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Among the world's religions, views on masturbation vary widely. Some religions view it as a spiritually detrimental practice, some see it as not spiritually detrimental and others take a situational view. Among these latter religions, some view masturbation as allowable if used as a means towards sexual self-control, or as part of healthy self-exploration, but disallow it if it is done with wrong motives or as an addiction.

Buddhism

The Buddha taught that a person seeking his or her well-being will do well to avoid sexual misconduct (this advice constitutes one of the five precepts which the Buddha offered to lay people). In the Pali Suttas Buddha gives examples of what he means by this expression. In a talk he gives to a silversmith, for example, he describes how a person becomes pure by means of avoiding or undertaking certain sorts of bodily actions. In a description of a hypothetical man abstaining from sexual misconduct:

"He has no intercourse with young persons who are still under the protection of father or mother, brother, sister, or relative; nor with married women, nor female convicts; nor lastly with betrothed girls".

There is no mention in this discourse of the subject of masturbation and indeed it is true that, generally speaking, in giving advice to lay people, Buddha makes no explicit reference in the Suttas to masturbation. In the monastic community, however, brahmacarya (abstaining from all intentional sexual activity) is a very important part of the training. It is of particular importance to male monks who are expressly forbidden from voluntary emission of semen. This form of restraint is considered to be of quintessential importance in realising the four stages of enlightenment. Within the Bhikkhu Sangha all seminal emissions are ultimately considered to be counter-productive and non-conducive to the fruition (phala-samapatti) of the path. It is not merely the debilitating effects of semen loss that it is desirable to avoid but the entire mechanism of craving (the cause of suffering according to the second noble truth) that is to be dissolved and dismantled if the causes of suffering are to be uprooted. Craving for sensual pleasures (kamacchanda or kamaraga) are considered a hindrance, a fetter and principal causal factor in the genesis of suffering (the other being aversion). It is by indulging in sensual pleasures (kama) that the pattern or network of craving (to use the terminology of Buddhaghosa) that maintains its causal structure in the unconscious.

Therefore, although Buddhism does not regard masturbation judgementally (compared to say Roman Catholicism which regards masturbation as 'intrinsically disordered'), nonetheless, from the point of view of realising the fruits of the path in this very life masturbation is at the very least a distraction and an overall obstacle (an attachment) that must eventually be overcome (let go of) if one is to attain the final goal. It can also be argued that even for a layperson, excessive focus on sexual pleasure by way of masturbation can be said to be not following the middle path.

Christianity

Roman Catholicism

The Roman Catholic Church teaches emphatically that the deliberate use of the sexual faculty outside of marriage is essentially contrary to its primary purpose of procreation and secondary purpose of unification of the husband and wife within the sacrament marriage. In addition, the Church teaches that all other sexual activity—including masturbation, homosexual acts, acts of sodomy, and sex outside of or before marriage (fornication), and the use of any form of contraception or birth control besides Natural Family Planning—is gravely disordered, as it frustrates the natural order, purpose, and ends of sexuality.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church lists masturbation as one of the "Offenses Against Chastity:"

By masturbation is to be understood the deliberate stimulation of the genital organs in order to derive sexual pleasure. "Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action." "The deliberate use of the sexual faculty, for whatever reason, outside of marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose." For here sexual pleasure is sought outside of "the sexual relationship which is demanded by the moral order and in which the total meaning of mutual self-giving and human procreation in the context of true love is achieved."

To form an equitable judgment about the subjects' moral responsibility and to guide pastoral action, one must take into account the affective immaturity, force of acquired habit, conditions of anxiety or other psychological or social factors that lessen, if not even reduce to a minimum, moral culpability.

Pope John Paul II, in his book Theology of the Body, coined the expression, "the nuptial meaning of the body" to describe this divine intention physically expressed in the body. His elucidation of human sexuality is that to fulfill its sacred character, sexual expression must be a complete act of mutual self-giving only possible between a married couple open to the conception of a new child.

Although "t is said that psychology and sociology show that is a normal phenomenon of sexual development, especially among the young," this does not change the fact that it "is an intrinsically and seriously disordered act" and "that, whatever the motive for acting this way, the deliberate use of the sexual faculty outside normal conjugal relations essentially contradicts the finality of the faculty. For it lacks the sexual relationship called for by the moral order, namely the relationship which realizes 'the full sense of mutual self-giving and human procreation in the context of true love.'"

Eastern Orthodox Christianity

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The Eastern Orthodox Church or Orthodox Christian Church views sexuality as a divinely given gift from God that finds its fulfillment in the marital relationship. The Orthodox Church does not view sex as a sin, but the misuse of the gift of human sexuality as sinful. Because the act of Masturbation is self-directed, and by its nature is incapable of expressing love and concern for an other person, it is viewed as a distortion of the use of the gift of sexuality. This is especially apparent when masturbation becomes an addiction. In the least, the practice of self-pleasure is not viewed as honoring the purpose of God's gift of sexuality.

From the bishops and theologians of the early Christian church, Saint John Chrysostom and Saint Basil the Great (330 AD) to modern-day Orthodox Christian theologians, such as Stanley Harakas, Alexander Schmemann and Thomas Hopko, the Orthodox teaching on sexual morality remains consistent.

The sexual sins of fornication and adultery, masturbation and cyber sex as well as hatred, jealousy, drunkenness and other sins are considered to be sins of the heart as much as the body. It is thought that turning away from sexual sin is turning away from self indulgence for the purpose of self gratification. Instead of turning to the desires of the flesh, the Orthodox Christian claims to turn to the Holy Spirit, whose fruits are believed to be love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control.

Protestantism

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Protestantism has traditionally condemned the practice of masturbation, however some denominations today have varying points of view. Theologians toward the middle of the 20th century began revising previous teachings, and some today even take pro-masturbation viewpoints. Most conservative denominations view it as an act of self-indulgence and a sin of the flesh and believe that the practice is principally considered a sin because of its invitation to lust.. Those who view it within the range of allowable sexual behavior encourage it as guard against adultery, pre-marital sex, or other forms of non-allowable sexual behavior, and as a method of balancing differing libidos between spouses.

Evangelical Protestantism

James Dobson, chairman of the board of Focus on the Family, a nonprofit Christian organization, considers it part of normal adolescent exploration and strongly urges parents not to shame their children over the act lest they have marital difficulties later because of shame over their sexuality. At the same time, he believes that it becomes an addiction and an escape from intimacy for some and argues against it in that case. Richard Dobbins Teaching Your Children the Truth About Sex takes a similar approach. His overall approach is one of "neither condemn nor condone" the act. He looks at it multifactorally to determine its ethics. He gives a lot of advice to parents in the matter. Herbert J. Miles in Sexual Understanding Before Marriage also takes a similar approach. He views the act as a controlled tool of sexual self-control for single males and advises them in that way, while also pointing males to nocturnal emissions. His view toward single females in the matter is different per their biology and lack of semen buildup, and he urges young women to wait to experience their first orgasm with their husband, while not making it a sin if they masturbate. Both Dobson and Miles go so far as to discuss what they feel in their opinion is Biblically permissible for people to imagine while masturbating. Dobson says fathers should urge their sons, if they masturbate, to imagine their future wife, and never some girl they may know. These opinions, however, may not reflect the views of conservative Evangelical denominations.

Other

Ellen G. White, one of the founders of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, in the mid-1800s claimed to have spiritual visions from God that gave her guidance on the Christian life. She warned against overly-stimulating foods, sex, and masturbation, which she referred to as "solitary vice." She warned her followers of her visions of disfigured humans and the consequences of masturbation not only destroying one's life, but preventing access to Heaven in the afterlife. She made claims that masturbation was the cause of many sicknesses in adults from cancer to lung disease. White even stated that masturbation claimed many sinners' lives prematurely. She believed that one's diet had a direct correlation with one's urge to masturbate. She claimed that a bland diet consisting of vegetables, wheat breads, and water would lead to a diminished urge to masturbate and thus would lead to a healthier and more fulfilling life. To ultimately produce a guide for future generations she claimed solitary vice was the cause of hereditary insanity, cancer, and other deadly diseases; clearly appealing to parents to protect their children by not engaging in solitary vice.

Mormonism teaches that "masturbation is a sinful habit that robs one of the Spirit and creates guilt and emotional stress." Spencer W. Kimball, the twelfth President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints strongly urged Mormons to abandon the habit before going on a mission, receiving the holy priesthood, or going into the temple for blessings. He taught that masturbation indicated "slavery to the flesh, not the mastery of it and the growth toward godhood which is the object of our mortal life". “Masturbation … is not approved of the Lord nor of his church, regardless of what may be said by others whose ‘norms’ are lower” (President Kimball Speaks Out , p. 10).

Similar to Mormonism, the Jehovah's Witnesses teach that masturbation is a habit that is a "form of uncleanness", one that "fosters attitudes that can be mentally corrupting".

Hinduism

According to Hinduism, life begins at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to chastely advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their dharma (societal, occupational, parental, etc. duties) and karma (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek kama (physical pleasure) and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through their vocations. Sexual pleasure is part of kama, one of the four goals of life. On the matter of masturbation, Hindu scriptures are silent, neither labeling bad nor encouraging the practice.

However, sexual purity/discipline (Brahmacharya) is one of the foundations of Hinduism and masturbation is one of the impediments to sexual purity during Brahmacharya. The word brahmacharya tends to take on a connotation of disciplining the use of and preserving sexual energy and is also understood broadly in yoga as "sexual continence," which can be understood as being applicable as appropriate in different contexts (e.g. faith in marriage, celibacy for spiritual aspirants etc), in more extreme terms (complete celibacy full stop) or in more specific terms in relation to preserving and sublimating male sexual energy rather than losing it through ejaculation.

In Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, Brahmacharya is one of the 5 Yamas, the foundational commitments for the practice of yoga and the end-result or fruit of Brahmacharya practised to perfection is unbounded energy or vitality.

Many yogic techniques, such as meditation and asanas (e.g. shirsasana) can help one to achieve Brahmacharya interpreted as celibacy or strict control of sexual desires.

Many conservative Hindus see masturbation as impure and addictive, while seeing it as a distraction from the goal of self-realization and the pursuit of their vocations. Brahmacharya, which is an essential factor for religious advancement in Hinduism, condemns masturbation and illicit sex life.

Many books have been written on the subject of Brahmacarya by famous Hindu saints like Swami Sivananda , Asaram Bapu , Sivaya Subramuniyaswami , Sri Vidyaprakasananda Giri, Stephen Knapp , etc.

Islam

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Masturbation (istimna in Arabic) is not forbidden in the Qur'an or the Sunni Sahih hadith. Nevertheless, it is frowned upon by some scholars, who maintain that it should only be done if one fears of comitting illicit sex (fornication or adultery); even then alternatives such as getting married or fasting are preferred, as suggested in hadith.

Istimna

Scholars of Islam do not generally approve of masturbation, except in extenuating circumstances. There is a statement in Quran "And those who guard their chastity, Except from their wives for then, they are free from blame; But whoever seeks beyond that, then those are transgressors." (23:5-7)

In Islam, sexual engagement outside of marriage is a major sin, which cause the doer to be punished in this life and the Qiyama. Yet if one's desire is so overwhelming one might perform a greater wrong by having sex outside marriage, masturbation becomes permissible as a necessity but in that case it will be like eating the flesh of pig when no other food is available. So Quran says "And those who are not married should try to live in chastity, until God enriches them with His Grace" (Qur'an, 24:33)

Masturbation, like any form of sex in which seminal or vaginal fluids have been released, breaks one's fast if performed during the daylight hours and requires a major ablution if any seminal or vaginal fluids were released.

According to Sheikh Hamed Al-Ali: "Masturbation during the daytime of Ramadan breaks the fast, based on the Hadith that a fasting Muslim gives up eating, drinking, and sexual desire for the sake of Allah. Since masturbation is a kind of sexual desire, a fasting Muslim must avoid it. Therefore, masturbation invalidates the fast as does food and as it is one of the sins that if someone does it he or she would be violating the sanctity of this month."

Shi'a view

Masturbation is totally forbidden in the Shi'a sect. Imam Ali is reported as saying that "one who masturbates commits a sin equal to killing me eighty times".

Sunni view

The four Sunni schools of jurisprudence (known as Madhaahib - the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools of Fiqh) have differing stances on the issue. Some see it forbidden in certain cases (i.e. if it leads a man/woman to ignore their spouse sexually) but recommended it when they see it as a lesser evil to illicit sex.

Judaism

Orthodox and Conservative Judaism

Masturbation is not explicitly prohibited in the Hebrew Bible. However a passage in the Torah states "Do not give from your seed, to pass, or pour out to Molech". Seed here can be interpreted as either semen or offspring. This passage can be seen as a prohibition against religious masturbation to foreign deities. For example, in ancient Egypt the Pharaoh would annually masturbate into the Nile, as a fertility rite. The Talmud forbids male masturbation, as it leads to unnecessary spilling of semen, or the impure thoughts of women other than the man's lawful wife. This prohibition is derived from the Biblical narrative of Onan (Talmud Niddah 13a). The Talmud (ibid) likens the act to murder and idolatry. The wrath displayed by God toward Onan was invoked not through the act of spilling semen, but through disobedience to God's command for Onan to impregnate his brother's widow (see the story in Genesis 38:8-10). Others consider the death sentence excessive for failure to properly follow the laws of Levirate marriage — the Biblical punishment for refusing a Levirate marriage was to be spit on, in public, by the woman who was refused. Because Onan's punishment was so much more severe, they argue that the spilling of semen was the relevant offense. Onan was not masturbating, but practising birth control by withdrawal.

According to the Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, "It is forbidden to discharge semen in vain. This is a graver sin than any other in the Torah". However, Beis Shmuel expounds that this is not literal, but rather serves to frighten man into avoiding the sin.

There is disagreement among the poskim, decisors of Jewish law, whether masturbation is an acceptable way of procuring semen for artificial insemination or in vitro fertilisation.

Judaism in general neither prohibits nor discourages female masturbation, although some authorities consider female masturbation as necessarily involving "impure thoughts".

Mutual masturbation

Johnathan Margolis believes he discerns in the Song of Solomon a direct instruction for a man to please his female partner by masturbating her before intercourse: "Let his left hand be under my head and his right hand embrace me".

Other movements

Rabbis from the Progressive movements (i.e., the Reform and Reconstructionist movements) have come to more liberal conclusions. Reconstructionist Rabbi Alexis Roberts maintains that masturbation is "harmless, natural and healthy. It may provide release and pleasure, as well as self-knowledge that is useful for pleasurable sex with a partner. It may make it easier for young people to have sexual release in the years when they are too young for a mature, committed, loving relationship." Reform Rabbi Jonathan Stein, in a proposed schema for normative Reform evaluation of different sexual activities, proposed that masturbation be considered "mutar", a term generally translated as "permissible", but which he renders as "tolerable". Rabbi Walter Jacob, writing on behalf of the Reform responsa committee, asserts, "Although the statements of tradition are very clear, we would take a different view of masturbation, in the light of current psychological thought. Masturbation should be discouraged, but we would not consider it harmful or sinful."

Taoism

Some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a lowered energy level in men. They say that ejaculation in this way reduces "origin qi" from dantian, the energy center located in the lower abdomen. Some maintain that sex with a partner does not do this because the partners replenish each other's qi. Some practitioners therefore say that males should not practice martial arts for at least 48 hours after masturbation while others prescribe up to six months, because the loss of Origin Qi does not allow new qi to be created for this kind of time.

Taoists strongly discouraged female masturbation. Women were encouraged to practice massaging techniques upon themselves, but were also instructed to avoid thinking sexual thoughts if experiencing a feeling of pleasure. Otherwise, the woman's "labia will open wide and the sexual secretions will flow." If this happened, the woman would lose part of her life force, and this could bring illness and shortened life.

Wicca

Wicca, like other religions, has adherents with a spectrum of views ranging from conservative to liberal. Wicca is generally undogmatic, and nothing in Wiccan philosophy prohibits masturbation. On the contrary, Wiccan ethics, summed up in the Wiccan Rede "And it harm none, do as thou wilt", are interpreted by many as endorsing responsible sexual activity of all varieties. This is reinforced in the Charge of the Goddess, a key piece of Wiccan literature, in which the Goddess says, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals".

Bibliography

• Wile, Douglas. The Art of the Bedchamber: The Chinese Sexual Yoga Classics including Women’s Solo Meditation Texts. Albany: State University of New York, 1992.

• Numbers, Ronald L, "Sex, Science, and Salvation: The Sexual Advice of Ellen G. White and John Harvey Kellogg," in Right Living: An Anglo-American Tradition of Self-Help Medicine and Hygiene ed. Charles Rosenberg, 2003.

See also

• Chastity
• Fornication

References

1. Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta; Anguttara Nikaya,10:176
2. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc1/bmc1.ch05.html,
3. Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11), trans. Bodhi (2000), pp. 1843-47.
4. Pope Pius XI (1930-12-31). "Casti Connubii". Retrieved 2009-07-23.
5. Pope Paul VI (1968-7-25). "Humanæ Vitæ". Retrieved 2009-07-23. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
6. Libreria Editrice Vaticana (ed.). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". 2352. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
7. Pope John Paul II. "Theology of the Body Chapter 14: Revelation and Discovery of the Nuptial Meaning of the Body".
8. Cardinal Seper, Franjo (2005-12-29). ""Persona Humana: Declaration on certain questions concerning sexual ethics"". § IX. The Roman Curia. Retrieved 2008-07-23. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
9. Fr. John Matusiak. "Church's view of masturbation". Orthodox Church in America. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
10. Archpriest Joseph F Purpura, Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese. "Pre-marital Sexual Relations". Moral and Ethical Issues: Confronting Orthodox Youth across North America. Author Books and Barnes & Noble. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
11. Miller, Jeff (2008). Bible.org. Bible.org Reference.
12. Wright, Anne (2009). Grandma's Sex Handbook. Intimate Press. pp. 123–146. ISBN 978-0578020754.
13. Numbers, Ronald L, "Sex, Science, and Salvation: The Sexual Advice of Ellen G. White and John Harvey Kellogg," in Right Living: An Anglo-American Tradition of Self-Help Medicine and Hygiene ed. Charles Rosenberg, 2003., pp. 208-209
14. Lambert Dolphin. "Masturbation And The Bible". L Dolphin. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
15. Kimball, Spencer W. (1982). The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball. Salt Lake City: Bookcraft. p. 282. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
16. , "How Can I Conquer This Habit?", Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site.
17. http://www.sivanandadlshq.org/download/brahmacharya.htm
18. http://www.ashram.org/doc/SecretOfEternalYouth.pdf
19. http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/lws/lws_ch-10.html
20. http://www.stephen-knapp.com/becoming_free_from_sex_desire.htm
21. Marriage and Morals in Islam
22. Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, סימן קנא: א (Chapter 151: 1); Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried, translation by Rabbi Avrohom Davis; Copyright © 1996 by Metsudah Publications
23. Zohar, Shulchan Aruch, Even Ha'Ezer 23:1
24. Jewish Law - Articles ("The Use of Cryopreserved Sperm and Pre-embryos In Contemporary Jewish Law and Ethics")
25. Kosher Sex
26. Johnathan Margolis, "O: The intimate history of the orgasm", 2003. p133
27. "Masturbation: Is It Kosher?". Beliefnet.
28. Stein, Jonathan (Fall 2001). "Toward a Taxonomy for Reform Jews to Evaluate Sexual Behavior". CCAR Journal. Central Conference of American Rabbis. Retrieved 2007-08-27.
29. Jacob, Walter (1979). "Masturbation". American Reform Responsa. Central Conference of American Rabbis. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
30. Wile (1994), p. 59.
31. "Alternative Sexuality". Tangled Moon Coven. 2006-08-08. Retrieved 2006-12-30.

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• Religious views
• Sexuality and religion