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</ref> Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.<ref>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y; RMW Dixon ''Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics'' p.35 </ref><ref>Hassan, Fekri ''Droughts, Food and Culture: books.google.co.uk/books?id=kVJwQsZUwxYC&pg=PA164&dq=early+agriculture+Fayum&as_brr=3&cd=5#v=onepage&q=early%20agriculture%20Fayum&f=false]</ref><ref>Shillington, Kevin ''Encyclopedia of African History'' Routledge; 1 edition (18 Nov 2004) ISBN 978-1579582456 p.521 </ref> | |||
] | |||
{{Neolithic}} | |||
The '''Neolithic''' Age, Era, or Period, or '''New Stone Age''', was a period in the development of ] ], beginning about 9500 ] in the ]<ref name=Bellwood> | |||
from ''First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies'' by ], 2004</ref> that is traditionally considered the last part of the ]. The Neolithic followed the terminal ] '']'' period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "]" and ending when ] ]s became widespread in the Copper Age (]) or ] or developing directly into the ], depending on geographical region. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioral and cultural characteristics, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals.<ref>Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", although this has not gained wide acceptance.</ref> | |||
Neolithic culture began in the ] (], modern-day West Bank) about 9500 BCE. It developed directly from the ] ] culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild ]s, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (12,500–9500 BCE or 12,000-9500 BCE<ref name=Bellwood/>). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the ] are thought to have forced people to develop farming. By 9500–9000 BCE, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to ], North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and ], which included ], ] and ], and the keeping of ]s, ] and ]s. By about 8000 BCE, it included domesticated ] and ]s, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of ].<ref>The ] was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry.</ref> | |||
Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the ] did not use pottery, and, in ], it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as ], South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. ] societies used pottery ''before'' developing agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Habu|first=Junko|year=2004|title=Ancient Jomon of Japan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521772133 (HB), ISBN 0521776708 (PB)|pages=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Japan Echo, Inc.|title=Jomon Fantasy: Resketching Japan's Prehistory|url=http://web-japan.org/trends00/honbun/tj990615.html|date=June 22, 1999|publisher=Trends in Japan|accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Charles T.|last=Keally|title='Fakery' at the Beginning, the Ending and the Middle of the Jomon Period|journal=Bulletin of the International Jomon Culture Conference|volume=1|year=2004|url=http://www.jomon.or.jp/ebulletin11.html|accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref> | |||
Unlike the ], where more than one human species existed, only one human species ('']'') reached the Neolithic. ] may have survived right up to the very dawn of the Neolithic, about 12,000 years ago. | |||
The term ''Neolithic'' derives from the ] ''νεολιθικός'', ''neolithikos'', from ''νέος'' ''neos'', "new" + ''λίθος'' ''lithos'', "stone", literally meaning "New ]." The term was invented by ] in 1865 as a refinement of the ]. | |||
== Periods by pottery phase == | |||
In ] (i.e., the ]), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BCE.<ref name=Bellwood/> Early development occurred in the ] (e.g., ] and ]) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern ] and northern ] by ca. 8000 BCE. | |||
The ] near Yixian in ] Province, ], contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the ] and ] cultures of about 5,000–6,000 ], neolithic cultures east of the ], filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.<ref name="archdis">{{cite web | |||
|url=http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=982 | |||
|title=New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 — The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS | |||
|publisher=Institute of Archaeology — Chinese Academy of Social Sciences | |||
|accessdate=2007-09-18 | |||
}} | |||
</ref> | |||
=== Neolithic 1 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) === | |||
The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) began in the ] (], Palestine & Jbeil (]), Lebanon) around 9500 to 9000 BCE. The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in ] by scientists in the ] and Philadelphia laboratories{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}. | |||
An early temple area in southeastern Turkey at ] dated to 10,000 BCE may be regarded as the beginning of the Neolithic 1. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site may be the oldest known man-made place of worship.<ref>"The World's First Temple", Archaeology magazine, Nov/Dec 2008 p 23.</ref> At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which may have supported roofs. | |||
The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true ]. In the proto-Neolithic ] cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. ] was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (] and ]). | |||
In the 21st century, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9,400 BCE. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains. (Source: "Ancient Figs May Be First Cultivated Crops" by Christopher Joyce, NPR.org, last accessed 28 January 2009. ) | |||
Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of ]s. The husband had one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are also some enclosures that suggest grain and meat storage. | |||
=== Neolithic 2 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) === | |||
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8500 BCE in the Levant (], Palestine)<ref name=Bellwood/>. As with the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. But this terminological structure is not convenient for southeast ] and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin.This era was before the Mesolithic era. | |||
Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ] where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses. | |||
=== Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN) === | |||
The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6500 BCE in the ]<ref name=Bellwood/>. By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the ] (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and ] (Southern Mesopotamia). | |||
The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BCE, then the ] began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures. | |||
== Periods by region == | |||
=== Fertile Crescent === | |||
Around 9500 BC, the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase ] (]) appeared in the fertile crescent.<ref name=Bellwood/> Around 9000 BCE during the ] (]), the world's first town, ], appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower.<ref>, ]</ref> Around 6000 BCE the ] appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture. | |||
=== Southern Mesopotamia === | |||
Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall, makes ] systems necessary. ] culture from 5500 BCE. | |||
=== Africa === | |||
Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}. ] states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium bc in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange.<ref>Barker, Graeme ''The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why did Foragers become Farmers?'' OUP Oxford (22 Jan 2009) ISBN 978-0199559954 pp.292-293 </ref> Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.<ref>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y; RMW Dixon ''Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics'' p.35 </ref><ref>Hassan, Fekri ''Droughts, Food and Culture: Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa's Later Prehistory'' Springer (31 Mar 2002) ISBN 978-0306467554 pp.164 </ref><ref>Shillington, Kevin ''Encyclopedia of African History'' Routledge; 1 edition (18 Nov 2004) ISBN 978-1579582456 p.521 </ref> | |||
=== Europe === | === Europe === | ||
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], Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves).]] | ], Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves).]] | ||
] Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village.]] | ] Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village.]] | ||
In southeast ] agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BCE,<ref></ref> and in ] by ca. 5500 BCE. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the ] culture in Thessaly , which later expanded in the Balkans giving ] (Cris), ], and ]. Through a combination of ] and ], the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BCE. The ] may have created the earliest system of writing, the ], though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists{{Who|date=December 2008}} that the ] script was the earliest true form of writing and the ] most likely represented ] and ] rather than a truly developed form of writing. The ] built enormous settlements in Romania, |
In southeast ] agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BCE,<ref></ref> and in ] by ca. 5500 BCE. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the ] culture in Thessaly , which later expanded in the Balkans giving ] (Cris), ], and ]. Through a combination of ] and ], the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BCE. The ] may have created the earliest system of writing, the ], though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists{{Who|date=December 2008}} that the ] script was the earliest true form of writing and the ] most likely represented ] and ] rather than a truly developed form of writing. The ] built enormous settlements in Romania,Lahuradewa]], at Middle ] region, ] around 7th millennium BCE.<ref> Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 </ref> Recently another site near the confluence of the ] and ] rivers called ] yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BCE for its Neolithic levels.<ref> Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 </ref> A new 2009 report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa shows new C14 datings that range between 8000 BCE and 9000 BCE associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia. | ||
=== South and East Asia === | |||
The oldest Neolithic site in ] is ] from 7000 BC. It lies on the "Kachi plain of ], ], and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."<ref> Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. . '' Guide to Archaeology''</ref> | |||
One of the earliest Neolithic sites in ] is ], at Middle ] region, ] around 7th millennium BCE.<ref> Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 </ref> Recently another site near the confluence of the ] and ] rivers called ] yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BCE for its Neolithic levels.<ref> Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 </ref> A new 2009 report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa shows new C14 datings that range between 8000 BCE and 9000 BCE associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia. | |||
In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. | In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. | ||
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In ], the earliest sites include ] around 7500 BCE to 6100 BCE, ] around 7000 BCE to 5000 BCE. | In ], the earliest sites include ] around 7500 BCE to 6100 BCE, ] around 7000 BCE to 5000 BCE. | ||
The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of ] (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone ]s and axes are used in the present day ({{As of|2008}} CE) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail. | |||
=== America === | |||
In ], a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BCE, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term "Pre-Classic" (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term ] for the Early Neolithic, and ] for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | In ], a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BCE, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term "Pre-Classic" (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term ] for the Early Neolithic, and ] for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | ||
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==Social organization== | ==Social organization== | ||
] | ] | ||
].<ref></ref> Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to ]n societies such as the ]ans, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and ].<ref name="Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352"/> However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the ] cultures that preceded them and ] cultures in general<ref> © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. 2009-11-01.</ref><ref>] reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. | |||
] | |||
During most of the Neolithic people lived in small ]s of 150–2000 members that were composed of multiple bands or lineages.<ref name="Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352">{{cite book |title=Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives |author=Leonard D. Katz | |||
Rigby |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=inmTyPPdR5oC&pg=RA1-PA158&dq=Neolithic+egalitarianism&lr=&sig=VOAK5WWAg2del4rIQKQIaQ4EGzQ#PRA1-PA158,M1 |year=2000 |location=United kingdom|pages=352 |ibsn=0719056128 |publisher=Imprint Academic}} Page 158</ref> There is little ] of developed ] in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later ].<ref></ref> Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to ]n societies such as the ]ans, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and ].<ref name="Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352"/> However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the ] cultures that preceded them and ] cultures in general<ref> © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. 2009-11-01.</ref><ref></ref> The ] (] 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced.<ref name="Bahn, Paul 1996">Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc</ref> However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as ] reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. | |||
Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in ] have revealed that early Neolithic ]s ("''Linearbandkeramik''") were building large arrangements of ] between 4800 BCE and 4600 BCE. These structures (and their later counterparts such as ]s, ]s, and ]s) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain strong possibilities. | Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in ] have revealed that early Neolithic ]s ("''Linearbandkeramik''") were building large arrangements of ] between 4800 BCE and 4600 BCE. These structures (and their later counterparts such as ]s, ]s, and ]s) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain strong possibilities. | ||
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* ] in Turkey, ca. 9000 BCE | * ] in Turkey, ca. 9000 BCE | ||
* ] in ], Neolithic from around 8350 BCE, arising from the earlier ] ] | * ] in ], Neolithic from around 8350 BCE, arising from the earlier ] ] | ||
* ] in ], ca. 8000 BCE | * [[Nevali | ||
* ] in ], ca. 7000 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 7500 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 7500 – 6100 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 7250–5000 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 7100 BCE | |||
* ] in Bulgaria, 6200 BCE | |||
* ] in ],6000 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 6850 BCE (with a ±660 year margin of error) | |||
* ] in ], ca. 5500 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 7000 to 5800 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 7000 BCE | |||
* ] on ], ca. 7000 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 9000 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 6500 BCE<ref name=eliznik></ref> | |||
* Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in ], 6500 BCE<ref name=eliznik/> | |||
* ] (Varese), ] in ], ca 6320 ±80 BCE | |||
* Sammardenchia in Friuli, ] , ca 6050 ±90 BCE, | |||
* ], 5500 - 2750 BCE, in ], ] and ] first salt works | |||
* ] in ], 5000 – 4500 BCE, large scale rice plantation | |||
* around 2000 settlements of ], 5400 – 2800 BCE | |||
* The ] of ], 3600 BCE | |||
* ] and ], ], ], from 3500 BCE and 3100 BCE respectively | |||
* ] in ], ca. 3500 BCE | |||
* ] in ] from around 3000 BCE | |||
* ] in ], 2000 BCE | |||
The world's oldest known engineered ], the ] in ], dates from 3800 BCE and the world's oldest free-standing structure is the neolithic temple of ] in ], ]. | |||
==See also== | |||
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{{Commons|Neolithic|Neolithic}} | {{Commons|Neolithic|Neolithic}} | ||
*{{cite web|last=McNamara|first=John|title=Neolithic Period|publisher=World Museum of Man|year=2005|url=http://worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic1.htm|accessdate=2008-04-14}} | *{{cite web|last=McNamara|first=John|title=Neolithic Period|publisher=World Museum of Man|year=2005|url=http://worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic1.htm|accessdate=2008-04-14}} | ||
*{{cite web|last=Rincon|first=Paul|title=Brutal |
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Revision as of 00:08, 14 January 2010
</ref> Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.
Europe
]
In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BCE, and in Central Europe by ca. 5500 BCE. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the Sesklo culture in Thessaly , which later expanded in the Balkans giving Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BCE. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists that the Sumerian cuneiform script was the earliest true form of writing and the Vinča signs most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania,Lahuradewa]], at Middle Ganges region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BCE. Recently another site near the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BCE for its Neolithic levels. A new 2009 report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa shows new C14 datings that range between 8000 BCE and 9000 BCE associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia.
In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu.
In East Asia, the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BCE to 6100 BCE, Peiligang culture around 7000 BCE to 5000 BCE.
In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BCE, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term "Pre-Classic" (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term Archaic Era for the Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic.
Social organization
[[File:later Bronze Age. Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian. However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-gatherer cultures in generalCite error: A <ref>
tag is missing the closing </ref>
(see the help page). Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at Herxheim, which, whether the site of a massacre or of a martial ritual, demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups." and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle."
Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man', a proto-chief or a matriarch, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism.
Shelter
The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the Paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept.
Farming
Main article: Neolithic RevolutionA significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.
The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe.
One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield that would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-subsistence economy), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained. The storage site might need to be defended from marauders, increasing the cultural investment in a particular site.
However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.
Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated.
In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered sanitation needs and patterns of disease.
Technology
Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland.
Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatal höyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.
The peoples of the Americas and the Pacific mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool technology until the time of European contact. Exceptions include few copper hatchets and spear heads in the Great Lakes region. However, there are numerous examples of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia. Those include the Inca, Maya, ancient Hawaii, Aztec, Iroquois, Mississippian and Māori.
Clothing
Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather, but not cloth. However, woolen cloth and linen might have become available during the British Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not British and not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age).
Early settlements
Neolithic human settlements include:
- Tabon Cave Complex in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines 5000 – 2000 BCE
- Spirit Cave in Thailand, 9000 – 5500 BCE
- Padah-Lin Caves in Myanmar, ca 11000 BCE
- Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (ca. 10000 BCE) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BC
- Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, ca. 9000 BCE
- Jericho in West bank, Neolithic from around 8350 BCE, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
- [[Nevali
- Paleolithic
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Footnotes
- Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y; RMW Dixon Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics p.35
- Hassan, Fekri Droughts, Food and Culture: books.google.co.uk/books?id=kVJwQsZUwxYC&pg=PA164&dq=early+agriculture+Fayum&as_brr=3&cd=5#v=onepage&q=early%20agriculture%20Fayum&f=false]
- Shillington, Kevin Encyclopedia of African History Routledge; 1 edition (18 Nov 2004) ISBN 978-1579582456 p.521
- Female figurine, circa 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece
- Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic"
- Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28"
- Killen, pg 422.
- Cite error: The named reference
Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Archived 2009-11-01.
- Krause (1998) under External links, places.
- Orschiedt (2006) under External links, Places.
- Guthrie, pg 422
- Gimbutas (1991) page 143.
- Ian Kuijt (2000) "Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and differentiation" page 317 Springer press
- ^ Shane, Orrin C. III, and Mine Küçuk. "The World's First City." Archaeology 51.2 (1998): 43–47.
- Cite error: The named reference
Bahn, Paul 1996
was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Bibliography
- Bellwood, Peter (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0631205667.
- Pedersen, Hilthart (2008), "Die jüngere Steinzeit auf Bornholm", München & Ravensburg. ISBN 978-3638945592
External links
- McNamara, John (2005). "Neolithic Period". World Museum of Man. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- {{cite web|last=Rincon|first=Paul|title=Brutal