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Ostrich Temporal range: pleistocene–present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ Pleistocene to Recent
Male (left) and female
Conservation status
Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Subphylum:	Vertebrata
Class:	Aves
Superorder:	Paleognathae
Order:	Struthioniformes
Family:	Struthionidae
Genus:	Struthio
Species:	S. camelus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Binomial name
Struthio camelus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Subspecies
S. camelus australus (Gurney, 1868) Southern Ostrich S. camelus camelus (Linnaeus, 1758) North African Ostrich S. camelus massaicus (Neumann, 1898) Masai Ostrich †S. camelus syriacus (Rothschild, 1919) Arabian Ostrich S. camelus molybdophanes (Reichenow, 1883) Somali Ostrich
Distribution

The Ostrich, Struthio camelus, is a large flightless bird native to Africa. It is the only living species of its family, Struthionidae and its genus, Struthio. Ostriches share the order Struthioniformes with the kiwis, Emus, and other ratites. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a long neck and legs and the ability to run at maximum speeds of about 45 miles per hour (72 km/h), the top land speed of any bird). The Ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest egg of any living bird (extinct elephant birds of Madagascar and giant moa of New Zealand laid larger eggs).

The diet of the Ostrich mainly consists of plant matter, though it also eats insects. It lives in nomadic groups which contain between five and fifty birds. When threatened, the Ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground, or will run away. If cornered, it can attack with a kick from its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by geographical region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females.

The Ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers, which are decorative and are also used for feather dusters. Its skin is used for leather products and its meat marketed commercially.

Description

Ostriches usually weigh from 63 to 130 kilograms (139–287 lb), with exceptional male Ostriches weighing up to 155 kilograms (342 lb). The feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff. Females and young males are greyish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female Ostriches is nearly bare, with a thin layer of down.. The skin of the females neck and thighs is pinkish gray, while the male's is blue or gray dependent on subspecies.

The long neck and legs keeps their head 1.8 to 2.75 metres (6 to 9 ft) above the ground, and their eyes are said to be the largest of any land vertebrate – 50 millimetres (2.0 in) in diameter; they can therefore perceive predators at a great distance. The eyes are shaded from sun light falling from above.

Their skin is variably coloured depending on the sub-species. The male tarsus has red horn plates, while the female's are black. The strong legs of the Ostrich, like those of other birds, are scaled and unfeathered. The bird has just two toes on each foot (most birds have four), with the nail on the larger, inner toe resembling a hoof. The outer toe lacks a nail. The reduced number of toes is an adaptation that appears to aid in running. The wings reach a span of about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) and are used in mating displays and to shade chicks. The feathers lack the tiny hooks that lock together the smooth external feathers of flying birds, and so are soft and fluffy and serve as insulation. They have 50-60 tail feathers, and their wings have 16 primary, four alular and 20-23 secondary feathers. The Ostrich's sternum is flat, lacking the keel to which wing muscles attach in flying birds. The beak is flat and broad, with a rounded tip. Like all ratites, the Ostrich has no crop, and it also lacks a gallbladder. They have three stomachs, and the caecum is 28 inches (71 cm) long. Unlike all other living birds, the Ostrich secretes urine separately from feces and also have a urinary bladder. They also have unique pubic bones that are fused to hold their gut. Unlike most birds the males have a copulatory organ, which is retractable and 8 inches (20 cm) long. Their palate is different than other ratites, in that the sphenoid and palatal bones are unconnected.

At sexual maturity (two to four years), male Ostriches can be from 1.8 to 2.8 metres (5 ft 11 in to 9 ft 2 in) in height, while female Ostriches range from 1.7 to 2 metres (5 ft 7 in to 6 ft 7 in). During the first year of life, chicks grow about 25 centimetres (10 in) per month. At one year of age, Ostriches weigh around 45 kilograms (100 lb).

A female ostrich can determine her own eggs amongst others in a communal nest.

Taxonomy

The Ostrich was originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th-century work, Systema Naturae under its current binomial name. Its scientific name is derived from Latin, struthio meaning "Ostrich" and camelus meaning "camel", alluding to its dry habitat.

The Ostrich belongs to the Struthioniformes order of ratites. Other members include rheas, emu, cassowaries, and the largest bird ever, the now-extinct Elephant Bird (Aepyornis). However, the classification of the ratites as a single order has always been questioned, with the alternative classification restricting the Struthioniformes to the Ostrich lineage and elevating the other groups. Presently, molecular evidence is equivocal while paleobiogeographical and paleontological considerations are slightly in favor of the multi-order arrangement.

Subspecies

Five subspecies are recognized:

• S. c. australis in Southern Africa, called the Southern Ostrich. It is found south of the Zambezi and Cunene rivers. It was once farmed for its feathers in the Little Karoo area of Cape Province.
• S. c. camelus in North Africa, sometimes called the North African Ostrich or Red-necked Ostrich. It is the most widespread subspecies, ranging from Ethiopia and Sudan in the east throughout the Sahel and the Sudan to Senegal and Mauritania in the west, and at least in earlier times north to Egypt and southern Morocco, respectively. It is the largest subspecies, at 2.74 m (9 ft) 154 kilograms (340 lb). The neck is red, the plumage of males is black and white, and the plumage of females is grey.
• S. c. massaicus in East Africa, sometimes called the Masai Ostrich. It has some small feathers on its head, and its neck and thighs are bright orange. During the mating season, the male's neck and thighs become brighter. Their range is essentially limited to southern Kenya and eastern Tanzania and Ethiopia and parts of Southern Somalia.
• S. c. syriacus in the Middle East, sometimes called the Arabian Ostrich or Middle Eastern Ostrich, was a subspecies formerly very common in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, and Iraq; it became extinct around 1966.
• S. c. molybdophanes in southern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya, and Somalia, is called the Somali Ostrich. The neck and thighs are grey-blue, and during the mating season, the male's neck and thighs become bright blue. The females are more brown than those of other subspecies. It generally lives in pairs or alone, rather than in flocks. Its range overlaps with S. c. massaicus in northeastern Kenya.

Some analyses indicate that the Somali Ostrich may be better considered a full species, but there is not consensus among experts about this. The Tree of Life project, Avibase and IOC recognize it as a different species, but the Birdlife do not. As of 2008 Birdlife.com is reviewing the proposed split. mtDNA haplotype comparisons suggest that it diverged from the other Ostriches not quite 4 mya due to formation of the Great Rift Valley. Hybridization with the subspecies that evolved southwestwards of its range, S. c. massaicus, has apparently been prevented from occurring on a significant scale by ecological separation, the Somali Ostrich preferring bushland where it browses middle-height vegetation for food while the Masai Ostrich is, like the other subspecies, a grazing bird of the open savanna and miombo habitat.

The population from Río de Oro was once separated as Struthio camelus spatzi because its eggshell pores were shaped like a teardrop and not round, but as there is considerable variation of this character and there were no other differences between these birds and adjacent populations of S. c. camelus, it is no longer considered valid. This population disappeared in the latter half of the 20th century. There were 19th century reports of the existence of small Ostriches in North Africa; these are referred to as Levaillant's Ostrich (Struthio bidactylus) but remain a hypothetical form not supported by material evidence.

Evolution

The earliest fossil of Ostrich-like birds is the Palaeotis living near the Asiatic steppes, from the Middle Eocene, a middle-sized flightless bird that was originally believed to be a bustard. Apart from this enigmatic bird, the fossil record of the Ostriches continues with several species of the modern genus Struthio which are known from the Early Miocene onwards. While the relationship of the African species is comparatively straightforward, a large number of Asian species of Ostrich have been described from fragmentary remains, and their interrelationships and how they relate to the African Ostriches is confusing. In China, Ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of Ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and petroglyphs. There are also records of Ostriches being sighted on islands of the Indian Ocean and when discovered on the island of Madagascar the sailors of the 18th century referred to them as Sea Ostriches, although this has never been confirmed.

Several of these fossil forms are ichnotaxa (that is, classified according to the organism's footprints or other trace rather than its body) and their association with those described from distinctive bones is contentious and in need of revision pending more good material.

• Struthio coppensi (Early Miocene of Elizabethfeld, Namibia)
• Struthio linxiaensis (Liushu Late Miocene of Yangwapuzijifang, China)
• Struthio orlovi (Late Miocene of Moldavia)
• Struthio karingarabensis (Late Miocene - Early Pliocene of SW and CE Africa) - oospecies(?)
• Struthio kakesiensis (Laetolil Early Pliocene of Laetoli, Tanzania) - oospecies
• Struthio wimani (Early Pliocene of China and Mongolia)
• Struthio daberasensis (Early - Middle Pliocene of Namibia) - oospecies
• Struthio brachydactylus (Pliocene of Ukraine)
• Struthio chersonensis (Pliocene of SE Europe to WC Asia) - oospecies
• Asian Ostrich, Struthio asiaticus (Early Pliocene - Late Pleistocene of Central Asia to China ?and Morocco)
• Struthio dmanisensis (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Dmanisi, Georgia)
• Struthio oldawayi (Early Pleistocene of Tanzania) - probably subspecies of S. camelus
• Struthio anderssoni - oospecies(?)

Distribution and habitat

Ostriches formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, East Africa, Africa south of the rain forest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Today Ostriches prefer open land and are native to the savannas and Sahel of Africa, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. In Southwest Africa they inhabit the semidesert or true desert. They rarely go above 100 metres (330 ft). The Arabian Ostriches in the Near and Middle East were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century.

Behaviour

Social and seasonal behaviour

Ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or alone. Only 16 percent of Ostrich sightings were of more than two birds. During breeding season and sometimes during extreme rainless periods Ostriches live in nomadic groups of five to 50 birds (led by a top hen) that often travel together with other grazing animals, such as zebras or antelopes. Ostriches are diurnal, but may be active on moonlit nights. They are most active early and late in the day. The male ostrich territory is between 2 and 20 km (0.77 and 7.72 sq mi).

With their acute eyesight and hearing, Ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of 70 km/h (45 mph), and can maintain a steady speed of 50 km/h (30 mph), which makes the Ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear as a mound of earth from a distance. This even works for the males, as they hold their wings and tail low so that the heat haze of the hot, dry air that often occurs in their habitat aids in making them appear as a nondescript dark lump.

When threatened, Ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward. Contrary to popular belief, Ostriches do not bury their heads in sand. This myth likely began with Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79), who wrote that Ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed."

Feeding

They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit and flowers; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that act as gastroliths to grind food in the gizzard. An adult Ostrich carries about 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of stones in its stomach. When eating, they will fill their gullet with food, which is in turn passed down their esophagus in the form of a ball called a bolus. The bolus may be as much as 210 ml (7.1 US fl oz). After passing through the neck (there is no crop) the food enters the gizzard and is worked on by the aforementioned pebbles. The gizzard can hold as much as 1,300 g (46 oz). Ostriches can go without drinking for several days, using metabolic water and moisture in ingested plants, but they enjoy liquid water and frequently take baths where it is available.

Ostriches can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. In much of their habitat, temperatures vary as much as 40 °C (104 °F) between night and day. Their temperature control mechanism relies on action by the bird, which uses its wings to cover the naked skin of the upper legs and flanks to conserve heat, or leaves these areas bare to release heat.

Reproduction

Ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. The species is iteroparous, with the mating season beginning in March or April and ending sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males typically hiss and use other sounds to claim victory over a harem of two to seven hens. The successful male will then be allowed to breed with all the females in an area, but will only form a pair bond with the dominant female.

The cock performs with his wings, alternating wing beats, until he attracts a mate. They will go to the mating area and he will maintain privacy by driving away all intruders. They graze until their behaviour is synchronized, then the feeding becomes secondary and the process takes on a ritualistic appearance. The cock will then excitedly flap alternate wings again, and start poking on the ground with his bill. He will then violently flap his wings to symbolically clear out a nest in the dirt. Then, while the hen runs circle around him with lowered wings, he will wind his head in a spiral motion. She will drop to the ground and he will mount for copulation.

Ostriches are oviparous. The females will lay their fertilized eggs in a single communal nest, a simple pit, 30 to 60 centimetres (12–24 in) deep and 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide, scraped in the ground by the male. The dominant female lays her eggs first, and when it is time to cover them for incubation she discards extra eggs from the weaker females, leaving about 20 in most cases. Ostrich eggs are the largest of all eggs (and by extension, the yolk is the largest single cell), though they are actually the smallest eggs relative to the size of the adult bird. – on average they are 15 centimetres (5.9 in) long, 13 centimetres (5.1 in) wide, and weigh 1.4 kilograms (3.1 lb), over 20 times the weight of a chicken egg. They are glossy cream-coloured, with thick shells marked by small pits. The eggs are incubated by the females by day and by the males by night. This uses the colouration of the two sexes to escape detection of the nest, as the drab female blends in with the sand, while the black male is nearly undetectable in the night. The incubation period is 35 to 45 days. Typically, the male defends the hatchlings and teaches them to feed, although males and females cooperate in rearing chicks. The survival rate is low for the hatchlings, with an average of one per nest surviving to adulthood. Predators include hyenas, jackals, various birds of prey, and vultures.

Ostriches reared entirely by humans may not direct their courtship behaviour at other Ostriches, but toward their human keepers.

Ostriches and people

History

Ostriches have inspired cultures and civilizations for 5,000 years in Mesopotamia and Egypt. A statue of Arsinoe II of Egypt riding an Ostrich was found in a tomb in Egypt. The Kalahari still use their eggs as water jugs.

Hunting and farming

In Roman times, there was a demand for Ostriches to use in venatio games or cooking. They have been hunted and farmed for their feathers, which at various times have been popular for ornamentation in fashionable clothing (such as hats during the 19th century). Their skins are valued for their leather. In the 18th century they were almost hunted to extinction; farming for feathers began in the 19th century. The market for feathers collapsed after World War I, but commercial farming for feathers and later for skins became widespread during the 1970s.

It is claimed that Ostriches produce the strongest commercial leather. Ostrich meat tastes similar to lean beef and is low in fat and cholesterol, as well as high in calcium, protein and iron. Uncooked, it is dark red or cherry red, a little darker than beef.

Racing

In some countries, people race each other on the back of Ostriches. The practice is common in Africa and is relatively unusual elsewhere. The Ostriches are ridden in the same way as horses with special saddles, reins, and bits. However, they are harder to manage than horses.

The racing is also a part of modern South African culture. Within the United States, a tourist attraction in Jacksonville, Florida called 'The Ostrich Farm' opened up in 1892; it and its races became one of the most famous early attractions in the history of Florida. In the U.S. today, the Phoenix, Arizona area hosts an annual 'Ostrich Festival' every Spring in which residents race.

Racing has also occurred at many other locations such as Virginia City in Nevada, Canterbury Park in Minnesota, Prairie Meadows in Iowa, and Ellis Park in Kentucky.

Conservation

The wild Ostrich population has declined drastically in the last 200 years, with most surviving birds in game parks or on farms; however, they have a conservation status of Least Concern, with an occurrence range of 12,000,000 km (4,600,000 sq mi).

Footnotes

1. ^ IUCN 2009
2. ^ Brands, S. (2008)
3. Doherty (1974)
4. ^ Gilman (1903).
5. ^ Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)
6. ^ S. J. J. F. Davies & B. C. R. Bertram (2003)
7. Brown, L.H., et. al (1982)
8. Martin, G.R. and Katzir, G (2000)
9. Martin, G.R., Ashash, U. and Katzir (2001)
10. Fleming (1822).
11. ^ Donegan (2002).
12. ^ Nell (2003).
13. Bels (2006).
14. Marshall (1960).
15. Linnaeus (1758)
16. Gotch, A.F. (1995)
17. Scott (2006)
18. ^ Clements, J (2007)
19. ^ Roots (2006)
20. Birdlife International
21. Freitag & Robinson (1993)
22. Bezuidenhout (1999)
23. Fuller, (2000)
24. Bibi et al. (2006)
25. Mountain View Conservation and Breeding Centre
26. Halcombe (1872)
27. The Canadian Museum of Nature, Ostrich, Struthio camelus
28. Karl Kruszelnicki, Ostrich Head in Sand, ABC Science: In Depth
29. Maclean(1996)
30. Harrison, C. (1993)
31. Trails.com
32. Gilman
33. BBC News (2003)
34. Thompson, Dorothy Burr (1955)
35. Laufer, B. (1926
36. Best (2003)
37. ^ Clark
38. Bradley, John H. (2009)
39. Palosaari, Ben (2008)
40. Mechanix Illustrated (1929)
41. Pyke, M. (1985)
42. Clark, J.C. (2000)
43. Hedding, J.
44. Fluker, M. (2007)
45. Johnson, B. (2009)
46. Ethridge, Tim (2009)
47. BirdLife International (2008)(a)

References

• BBC News 2003-09-05 Ostriches "Flirt With Farmers" Retrieved on 16 May 2007 "Confused Ostriches raised on farms are falling for their keepers, according to a researcher!"
• BDOA, (British Domesticated Ostrich Association).
• Bezuidenhout, Cornelius Carlos (1999) Studies of the population structure and genetic diversity of domesticated and ‘wild’ Ostriches (Struthio camelus). PhD thesis.
• Bels, Vincent L. (2006). Feeding in Domestic Vertebrates: From Structure to Behaviour. CABI Publishing, 136. ISBN 1845930630.
• Best, Brendan (2003). Ostrich Facts. The New Zealand Ostrich Association. Downloaded 2007-10-17.
• Bibi, Faysal; Shabel, Alan B.; Kraatz, Brian P. & Stidham, Thomas A. (2006): New Fossil Ratite (Aves: Palaeognathae) Eggshell. Discoveries from the Late Miocene Baynunah Formation of the United Arab Emirates, Arabian Peninsula. Palaeontologia Electronica 9 (1): 2A. PDF fulltext.
• Birdlife International.
• BirdLife International (2008(a)). "Solitary Ostrich - BirdLife Species Factsheet". Data Zone. Retrieved 06 Feb 2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• Template:IUCN2008 Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern.
• Bradley, John H. (June 2009). "Riding and racing Ostriches in Oudtshoorn, South Africa". Cape Town to Cairo Website. CapeTowntoCairo.com. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
• Brands, Sheila (August 14, 2008). "Systema Naturae 2000 / Classification, Family Struthionidae". Project: The Taxonomicon. Retrieved 2009-02-04.
• Brown, L.H.; Urban, E.K.; Newman, K. (1982). "Order Struthioniformes". In Curry-Lindahl, Kai (ed.). The Birds of Africa. Vol. I Ostriches and to Birds of Prey. London, UK: Academic Press. pp. 32–37. ISBN 9780121373016. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |month=, |accessmonth=, and |coauthors= (help)
• Canadian Museum of Nature, The.
• Clark, Bob. Ostrich Meat: Cooking Tips Canadian Ostrich Association. Downloaded 2007-10-17.
• Clark, James C. (2000). 200 Quick Looks at Florida History. Pineapple Press, Inc. pp. 86–87.
• Clements, James (2007). The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World (6 ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978 0 8014 4501 9.
• Cooper, JC (1992). Symbolic and Mythological Animals. Aquarian Press, 170-71. ISBN 1-85538-118-4.
• Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Ostriches". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins (2 ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 99–101. ISBN 0 7876 5784 0.
• Davies, S. J. J. F.; Bertram, B. C. R. (2003). "Ostrich". In Perrins, Christopher (ed.). Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, Ltd. pp. 34–37. ISBN 1-55297-777-3. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |month=, |coauthors=, and |accessmonth= (help)
• Doherty, James G. (1974) Natural History Magazine, March 1974. The American Museum of Natural History; The Wildlife Conservation Society.
• Donegan, K (2002). Struthio camelus. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Downloaded 2007-10-17.
• Equi-Analyticial Laboritories, "As Sampled (Fed) vs Dry Matter".
• Ethridge, Tim (July 18, 2009). "King of the Roxy seeks another crown at Ellis". Evansville Courier & Press. Retrieved July 30, 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
• Fleming, John (1822). The Philosophy of Zoology. The University of California, 258.
• Fluker, Meryn (July 9, 2007). "Canterbury brings the Middle East to the Midwest". Let's Go Southwest!. Retrieved July 30, 2009. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
• Freitag, Stefanie & Robinson, Terence J. (1993): Phylogeographic patterns in mitochondrial DNA of the Ostrich (Struthio camelus). Auk 110: 614 – 622. PDF fulltext.
• Folch, A. (1992). Family Struthionidae (Ostrich). pp. 76–83 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. ISBN 8487334091.
• Fuller, Errol (2000): Extinct Birds (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York. ISBN 0-19-850837-9.
• Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T. & Colby, F. M. (1903). The New International Encyclopædia. Dodd, Mead and Company, 497.
• Gotch, A.F. (1995) . "Ostriches". Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. London: Facts on File. p. 176. ISBN 0 8160 3377 3.
• Halcombe, John Joseph (1872). Mission life, ed. by J.J. Halcombe. Oxford University, 304.
• Harrison, C.; Greensmith, A. (1993). Bunting, E. (ed.). Birds of the World. New York, NY: Dorling Kindersley. p. 39. ISBN 1 56458 295 7.
• Hedding, July. "Ostrich Festival". About.com. Retrieved July 30, 2009.
• Holle and Benson, Index for various Ostrich studies and papers.
• Johnson, Brian (July 26, 2009). "Prairie Meadows: Mixed meet improves more than a little bit". Des Moines Register. Retrieved July 30, 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
• Laufer, B. (1926). "Ostrich Eggshell Cups of Mesopotamia and the Ostrich in Ancient and Modern Times". Anthropology Leaflet. 23. Chicago, IL: Chicago Field Museum of Natural History,. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |coauthors=, |laysummary=, |day=, |laysource=, and |month= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii)., 155. "S. pedibus didactylis".Template:La icon
• Maclean, Gordon Lindsay (1996). Ecophysiology of Desert Birds. Springer, 26. IBSN 3540592695.
• Marshall, Alan John (1960). Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds. Academic Press, 446.
• Martin, G.R.; Ashash, U.; Katzir (2001). "Ostrich ocular optics". Brain Behavior and Evolution. 58 (2): 115–120. doi:10.1159/000047265. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |coauthors=, |laysummary=, |day=, |laysource=, and |month= (help)
• Martin, G.R.; Katzir, G. (2000). "Sun Shades and Eye Size in Birds". Brain Behavior and Evolution. 56 (6): 340–344. doi:10.1159/000047218. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |coauthors=, |laysummary=, |day=, and |laysource= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• "'They're Off!' Thrills of the Turf in Ostrich Racing (Sep, 1929)". Mechanix Illustrated. March 3, 2009. Retrieved July 30, 2009. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
• Mountain View Conservation and Breeding Centre.
• Nell, Leon (2003). The Garden Route and Little Karoo. New Holland Publishers, 164. ISBN 1868728560.
• O'Shea, Michael Vincent; Foster, Ellsworth D.& Locke, George Herbert (1918). The World Book: Organized Knowledge in Story and Picture. Hanson-Roach-Fowler, 4423.
• Palosaari, Ben (July 19, 2008). "Extreme Race Day at Canterbury Park". City Pages. Retrieved July 30, 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
• Pyke, Magnus (1985). Weird and Wonderful Science Facts. Sterling Pub Co. Inc. p. 82.
• Roots, Clive (2006). Flightless Birds. Greenwood Press, 26. ISBN 0313335451.
• Scott, Thomas A. (1996). Concise Encyclopedia Biology. Walter de Gruyter, 1149. ISBN 3110106612.
• Thompson, Dorothy Burr (1955). "A Portrait of Arsinoe Philadelphos". American Journal of Archaeology. 59 (3): 199–206. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |coauthors=, |laysummary=, |day=, and |laysource= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Trails.com.
• USDA & NRCS, Dry Matter Determination.
• World Ostrich Association, Benchmark Production Targets.
• Zoological Society of San Diego (2007). Ostrich. San Diego Zoo. Downloaded 2007-10-17.

External links

• Ostrich laying eggs in a live webcam.
• Ostrich chicks, one to ten days old in a live webcam.
• Dacho World: American Icon in Southeast Asia, Ostrich Farmer Extraordinaire
• Bird Families of the World
• Ostrich nutritional info.
• Ostrich videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
• Ostrich Farming Report on the Wire Worm
• WOC 2006 - XIII World Ostrich Congress
• Honolulu Zoo page on Ostriches
• Kruger Park page on Ostriches
• South African Ostrich Business Chamber

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• Birds of Mauritania
• Birds of Namibia
• Birds of Niger
• Birds of Somalia
• Birds of Sudan
• Birds of Tanzania
• Birds of Uganda
• Birds of Zambia
• Birds of Zimbabwe