poland itself during the time of divisions. First significant attempts were made by the Silesian duke Henryk IV Probus, but he died in 1290 before realizing his goal. Next was the duke of Greater Poland, Przemysł II of Poland, who united two of original provinces and was crowned in 1295. However he was murdered in 1296. According to his will Greater Poland was supposed to be inherited by Duke Henryk Głogowski (Silesian dukedom of Głogów), who also had aspirations to unite Poland and even claimed the title Duke of Poland. However, most nobles of Greater Poland supported another candidate from the Kuyavian (Kujawska) line of Piasts, Duke Władysław Łokietek (Wladislaus I the Short). Łokietek eventually won the struggle because he had a broader support base. In the meantime, King Waclaw II of Bohemia decided to extend his rule and crowned himself as Polish king in 1302. The next half century was full of wars between Łokietek (later his son Casimir III the Great) and a coalition of Bohemians, Brandenburgers and Teutonic Knights trying to divide Poland. During this time most Silesian dukes, despite their ties with Poland, ruled small realms that were unable to unite with Poland and fell under Czech dominance or under Czech rule.

In 1335, Duke Henry VI of Wrocław and the Upper Silesian dukes recognized the overlordship of the king of Bohemia, John of Luxemburg. Finally in 1348 Polish king Kazimierz was forced to accept Czech dominance over most of Silesia. The last independent Piast duchies in Silesia ceased to exist in 1368. The Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty went extinct only in 1675, as Silesian lines of Piasts grdually died out between the 14th and 16th centuries: in 1335Wrocławska (of Wrocław), in 1368 Świdnicka (of Świdnica), in 1476 Oleśnicka (Oleśnica), in 1476 Głogowska (of Głogów), in 1504 Żagańska (of Żagań), in 1532 Opolska (of Opole), 1625 Cieszyńska (of Cieszyn) and in 1675 Brzesko-Legnicka (of Brzeg and Legnica).

From that time Silesia became a part of the Holy Roman Empire, as Bohemia was itself an autonomous part of it. Silesia remained part of the lands of the Bohemian crown until 1740, under kings from Czech, Polish and German dynasties. Under Emperor (and king of Bohemia) Charles IV, Silesia and especially Wrocław gained greatly in importance – many great buildings and large Gothic churches were built.

Between 1425 and 1435, devastation was caused by the Hussite Wars in Bohemia. The Hussites turned against the German population, and some regions, especially Upper Silesia, became Slavic-speaking again. Despite the widespread nature of the conflagration, Silesia remained largely Catholic.

Early Modern Period

Silesia continued to have very strong economic ties with Poland during the Renaissance period and beyond.

The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century took an early hold in Silesia, and most of the inhabitants became Lutheran. Many Reformation priests contributed to developing Polish culture and language in Silesia.

In 1526, King Ferdinand I made the formerly elected crown of Bohemia an inherited possession of the Habsburg dynasty. In 1537 the Piast duke Frederick II of Brzeg (Brieg) concluded a treaty with Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, whereby the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg would inherit the duchy upon the extinction of the Piasts, but the treaty was rejected by Ferdinand.

Since the beginning of the 17th century religious conflicts and wars between the supporters of reformation and counter-reformation, many Czech and Silesian protestants were seeking refuge in the tolerant Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Many thousands of them settled in Greater Poland, under the protection of powerful protestant magnates (e.g. Rafał Leszczyński). A very strong group of Czech Brethren settled in Leszno (e.g. Comenius). Protestant Silesians often circumvented restrictive laws by building their churches on the Polish side of border.

The second "Defenestration of Prague" in 1618 sparked the Thirty Years' War, caused by King Ferdinand II's attempts to restore Catholicism and stamp out Protestantism.

Czech Protestants were supported by their German counterparts and by Hungarian nobles. Bethlen Gabor's forces laid siege to Vienna and threatened to extend Transylvanian rule (and thus the Ottoman Empire) to Bohemia and Silesia. Polish nobles (at least verbally) supported the Czechs because the struggle of Czech and Hungarian nobles was viewed as a struggle of 'free' nobility against absolutist monarchs and thus resonated with the Polish szlachta's ideal of Golden Liberty. The nobles would not help to fight the Protestants, and the Sejm (Polish parliament) even forbade King Zygmunt III Waza to send Polish assistance to his allies, the Catholic Habsburgs. The devoutly Catholic Zygmunt sympathized with the Habsburgs, and while there was a matter of a defensive treaty, he had to decline Emperor Matthias's request (to be allowed to hire Commonwealth troops) because the Commonwealth was tired of wars with Sweden and wars with Muscovy and its relations with the Ottoman Empire were worsening.

Finally, Zygmunt III decided to help the Habsburgs only by sending a privately hired mercenary group called the Lisowczycy (also because they were unemployed after the wars with Muscovy and were plundering Lithuania like a plague) in late 1619, hoping to get back some parts of Silesia in exchange. Although the Lisowczycy's support would prove decisive during the Battle of White Mountain, Polish Wazas never received anything except a vague set of promises and several brides to keep them favourably inclined to the Habsburg dynasty.

During talks with Prince Władysław (future King of Poland, Władysław IV Waza), on his voyage to Silesia in mid-1619, the Emperor promised to agree to a temporary occupation of part of Silesia by Polish forces, which the Wazas hoped would later allow the incorporation of those areas into Poland. Some of the Silesian dukes – especially the remaining ones of the Piast dynasty – and the Bishop of Wrocław, Archduke Karol Habsburg, wanted to move under Commonwealth protection as well, hoping to avoid participation in the Thirty Years' War which was ravaging the Holy Roman Empire. As Karol's bishopric was nominally subordinated to the Polish archbishopric of Gniezno, he asked the Polish archbishop of Gniezno for mediation in talks with Zygmunt III about protection and subordination of his bishopric. In May 1619, Prince Władysław, invited by his uncle Archduke Bishop Karol, left Warsaw and started his voyage to Silesia (to Nysa?).

In July 1619 Czech Protestants rebelled against Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and offered the Bohemian crown to Frederick of Palatinate. On 27 September, probably on hearing the news, Władysław and Bishop Karol left Silesia in a hurry and on 7 October arrived in Warsaw. In December 1619, young Władysław's brother (born in 1613), Prince Karol Ferdynand was chosen by Bishop Karol as auxiliary bishop of Wrocław, which was confirmed by the Polish episcopate. The Bishopric of Wrocław returned to the rule of the Archbishopric of Gniezno in 1620, having before been practically independent, but until 1632 de facto rule was held in Warszaw by King Zygmunt III and not by the bishop or archbishop. Prince Karol Ferdynand was appointed Bishop of Wrocław in 1625.

However as the Habsburgs' situation improved, Emperor Ferdinand II did not agree to any concessions in Silesia, nor did he help in the war against the Ottoman Empire, in a large part not only provoked by Polish support for the Habsburgs, but actually supported by Habsburg secret agents in the Ottoman Empire.

Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor's proposal of marriage between Władysław and Archduchess Cecylia Renata (sister of future Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor) arrived in Warsaw sometime during the spring of 1636. The king's trusted clergyman, Father Walerian (of the Capuchin religious order) arrived in Regensburg (Polish: Ratyzbona) on 26 October 1636 with consent and performed negotiations. The archduchess's dowry was agreed to be 100,000 złoty. The Emperor promised to pay the dowries of both Zygmunt III's wives: Anna and Konstancja. Additionally, Władysław's and Cecylia Renata's son was to obtain the Duchy of Opole and Raciborz in Silesia (Księstwo Opolsko-Raciborskie). However before everything was confirmed and signed, Ferdinand II died and Ferdinand III balked at giving Władysław's son the Silesian duchy. Instead, the dowry was written/protected by the Bohemian estates of Trzeboń (Trebon). The marriage took place in 1637.

In 1638 Władysław proposed that his mother's and Zygmunt III's second wife's dowries, which still had not been paid, would be protected by one of the Silesian duchies (preferably Opolsko-Raciborskie). In 1642 he proposed to transfer to the Habsburgs his rights to the Swedish throne in exchange for giving him Silesia in deposit. Ludovico Fantoni, sent to Vienna in the summer of 1644, proposed to exchange Władysław's income from Bohemian estates in Treben for the duchies of Opolsko-Raciborskie and Cieszyńskie (of Cieszyn).

At the beginning of 1645, tired by the continued stalling of Vienna, Władysław told the Emperor's envoy to Warsaw, Maximilian Dietrichstein, that Poland would cooperate with Sweden – it was an open threat (that he could take Silesia with Swedish help, against the Emperor), confirmed by fact that on 6 March 1645 the Swedish general Lennart Torstensson defeated the Emperor's Bavarian and Saxon forces in the Battle of Jankov and began to march on Vienna. Now the Emperor was again ready for discussion and sent Johannes Putz von Adlertum to Warsaw in April 1645, giving him wide prerogatives in transferring rights of the Duchy of Opolsko-Raciborskie to Władysław's and Cecylia Renata's son, Zygmunt Kazimierz, as an hereditary fief.

Negotiations eventually ended with Habsburg success and Polish failure. The duchy was given not as an hereditary fief but as a 50-year deposit, and the owner was required to swear allegiance to the King of Bohemia (thus it could not be the Polish king), but Władysław would rule the duchy until his son was an adult. Additionally, Władysław promised to lend the Emperor 1,100,000 złoty (minus the amount of the three still unpaid dowries).

After the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, the Habsburgs greatly encouraged Catholicism and succeeded in reconverting about 60 % of the population of Silesia. By 1675, the last Silesian Piast rulers had died out.

In 1740, the annexation of Silesia by King Frederick II of Prussia (the Great) was welcomed by the Silesians, not only the Protestant population. Frederick based his claims on the Treaty of Brieg and began the War of the Austrian Succession which ended in 1748. At the end of this war, the Kingdom of Prussia had conquered almost all of Silesia (some parts of Silesia in the extreme southeast remained possessions of Austria), and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) only confirmed this result – Silesia became one of the most loyal provinces of Prussia. In 1815, the area around Görlitz was incorporated into the province in an administrative reform.

Silesia in Germany

Silesia became part of the German Empire when Germany was unified in 1871. There was considerable industrialization in Upper Silesia, and many people moved there at that time. The majority of the population of Lower Silesia was German-speaking and Lutheran, including the capital Wrocław, then known as Breslau. There were areas such as the District of Opole and parts of Upper Silesia, however, where a larger portion or even majority of the population was Polish-speaking and Roman Catholic. In Silesia as a whole, Poles comprised about 30% of the population. The Kulturkampf set Catholics in opposition to the government and sparked a Polish revival in the province. First conference of Hovevei Zion groups in Kattowitz, Silesia 1884.

After the defeat of the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in World War I the German and Austrian parts of Silesia were divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia. In the Treaty of Versailles, it was decided that the population of the German Upper Silesia should hold a plebiscite in order to determine the future of the province, with the exception of a 333 km² area around Hlučín, which was granted to Czechoslovakia in 1920 despite having a German majority. The plebiscite, organised by the League of Nations, was held in 1921. The outcome was 706,000 votes for Germany and 479,000 for Poland. In the southeastern areas that were the backbone of the economy and industry, there was a strong majority for Poland.

Between the wars

After the referendum, there were three Silesian Insurrections, instigated by Polish nationalists, as a result of which the League of Nations decided that the province should be split again and that the areas that had voted for Poland should become an autonomous area within Poland, organised as the Silesian Voivodship (Wojewodztwo Śląskie). One of the central political figures that drive for these changes was Wojciech Korfanty.

The Silesian Uprisings 1919-1921:

• First Silesian Uprising: 16 August-26 August 1919
• Second Silesian Uprising: 19 August-25 August 1920
• Third Silesian Uprising: 2 May-5 July 1921

The major part of Silesia, remaining with Germany, was then reorganised into the two Prussian provinces of Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia. In October of 1938, Cieszyn Silesia (the disputed area west of the Olza river, also called Zaolzie - 906 km² with 258,000 inhabitants), was retaken by Poland from Czechoslovakia, in accord with the Munich Agreement that annihilated Czechoslovakia.

Germany again took possession of these parts of Silesia in 1939, when the attack on Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War.

Silesia after WWII

In 1945, all of Silesia was occupied by the Soviet Red Army. By then a large portion of the German population had fled Silesia, but many returned after German capitulation. Under the terms of the agreements at the Yalta Conference of 1944 and the Potsdam Agreement of 1945, most of Silesia east of the rivers Oder (Odra) and Neisse (Nysa) was transferred to Poland. Most of the remaining Silesian Germans, who before World War II amounted to about 4 million, were forcibly expelled. A small part of western Silesia west of the Neisse (Nysa), including the major part of the city of Görlitz, remained part of the German Democratic Republic, and is now part of the Federal State of Saxony in the Federal Republic of Germany. Görlitz itself was divided along the river, its eastern part becoming the Polish city of Zgorzelec.

The industry of Silesia was rebuilt after the war, and the region was populated by Poles (mostly by Poles who were themselves expelled from lands annexed by the Soviet Union). Today, more than 20 % of the entire population of Poland lives in Silesia.

Natural resources

Silesia is a resource-rich and populous region. Coal and iron are both abundant, and a substantial manufacturing industry is present. In post-communist times, however, the outdated nature of many of the facilites has led to environmental problems. The region also has a thriving agricultural sector, which produces mainly grains, potatoes, and sugar beets.

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Demographics

Modern Silesia is inhabited mostly by Poles and Silesians, but also by minorities of Germans, Czechs, and Moravians. The last Polish census of 2002 showed that the Silesians are the largest ethnic minority in Poland, Germans being the second — both groups are located mostly in Silesia. The Czech part of Silesia is inhabited by Czechs, Moravians, and Poles.

Before the Second World War, Silesia was inhabited by Germans, Poles, and Czechs. The 1905, a census showed that 75% of the population was German and 25% Polish. During and after World War II, most German-Silesians fled Silesia, were evacuated, expelled, or emigrated (see German exodus from Eastern Europe); most ethnic Silesians today live in Germany. In order to smooth their integration into German society, they were organized into officially recognized organisations, like the Landsmannschaft Schlesien, financed from the federal budget. One of its most notable but controversial spokesmen was the CDU politician Herbert Hupka. The prevailing public opinion in Germany is that these organisations will achieve reconciliation with the Polish Silesians, which is gradually happening.

Major cities in Silesia

• Brzeg
• Bytom
• Gliwice
• Głogów
• Görlitz
• Jelenia Góra
• Katowice
• Kłodzko
• Legnica
• Nysa
• Opava
• Opole
• Racibórz
• Wałbrzych
• Wrocław
• Zgorzelec
• Zielona Góra
• Żagań

See also

• List of Silesians
• Silesian uprisings
• Union of Poles in Germany

References

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External links

• Map of Silesia as of 2000

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• Regions of Poland
• Silesia
• States of the Holy Roman Empire