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Siegfried Frederick Singer (born 27 September 1924 in Vienna) is an American atmospheric physicist. Singer is Professor Emeritus of environmental science at the University of Virginia, specializing in planetary science, global warming, ozone depletion, and other global environmental issues.

In the 1960s Singer was a leading figure in the early development of earth observation satellites, becoming a Special Advisor on space developments to President Eisenhower and establishing the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center as well as becoming its first Director (1962-64). He has subsequently held a variety of academic and government positions, including Professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia (1971-94).

In the 1980s and 1990s Singer became associated in the public eye with a number of controversial issues, notably on global warming, on which he opposes the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change. In 1990 he started the Science & Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) as an independent 501(c)3 non-profit research institute, where he remains as its President.

Career

Singer received a B.E.E in Electrical engineering from Ohio State University in 1943; an A.M. in physics from Princeton in 1944; and a Ph.D in physics from Princeton in 1948. He received an honorary Doctorate of Science from Ohio State University in 1970.

In the 1940s and 50s Singer designed the first instruments used in satellites to measure cosmic radiation and ozone. He invented the backscatter photometer ozone-monitoring instrument for early versions of US weather satellites. By the early 1960s he was a leading figure in the early development of earth observation satellites, becoming a Special Advisor on space developments to President Eisenhower and establishing and becoming the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center (1962-64). He was recognised by President Eisenhower for his contribution to the early design of satellites, receiving a Special Commendation. Upon stepping down as the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center he also received a U.S. Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Federal Service.

In his career Singer has held a variety of government and academic positions. He was Director of the Center for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Maryland, College Park (1953-62) and the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center (1962-64). He was the founding Dean of the School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences, University of Miami (1964-67), and later Professor of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia (1971-94).

Singer has also held a variety of government positions. He was Special Advisor to President Eisenhower on space developments (1960). In the late 1960s and early 70s he was Deputy Assistant Secretary for Water Quality and Research, U.S. Department of the Interior (1967-70), and Deputy Assistant Administrator for Policy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1970-71). Later he was Chief Scientist, United States Department of Transportation (1987-89). Singer has also been a consultant to the House Select Committee on Space, NASA, GAO, NSF, AEC, NRC, DOD (Strategic Defense Initiative), US DOE Nuclear Waste Panel, the US Treasury, and the state governments of Virginia, Alaska, and Pennsylvania.

Consulting

Singer has been a consultant to various major corporations, including GE, Ford, GM, Exxon, Shell, Sun Oil, Lockheed Martin and IBM.

A 2007 Newsweek cover story on climate change denial reported that: "In April 1998 a dozen people from the denial machine — including the Marshall Institute, Fred Singer's group and Exxon — met at the American Petroleum Institute's Washington headquarters. They proposed a $5 million campaign, according to a leaked eight-page memo, to convince the public that the science of global warming is riddled with controversy and uncertainty." The plan was reportedly aimed at "raising questions about and undercutting the 'prevailing scientific wisdom'" on climate change. According to Newsweek, the plan was leaked to the press and therefore was never implemented. ABC News has reported that Singer insists he is not on the payroll of the energy industry, but admits he once received an unsolicited $10,000 from Exxon. Singer subsequently stated that his purported "connection" to ExxonMobil was more like being on their mailing list than to holding a paid position, pointing out that this single charitable donation comprised a tiny fraction (1%) of all donations received.

In 1994 Singer was the Principal Reviewer of a report authored by Kent Jeffreys titled Science, economics, and environmental policy: a critical examination which was published by the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution (AdTI), a right wing think tank of which he was a Senior Fellow. The report attacked the United States Environmental Protection Agency for their 1993 study about the cancer risks of passive smoking and called it "junk science". Singer also appeared on a tobacco industry list of people who could write op-ed pieces defending the industry’s views, according to a peer-reviewed commentary by Derek Yacht and Stella Aguinaga Bialous. Writing for The Guardian, George Monbiot stated that in 1993 APCO, a public relations firm, sent a memo to Philip Morris vice-president Ellen Merlo stating: "As you know, we have been working with Singer and Dr. Dwight Lee, who have authored articles on junk science and indoor air quality (IAQ) respectively ..." Monbiot wrote that he did not have direct evidence that Singer had been paid by Philip Morris.

Views

In the 1980s and 1990s Singer became associated in the public eye with a number of controversial issues, including global warming. Singer has been described as a climate contrarian by advocacy groups, the media,, and authors of books and journal articles. He worked with the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy in the 1980s, before starting the Science & Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) in 1990 as an offshoot. He is the President of SEPP.

Singer is skeptical of scientific findings on human-induced global warming, the connection between CFCs and ozone depletion, and the link between second hand smoke and lung cancer. Singer has also worked with organizations with similar views, such as the Independent Institute, the American Council on Science and Health, Frontiers of Freedom, the Marshall Institute, and the National Center for Policy Analysis,.

Global warming

Singer said that "Climate change is a natural phenomenon. Climate keeps changing all the time. The fact that climate changes is not in itself a threat, because, obviously, in the past human beings have adapted to all kinds of climate changes." He also noted that the urban heat island effect influences surface temperatures, and later in 2003, he asserted that the warming from surface thermometer data was contradicted by satellite and radiosonde data etc. Singer has emphasized natural factors over anthropogenic causes to explain global warming and he wrote:

The Earth currently is experiencing a warming trend, but there is scientific evidence that human activities have little to do with it. Instead, the warming seems to be part of a 1,500-year cycle (plus or minus 500 years) of moderate temperature swings.

Singer has critiqued other scientists' research in Eos, December 16, 1997. Singer co-authored two 2004 articles in Geophysics Research Letters. In 2007, studies Singer co-authored found tropospheric temperature trends of 'Climate of the 20th Century' models differed from satellite observations by twice the model mean uncertainty. Models of layers near 5 km were 100% to 300% higher than observation, and above 8 km models and observations had opposite signs. He is the co-author of Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years with Dennis T. Avery of the Hudson Institute.

NIPCC

In 2008, Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project completed the organization of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC) as the culmination of a process that began in 2003. "The foundation for NIPCC," stated Singer, "was laid ... when a small group of scientists from the United States and Europe met in Milan during one of the frequent UN climate conferences." The Heartland Institute says that "It was not until a workshop with many more scientists, from both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, was held in Vienna in 2007 that the NIPCC organizational effort formally began, however".

According to the abstract of the 2008 Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change, the result of The 2008 International Conference on Climate Change (ICCC) held in New York City, the NIPCC is

"an international coalition of scientists convened to provide an independent examination of the evidence available on the causes and consequences of climate change in the published, peer-reviewed literature – examined without bias and selectivity. It includes many research papers ignored by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), plus additional scientific results that became available after the IPCC deadline of May 2006."

The 2008 NIPCC document titled Nature, Not Human Activity Rules the Climate: Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel of Climate Change, published by The Heartland Institute, was released in February-March 2008. Singer served as General Editor and also holds the copyright.

According to the NIPCC's Climate Change Reconsidered, 2009 Report of the Nongovernmental Panel on Climate Change, this 2008 NIPCC Summary for Policymakers was based on an unfinalized report that was the culmination of the New York City meeting of the ICCC. Before the 2008 NIPCC final report was formally concluded, the draft was subject to an "extensive collection of reviews of scientific research" and culminated in Climate Change Reconsidered which represents a "major expansion" of the 2008 NIPCC draft final report and the "completion of the full NIPCC report, the two documents now stand on their own as independent scholarly works."

Climate scientists from NASA, Stanford University and Princeton who were contacted by ABC News dismissed the same report as "fabricated nonsense.". In response, Singer objected to the ABC News piece, calling it "an appalling display of bias, unfairness, journalistic misbehavior, and a breakdown of ethical standards" which used "prejudicial language, distorted facts, libelous insinuations, and anonymous smears."

The Great Global Warming Swindle

In March 2007, Singer appeared in the controversial documentary film The Great Global Warming Swindle which asserted that the mainstream view on global warming was "a lie" and "the biggest scam of modern times". On the program, Singer imputed to the Chief Scientific Advisor of the United Kingdom, Sir David King the view that "by the end of the century the only habitable place on the earth will be the Antarctic. And humanity may survive thanks to some breeding couples who moved to the Antarctic". Singer then commented "It would be hilarious if it weren't so sad."

The program was the subject of over 200 complaints to the British television regulator Ofcom including one from Sir David King. Sir David complained that he had made no reference to "breeding couples" and that the program had exaggerated his statements by changing his words from "most habitable" to "only habitable". As part of their defense, Channel 4 provided examples of media reports from the time of King's remarks which had imputed to him statements such as "Antarctica is likely to be the world’s only habitable continent by the end of this century ... the rest of the globe could not sustain human life" while noting that those statements had gone unchallenged for nearly 3 years prior to the program being broadcast. Other evidence showed that Singer had apparently conflated King's remarks with similar remarks made by Sir James Lovelock, specifically "Before this century is over, billions of us will die, and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable." Ofcom upheld King's claim of unfair treatment in the program since he had not been provided an opportunity to respond as required by broadcast rules.

1991 Revelle paper

In 1991 Singer co-authored a paper with renowned oceanographer Roger Revelle and risk analysis expert Chauncey Starr. The paper shared part of its title and substantial material with a paper Singer had sole-authored the year before. Revelle died a few months after the paper was published. Several years later Justin Lancaster, a former associate of Revelle's, asked for Revelle's name to be dropped from a proposed republication of the 1991 paper, alleging that Revelle's contribution was so small as to not justify co-authorship. Some other scientists, such as Walter Munk, shared some of Lancaster's concerns, with Munk writing in 1992 that "S. Fred Singer wrote the paper and, as a courtesy, added Roger as a co-author based upon his willingness to review the manuscript and advise on aspects relating to sea-level rise." Lancaster's efforts to have Revelle's name dropped resulted in a libel suit in April 1993, which Lancaster conceded in 1994.

UV-A, melanoma, and stratospheric ozone

Singer has stated there is a connection between UV-A and melanoma, as well as between the shorter-wavelength UV-B radiation and basal and squamous cell skin cancers. However, he believes that there is "no clear relation" between UV-B and melanoma rates, based on published research in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences regarding UV-B radiation and melanoma Singer has variously suggested there is no connection between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss, and that no significant ozone loss is occurring.

Satellites and space exploration

In 1960, Singer was one of several scientists who speculated that the Martian moon Phobos was artificial in origin. The claim was based on the erroneous conclusion that Phobos was hollow. Later observations demonstrated conclusively that Phobos was not hollow, rendering the artificial origin speculation moot.

In 1981, he proposed a manned mission to the Martian moons. Singer cited the following benefits of a manned mission to Mars' moons over a further delayed direct landing on Mars:

• Minimal Δv’s needed to reach Phobos’s surface.
• Ability to monitor Mars from a stable platform in low Mars orbit (LMO).
• Ability to teleoperate robots on Mars without significant time delay.
• Opportunity to advance the scientific investigation of small bodies.
• Potential of finding H2O on Phobos which might be used as a resource.

Singer also has been a proponent of manned exploration to Mars.

In 1994, Singer contributed to a paper on the results from the Interplanetary Dust Experiment using data from the Long Duration Exposure Facility satellite.

Kuwait oil fires debate

During Operation Desert Storm in 1991, Singer debated Carl Sagan on the impact of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program Nightline. Sagan said we know from the nuclear winter investigation that the smoke could loft into the upper atmosphere and that he believed the net effects could be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the year without a summer, in massive agricultural failures, in very serious human suffering and, in some cases, starvation. He predicted the same for south Asia, and perhaps for a significant fraction of the northern hemisphere as well as a result. Singer, on the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go to an altitude of about 3,000 feet and then be rained out after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke would be limited.

The Kuwaiti oil field fires had little environmental or climatic effect beyond the Gulf region and no measurable ill effects globally. Sagan conceded in his book The Demon-Haunted World that this prediction did not turn out to be correct: "it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4°-6°C over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared." , and several sources concluded that lack of predicted and modeled global climatic cooling indicates that Singer was correct in his hypothesis

Publications

• Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate: Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change", Edited by S. Fred Singer, copyright SEPP, published for the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change by "The Heartland Institute", March 2008.
• (with Dennis T Avery) Unstoppable Global Warming Every 1500 Years. Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. 260 pp ISBN 0742551172
• S. Fred Singer, The Changing Global Environment. Springer, 1975. 431 pp ISBN 978-9027703859
• S. Fred Singer, ed. Global Effects of Environmental Pollution. Springer, 1970. 232 pp ISBN 978-9027701510 Amazon.com listing PDF preview of book
• Climate Change Reconsidered: 2009 Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC), Craig Idso, S. Fred Singer, The Heartland Institute, 2009.

See also

• List of scientists opposing global warming consensus

Notes and references

1. ^ Singer, S. Fred. "Professional Background S. FRED SINGER, Ph.D." SEPP. Retrieved 2007-11-07.
2. ^ Lehr, Jay H. (1992). Rational Readings on Environmental Concerns. John Wiley And Sons. p. 393. ISBN 0471284858.
3. Harris, Paul G. (2001). The Environment, International Relations, and U.S. Foreign Policy. Georgetown University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0878408339.
4. Hogan, James P. (2005). Catastrophes, Chaos & Convolutions. Baen Books. ISBN 1416509216.
5. Lal, Deepak (1990). The Limits of International Co-operation. Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA). ISBN 0255362269.
6. ^ Levy, Lillian (1973). Space, Its Impact on Man and Society. Ayer Publishing. xiii. ISBN 0836981642. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
7. ^ Singer, S. Fred (1975). The Changing Global Environment. Springer Publishers. p. 401. ISBN 9027704023.
9. ^ The EPA and the science of environmental tobacco smoke /
10. The Truth About Denial, by Sharon Begley. Published in Newsweek on August 13, 2007; accessed November 8, 2007.
11. Harris, Dan (2008-03-23). "Global Warming Denier: Fraud or 'Realist'?". ABC News. ABCnews.com. Retrieved 2008-03-24. Singer insists he is not on the payroll of the energy industry, but stated he once accepted an unsolicited check from Exxon for $10,000. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
12. ^ Singer, S. Fred (2008-03-28). "Letter to ABC News from Dr. S. Fred Singer". News Releases > March 2008. Science & Environmental Policy Project. Retrieved 07/08/2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
13. Gifford, Adam (1 June 2004). "Computer Associates adopts Linux for Ingres database". New Zealand Herald.
14. Jeffreys, Kent (11 August 1994). "Science, economics, and environmental policy: a critical examination" (pdf). Alexis de Tocqueville Institution. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
15. Yach, Derek (2001). "Junking Science to Promote Tobacco" (PDF). Vol 91, No. 11. American Journal of Public Health. pp. 1745–1748. Retrieved 2008-08-16. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
16. Monbiot, George (2006-09-19). "The denial industry". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
17. "AIA News" (PDF).
18. Mooney, Kevin (2007-03-15). "Scientist Calls Global Warming Theories 'Bunk,' Cites Errors of Logic". CNS News. reprint
19. Begley, Sharon (2007-08-13). "The Truth About Denial". Newsweek. Retrieved 2009-10-15.
20. Brook, Barry (2007-07-12). "Don't be swindled". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 2009-10-15.
21. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.01.008 , please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.01.008 instead.
22. Mooney, Chris (2005). The Republican War on Science. Basic Books. ISBN 0465046754. page 61
23. Gelbspan, Ross (2006). "From "The Heat Is On"". In Chehoski, Robert (ed.). Critical Perspectives on Climate Disruption. Critical Anthologies of Nonfiction Writing. Rosen Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4042-0539-0. page 17
24. Singer, S. Fred (2000). "Global Warming: Unfinished Business". SEPP. Retrieved 2009-10-15.
25. Singer, S. Fred (1999-01-10). "Parting green clouds". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
26. Singer, S. Fred (2006-11-22). "Public misled". Retrieved 2007-02-26.
27. ^ Singer, S. Fred. "Five Scientific Questions On The CFC-Ozone Issue". SEPP. Retrieved 2009-10-16. Both theory and measurements suggests that hydrogen-containing molecules, not chlorine, are the main destruction agent for ozone in the lower stratosphere
28. Singer, S. Fred. "About the Project". SEPP. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
29. Singer, S. Fred (2006-07-22). "The Week That Was". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26. Surgeon General...attempts to demonstrate that secondhand smoke is a risk to health. His evidence is not convincing. We think he does not succeed.
30. S. Fred Singer: The Independent Institute
31. "Scientific advisors". American Council on Science and Health. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
32. "Frontiers of Freedom - Staff". archived link from 2003-12-15
33. Warming Caused by Natural Cycle | Not Humans | News | E-Team
34. Singer, S. Fred (2000). (Interview). Interviewed by Jon Palfreman http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/warming/debate/singer.html. Retrieved 2008-11-26. {{cite interview}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |callsign= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |program= ignored (help)
35. Singer, S. Fred (2003). "McLieberman Bill Unsupported By Science: Voted Down by Senate". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-04-23. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
36. Singer, S. Fred (2003). "EPA Bias on Global Warming". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-04-23. {{cite web}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
37. Singer, S. Fred (2005). "The Physical Evidence of Earth's Unstoppable 1,500-Year Climate Cycle" (PDF). SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
38. Unknowns About Climate Variability Render Treaty Targets Premature, EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Volume 78, page 584, December 16, 1997
39. See SEPP, "Further reading"
40. Douglass, David H. (2007). "A comparison of tropical temperature trends with model predictions" (PDF). International Journal of Climatology. 28: 1693. doi:10.1002/joc.1651. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
41. Douglass, David H. (2004). "Altitude Dependence of Atmospheric Temperature Trends: Climate Models vs Observation". Geophysical Research Letters. 31 (L13208). arXiv:physics/0407074v1 . {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
42. Singer, S. Fred; Avery, Dennis T. (2008). Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years, Updated Expanded edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 264. ISBN 0742551245.
43. Singer, S. Fred (2007-09-01-). "The Week that Was". SEPP. Retrieved 2008-05-09. Because of these omissions, which became evident from the initial drafts of AR4, the SEPP decided to set up a 'Team B' to produce an independent evaluation of the available scientific evidence. While the initial organization took place in 2004, Team B only became activated after the SPM appeared in February 2007; it changed its name to NIPCC and organized an international climate workshop in Vienna in April 2007. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
44. ^ Singer, Editor, S. Fred (2008-03-02). "Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate". Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change. Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change / The Heartland Institute. Retrieved 2008-05-08. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
45. Harriette Johnson and Joseph L. Bast (2008-05-05). "Climate Change Conference Invigorates Global Warming Debate". Environment News. The Heartland Institute. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
46. Report notice: Opinions expressed are solely those of the authors. Nothing in this report should be construed as reflecting the views of the Science and Environmental Policy Project or The Heartland Institute, or as an attempt to influence pending legislation.
47. ^ Singer, S. Fred; Idso, Craig (June 1, 2009). Climate Change Reconsidered, 2009 Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change. Heartland Institute. p. 880. ISBN 1934791288.
48. Harris, Dan (2008-03-23). "Global Warming Denier: Fraud or 'Realist'?". ABC News. ABCnews.com. Retrieved 2008-03-24. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
49. "Ofcom Broadcast Bulletin" (PDF). 2008-07-21. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
50. Singer, S. Fred; Starr, C.; Revelle, R. (1991). "What To Do About Greenhouse Warming: Look Before You Leap" (1). Cosmos: 28–33. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
51. Singer, S. Fred (1990, Environmental Science & Technology Vol. 24, No. 8, "What to do about greenhouse warming"
52. Walter H. Munk and Edward A. Frieman, Oceanography 5(2), "Let Roger Revelle Speak For Himself"
53. Fred Singer (2003), The Revelle-Gore Story: Attempted Political Suppression of Science, in Gough (2003 ed), Politicizing Science, Hoover Press.
54. Singer, S. Fred. "Environmental Strategies with Uncertain Science". Cato Institute. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
55. Singer, S. Fred (1995-02-01). "Lecture at St. Vincent College: The Use and Misuse of Science". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
56. Singer, S. Fred (1996-08-01). "Testimony in the U.S. House of Representatives, on Ozone Depletion". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
57. Singer, S. Fred (1994). "Ozone, Skin Cancer, and the SST". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
58. Singer, S. Fred (1994-03-21). "The hole truth about CFCs". SEPP. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
59. "Anthology of 1995's Environmental Myths"
60. Shklovsky, I. S.; The Universe, Life, and Mind, Academy of Sciences USSR, Moscow, 1962
61. Öpik, E. J. (September 1964). "Is Phobos Artificial?". Irish Astronomical Journal, Vol. 6. pp. 281–283. Retrieved Junue 29 2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)
62. Singer, S. Fred (February 1960.). "More on the Moons of Mars". Astronautics. American Astronautical Society: 16. "My conclusion there is, and here I back Shklovsky, that if the satellite is indeed spiraling inward as deduced from astronomical observation, then there is little alternative to the hypothesis that it is hollow and therefore martian made. The big "if" lies in the astronomical observations; they may well be in error. Since they are based on several independent sets of measurements taken decades apart by different observers with different instruments, systematic errors may have influenced them." {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
63. Lee, Pascal; Braham, Stephen; Mungas, Greg; Silver, Matt; Thomas, Peter; West, Michael (2005). "Phobos: A Critical Link Between Moon And Mars Exploration" (PDF). Space Resources Roundtable VII - LEAG Conference on Lunar Exploration. Lunar and Planetary Institute.
64. Singer, S. Fred (November 22, 2002). A Manned Mission to the Mysterious Moons of Mars. 2153rd Lecture. Philosophical Society of Washington. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
65. Long duration exposure facility (LDEF) interplanetary dust experiment (IDE) impact detector results
66. "First Israeli Scud Fatalities Oil Fires in Kuwait". Nightline. 1991-01-22. ABC. yes. {{cite episode}}: Unknown parameter |serieslink= ignored (|series-link= suggested) (help)
67. Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted World. p. 257.
68. The Washington Times. When advocacy beclouds science. June 2, 1993
69. The Washington Times. Mr. Gore in the balance. March 2, 1994
70. Patrick J Michaels. Sound and fury: the science and politics of global warming. 1992
71. Idso, Craig; Singer, S. Fred. Climate Change Reconsidered: 2009 Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC). Chicago, IL: The Heartland Institute. ISBN 978-1-934791-28-8. Retrieved October 5, 2009.

Further reading

• The Science & Environmental Policy Project
• George Monbiot, The Guardian, May 10, 2005, "Junk science:David Bellamy's inaccurate and selective figures on glacier shrinkage are a boon to climate change deniers" (Bellamy's figures came ultimately from Singer but are contradicted by the World Glacier Monitoring Service.)
• An interview with Dr. Singer, February 2001
• Environmental Strategies with Uncertain Science, Regulation 13(1), Winter 1990
• The Revelle-Gore Story: Attempted Political Suppression of Science
• The Denial Machine is a video from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation featuring Fred Singer
• The cows missed the movie by Debra J. Saunders

• American non-fiction environmental writers
• Climatologists
• Environmental skepticism
• Ohio State University alumni
• Princeton University alumni
• University of Virginia faculty
• 1924 births
• Living people