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| {{Redirect|Marijuana}} | |||
| {{Dablink|For the plant genus, see ]. For other uses of cannabis, see ].}} | |||
| {{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}{{Pp-move-indef}} | |||
| {{taxobox | |||
| | name = ''Cannabis'' | |||
| | image = Macro cannabis bud.jpg | |||
| | image_caption = Dried flowers from the ] plant. Note the visible ] (commonly known as "crystals"), which contain large quantities of ], ] and other ]. | |||
| | regnum = ]ae | |||
| | phylum = ] | |||
| | classis = ] | |||
| | ordo = ] | |||
| | familia = ] | |||
| | genus = '']'' | |||
| | species = '']'' | |||
| | binomial = ''Cannabis sativa'' L.<ref name="ars-grin.gov">{{cite web|author=John H. Wiersema |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?8862 |title=Cannabis sativa information from NPGS/GRIN |publisher=Ars-grin.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><br /> | |||
| '''''Cannabis indica''''' Lam. (putative)<ref name="ars-grin.gov"/> | |||
| | binomial_authority = | |||
| |}} | |||
| <!---****Before you make any edits, MAKE SURE YOU (1) cite reliable sources and (2) adhere to Misplaced Pages's "Manual of Style". Any improperly added or inappropriate material or changes that do not follow the MoS (search WP:MOS) WILL be reverted!!!****---> | |||
| '''Cannabis''', also known as '''marijuana'''<ref>See, ].</ref>, '''marihuana''',<ref name="bookSpanish Word Histories or and Mysteries">{{cite book | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | isbn = 0618910549, 9780618910540 | last = Company | first = Houghton Mifflin | coauthors = American Heritage Dictionaries | title = Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries | date = 2007-11-14 | page = 142 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=VTYBbGybtNEC&pg=PA142}}</ref> and '''ganja''' (from {{lang-sa|गांजा}} ''gañjā'', meaning "]"), among many other names{{cref|a}}, refers to any number of ] of the ] intended for use as a ]. The most common form of cannabis used as a drug is the dried ] form. | |||
| The typical herbal form of cannabis consists of the ]s and subtending ] and ] of ] ] or ] plants. The ]ous form of the drug is known as ] (or merely as 'hash').<ref name="urlTypes of Cannabis Available in the United Kingdom">{{cite web | url = http://www.idmu.co.uk/can.htm | title = Types of ''Cannabis'' Available in the United Kingdom (UK) | author = Matthew J. Atha (Independent Drug Monitoring Unit)}}</ref> | |||
| The major ] ] in cannabis is ] (commonly abbreviated as THC). At least 66 other ] are also present in cannabis, including ] (CBD), ] (CBN) and ] (THCV) among many others, which are believed to result in different effects than those of ] alone.<ref name="pmid19124693">{{cite journal | |||
| |author=Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Bhattacharyya S, ''et al.'' | |||
| |title=Distinct effects of {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on neural activation during emotional processing | |||
| |journal=] | |||
| |volume=66 | |||
| |issue=1 | |||
| |pages=95–105 | |||
| |year=2009 | |||
| |month=January | |||
| |pmid=19124693 | |||
| |doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519 | |||
| |url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124693 | |||
| |accessdate=2009-09-26}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis use has been found to have occurred as long ago as the ]<ref name="bookLost Civilisations of the Stone Age">{{cite book | author = Rudgley, Richard | authorlink = Richard Rudgley | year = 1998 | title = Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age. | isbn = 0-6848-5580-1 | publisher = Free Press | location = New York }}</ref> In modern times, the drug has been used for ], ] or ], and ] purposes. The ] (UN) estimated that in 2004 about 4% of the ] (162 million people) use cannabis annually, and about 0.6% (22.5 million) use it on a daily basis.<ref name="articleUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">{{Cite book | author = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | year = 2006 | url = http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf | format = PDF | title = ''Cannabis'': Why We Should Care. | journal = World Drug Report | volume = 1 | isbn = 9-2114-8214-3 | publisher = United Nations | location = S.l. | page = 14}}</ref> The ], ], or ] of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids became ] in most parts of the ] in the early ]. Since then, some ] have intensified the ] of cannabis ], while others have reduced it. | |||
| == History == | |||
| ] pronunciation), the ] expression for hemp, is a ] of two plants under a shelter.<ref name="Matthews2007">{{cite book | title = Learning Chinese Characters | last1 = Matthews | first1 = A. | last2 = Matthews | first2 = L. | year = 2007 | page = 336 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=YweFHwPd05EC&pg=PA336&lpg=PA336&dq=hemp+wood+shelter&source=bl&ots=71EVxLUarw&sig=s0T9ek-LOmhqDPr74RhgJPmOVm8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result}}</ref>]] | |||
| Cannabis is ] to ] and ].<ref>"Marijuana and the Cannabinoids", ElSohly (p.8)</ref> Evidence of the ] of cannabis ] can be found as far back as the ], as indicated by ] cannabis ]s found in a ] ] at an ] ] in present day ].<ref name="bookLost Civilisations of the Stone Age"/> Cannabis is also known to have been used by the ancient ] of ] and ] thousands of years ago. The herb was called ''ganjika'' in ] (गांजा/গাঁজা ''ganja'' in modern ]).<ref name="bookFlashbacks">{{cite book | author = Leary, Thimothy | year = 1990 | title = Flashbacks | editor = Tarcher & Putnam | isbn = 0-8747-7870-0 | publisher = G.P. Putnam's Sons | location = New York}}</ref><ref name="pmid17759460">{{cite book | year = 1911 | url = http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hemp | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 11th | author = Miller, Ga | volume = 34 | issue = 883 | pages = 761–762 | pmid = 17759460 | doi=10.1126/science.34.883.761 | journal = Science (New York, N.Y.)}}</ref> The ancient drug ], mentioned in the ]s as a sacred intoxicating ], was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name="bookThe Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances">{{cite book | author = Rudgley, Richard | year = 1998 | url = http://www.huxley.net/soma/index.html | title = The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances | editor = Little, Brown, et al.}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis was also known to the ], who discovered its psychoactive properties through the ]s.<ref>{{cite book | author=Franck, Mel | title=Marijuana Grower's Guide| publisher=Red Eye Press | year=1997| isbn=0-9293-4903-2}} p. 3.</ref> Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis".<ref>{{cite book | author=Rubin, Vera D.| title=Cannabis and Culture| publisher=Campus Verlag | year=1976| isbn=3-5933-7442-0}} p. 305.</ref> Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the ]ns and ]/]ns, whose ] (the '']''—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Cunliffe, Barry W.| title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001| isbn=0-1928-5441-0}} p. 405.</ref> Members of the cult of ], believed to have originated in ] (], ] and ]), are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old ] ] in the northwestern ] Uygur Autonomous Region of ].<ref name="peoplesdaily">{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online}}</ref><ref name="jiang2006a">{{cite journal|author=Hong-En Jiang ''et al.''|year=2006|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8D-4K7WC0F-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F06%2F2006&_rdoc=17&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235084%232006%23998919996%23636769%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5084&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=23&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3e6ac8940b4b86b94935cd7a7d7bc19d|title=A new insight into ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=108|issue=3|pages=414–422|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034|pmid=16879937}}</ref> | |||
| ], 512 A.D.]] | |||
| Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in ]s around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at ] suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the ] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century B.C., confirming previous historical reports by ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Walton, Robert P. | title=Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem| publisher=J. B. Lippincott | year=1938}} p. 6.</ref> One writer has claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient ] and early ]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing | work=BBC News | date=2003-01-06 | accessdate=2009-12-31}}</ref> due to the similarity between the Hebrew word "''qannabbos''" ("''cannabis''") and the Hebrew phrase "''qené bósem''" ("aromatic cane"). It was used by ] in various ] orders as early as the ] period, for example by the ]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Le haschich et l'extase|author=]|isbn=2-8416-1174-4|year=2001|publisher=Albouraq|location=Beyrouth}}</ref> | |||
| A study published in the South African Journal of Science showed that "pipes dug up from the garden of ]'s home in ] contain traces of cannabis."<ref name='Shakespeare-BBC-2001'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Bard 'used drugs for inspiration' | date=2001-03-01 | publisher=BBC | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1195939.stm | work =] | pages = | accessdate = 2009-08-07 | language = }}</ref> The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the "noted weed" mentioned in ] and the "journey in my head" from ] could be references to cannabis and the use thereof.<ref name='Shakespeare-CNN-2001'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title= Drugs clue to Shakespeare's genius | date=2001-03-01 | publisher=] | url =http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/UK/03/01/shakespeare.cannabis/ | work =] | pages = | accessdate = 2009-08-07 | language = }}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis was criminalized in the United States in 1937 due to ]. Several theories try to explain why it is illegal in most Western societies. ], a cannabis ] activist and writer, argues that the economic interests of the paper and chemical industry were a driving force to make it illegal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-mysteries.com/marijuana1.htm |title=Marijuana Conspiracy - by Dough Yurchey. |publisher=World-mysteries.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>.</ref><ref><http://www.ireport.com/docs/DOC-237709</ref> Another explanation is that beneficial effects of hemp would lower the profit of pharmaceutical companies which therefore have a vital interest to keep cannabis illegal.<ref name="urlCure Cancer with Hemp Oil - Phoenix Tears">{{cite web |url=http://www.phoenixtears.ca/ |title=Cure Cancer with Hemp Oil - Phoenix Tears}}</ref> Those economic theories were criticized for not taking social aspect into account. The illegalization was rather a result of ] directed to associate American immigrants of Mexican and African descent with cannabis ].<ref name="urlDebunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory | DrugReporter | AlterNet">{{cite web |url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/77339/?page=entire |title=Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory}}</ref> | |||
| == Forms == | |||
| === Cannabis (herbal form) === | |||
| ] flowers in its herbal form.]] | |||
| The terms ''cannabis'' or '']'' generally refer to the dried flowers and subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant. This is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/12/high-times-in-a/ |title=High Times in Ag Science: Marijuana More Potent Than Ever | Wired Science |publisher=Wired.com |date=2008-12-22 |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Marijuana | title = Marijuana- Definitions from Dictionary.com | publisher = dictionary.reference.com}}</ref> In contrast, cannabis strains used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naihc.org/hemp_information/hemp_facts.html |title=Hemp Facts |publisher=Naihc.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> | |||
| === Hashish === | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main|Hashish}} | |||
| Hashish (also spelled hasheesh), hashisha, or simply hash is a concentrated ] produced from the flowers of the female cannabis plant. Hash can often be more potent than marijuana and can be smoked or chewed.<ref name="urlHashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com">{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Hashish | title = Hashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com | publisher=dictionary.reference.com}}</ref> It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity. | |||
| According to both the "Talk to FRANK" website and the UKCIA website, "Soap Bar", "perhaps the most common type of hash found in the UK", can contain turpentine, tranquillizers, boot polish, henna and animal faeces - amongst several other things.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukcia.org/activism/soapbar.php |title=UKCIA Soapbar warning - cannabis conamination - don't buy soapbar! |publisher=Ukcia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref name="talktofrank.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.talktofrank.com/drugs.aspx?id=172 |title=FRANK - Cannabis |publisher=Talktofrank.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> One small study of five soap-bar samples seized by UK Customs in 2001 found huge adulteration by many toxic substances, including soil, glue, engine oil and animal faeces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lifelineproject.co.uk/Dr-Russell-Newcome-on-the-ACMD-report-on-cannabis_25.php |title=Feature - Dr Russell Newcome on the ACMD report on cannabis : 2006-02-07 |publisher=Lifeline Project |date=2006-02-07 |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> | |||
| === Hash oil === | |||
| {{Main|Hash oil}} | |||
| Hash oil, or ], is an ] extracted from the cannabis plant through the use of various ]s. It has a high proportion of cannabinoids (ranging from 40–90%).<ref name="urlHash Oil Info">{{cite web | url = http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/hash005.htm | title = Hash Oil Info.}}</ref> This oil is also used in the process of making a variety of ]. | |||
| === Kief === | |||
| {{Main|Kief}} | |||
| Kief is a powder made from ]s removed from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants. Kief can be compressed to produce cakes of hashish, or consumed in powder form.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/articles/4220.html |title=Kief | Cannabis Culture Magazine |publisher=Cannabisculture.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> | |||
| ===Residue=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Because of THC's ] properties, a sticky residue builds up inside the ] when cannabis is ]. It has ]-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. This buildup still has all the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is more difficult to smoke due to the discomfort caused to the throat and lungs. Cannabis users typically only smoke residue when cannabis is unavailable. Glass may be water-steamed at a low temperature prior to scraping in order to make the residue easier to remove.<ref name="Pipe Residue Information">{{cite web | url = http://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/articles/3603.html | title = Pipe Residue Information.}}</ref> | |||
| == Potency == | |||
| According to the ] (UNODC), "the amount of ] present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."<ref name="urlWhy Does Cannabis Potency Matter?">{{cite web | url = http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2009/June/why-does-cannabis-potency-matter.html | title = Why Does Cannabis Potency Matter? | date = 2009-06-29 | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime}}</ref> The three main forms of cannabis products are the herb (marijuana), resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that marijuana often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content.".<ref name="urlWhy Does Cannabis Potency Matter?"/> | |||
| A ] published in 2000 in the Journal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) found that the potency (THC content) of confiscated cannabis in the ] (US) rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984", to "4.47% in 1997". It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids (i.e., ], ], and ])" (other chemicals in cannabis) "showed no significant change in their concentration over the years".<ref name="pmid10641915">{{cite journal | author = ElSohly MA, Ross SA, Mehmedic Z, Arafat R, Yi B, Banahan BF | title = Potency Trends of delta9-THC and Other Cannabinoids in Confiscated Marijuana from 1980-1997. | journal = ] | volume = 45 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–30 | year = 2000 | month = January | pmid = 10641915}}</ref> More recent research undertaken at the University of Mississippi's Potency Monitoring Project<ref>{{dead link|date=January 2010}}</ref> has found that average THC levels in cannabis samples between 1975 and 2007 have increased from 4% in 1983 to 9.6% in 2007. | |||
| ]'s ] (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".<ref name="urlCannabis Potency">{{cite web | url = http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/cannabisinfo/factsheets/article/cannabis-potency | title = Cannabis Potency. | publisher = National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre}}</ref> The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.<ref name="urlWhy Does Cannabis Potency Matter?"/> | |||
| According to the "Talk to FRANK" (UK) website: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "Recently, there has been an increased availability of strong herbal cannabis, containing on average 2-3 times the amount of the active compound, tetrahydrocannabinol or THC, as compared to the traditional imported ‘weed’. This strong cannabis includes:‘sinsemilla’ (a bud grown in the absence of male plants and which has no seeds); ‘homegrown’; ‘skunk’, which has a characteristic strong smell; and imported ‘]’... | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| ...it may not be possible to tell whether a particular sample of 'skunk' or ‘homegrown’ or ‘sinsemilla’ will have a higher potency than an equal amount of traditional herbal cannabis | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Of course, "homegrown", "netherweed" and "sinsemilla" are not always "strong". The selection of "skunk" strains generally are, although not every strain of cannabis with a "characteristic strong smell" can be accurately named "skunk". "Traditional herbal cannabis" or "weed", has on the whole, always been subjectively "strong" and thus FRANK leaves his website uncited.<ref name="talktofrank.com"/> | |||
| == Routes of administration == | |||
| <!--***PLEASE do not add any more detail to this section. Development is more than welcome at ]. THANKS! --> | |||
| ] vaporizer. The balloon (top) is filled with vapors that are eventually inhaled.]] | |||
| ], wasteful and potentially harmful, can reach a burning temperature of 1000°F. when puffed on too impatiently.]] | |||
| ] (shown here) or ], permits 25-mg. low-temperature servings, protecting economy and health.]] | |||
| {{Main|Cannabis consumption}} | |||
| Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which involve ]. | |||
| The most commonly used include wire-screened ], bubblers (small pipes with water chambers), ]s, ]s, ], paper-wrapped ] and tobacco-leaf-wrapped ]. | |||
| A ] heats herbal cannabis to 365–410°F (185–210°C), which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a ] without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 392°F (200°C) at 0.02mmHg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure).<ref name="merck1989">1989. ''The Merck Index'', 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey.</ref> A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. This method of consuming cannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash points of different cannabinoids; for example, CBN has a flash point of 212.7°C<ref name="urlChemSpider - Cannabinol">{{cite web | url = http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.2447.html | title = ChemSpider - Cannabinol }}</ref> and would normally be present in smoke but might not be present in vapor. | |||
| As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or ]d to cause ] of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive ].<ref name="urlDecarboxylation - Does Marijuana Have to be Heated to Become Psychoactive?">{{cite web | url = http://www.cannabisculture.com/articles/2794.html | title = Decarboxylation - Does Marijuana Have to be Heated to Become Psychoactive? }}</ref> | |||
| Cannabinoids can be ] from cannabis plant matter using high-] ] (often ]) to create a ], often referred to as ]. | |||
| Cannabis can also be consumed as a ]. THC is ] and only slightly ] ] (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),<ref name="Physical Properties - Dronabinol">{{cite web | url = http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ProxyServlet?objectHandle=Search&actionHandle=getAll3DMViewFiles&nextPage=jsp%2Fcommon%2FChemFull.jsp%3FcalledFrom%3Dlite&chemid=001972083&formatType=_3D | title=ChemIDplus Lite | publisher=chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> so tea is made by first adding a ] to hot water (i.e. ] or any ] except skim) with a small amount of cannabis, ] or ] leaves and ] or ], steeped for approximately 5 minutes. | |||
| == Effects == | |||
| <!-- ***PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ]. THANKS. --> | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main|Effects of cannabis}} | |||
| Cannabis has ] and ] effects when consumed. The minimum amount of ] required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.<ref name="The Tolerance Factor">{{cite web | url = http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt | title = Marijuana and the Brain, Part II: The Tolerance Factor}}</ref> Aside from a subjective change in perception and, most notably, mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term ], working memory, ], and concentration.<ref name=memoryhindered>{{cite journal |author=Riedel G, Davies SN |title=Cannabinoid function in learning, memory and plasticity |journal=Handb Exp Pharmacol | issue=168 |pages=445–477 |year=2005 |pmid=16596784|url=http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=chapter&issn=0171-2004&volume=&page=445}}</ref> Long-term effects are less clear.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| === Classification === | |||
| {{Main|Effects of cannabis#Psychoactive effects|l1=Psychoactive effects}} | |||
| While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either ], ], or ], cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogen or ] properties, though with other effects quite pronounced as well. Though THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant, various ] have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.<ref name="bookPsychedelics Encyclopedia">{{cite book | author = Stafford, Peter | title = Psychedelics Encyclopedia. | year = 1992 | isbn = 0914171518 | publisher = Ronin Publishing, Inc | location = Berkeley, California, United States}}</ref><ref name="bookDrugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition)">{{cite book | author = McKim, William A | title = Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition). | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-13-048118-1 | page = 400}}</ref><ref name="urlInformation on Drugs of Abuse">{{cite web | title = Information on Drugs of Abuse. | work = Commonly Abused Drug Chart | url = http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html}}</ref> | |||
| <!-- === Health issues === | |||
| This section is designed to be a summary of the health issues presented in the "Effects of Cannabis" article. Add all other info, including specific studies to ]--> | |||
| === Medical use === | |||
| {{Main|Medical cannabis}} | |||
| Cannabis used medically does have several well-documented beneficial effects. Among these are: the amelioration of ] and ], stimulation of ] in ] and ] patients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating ]), as well as general ] effects (pain reliever).{{cref|b}} | |||
| Less confirmed individual studies also have been conducted indicating cannabis to be beneficial to a gamut of conditions running from ] to ]. Synthesized ] are also sold as prescription drugs, including Marinol (] in the United States and Germany) and Cesamet (] in Canada, Mexico, The United States and The United Kingdom).{{cref|b}} | |||
| Currently, the ] (FDA) has not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease in the United States, largely because good quality scientific evidence for its use from U.S. studies is lacking; however, a major barrier to acquiring the necessary evidence is the lack of federal funding for this kind of research.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harris|first=G.|title=Researchers find study of medical marijuana discouraged |newspaper=New York Times|location=New York|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/19/health/policy/19marijuana.html?hpw|date=18 January 2010|accessdate=19 January 2010}}</ref> Regardless, thirteen states have legalized cannabis for medical use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3387 |title=Medical Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=NORML |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref></ref> ], ], ] and ] have also legalized cannabis for medicinal use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/marihuana/about-apropos/faq-eng.php |title="Frequently Asked Questions - Medical Marihuana" |publisher=Hc-sc.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/Medical_cannabis#Legal_and_medical_status |title=Medical cannabis - Misplaced Pages, the 💕 |publisher=En.wikipedia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> | |||
| === Long-term effects === | |||
| {{Main|Long-term effects of cannabis}} | |||
| The smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, as the inhalation of ] from ] can cause various health problems.<ref name="journalHarm Reduction Associated with Inhalation and Oral Administration of Cannabis and THC">{{cite journal | author = Franjo Grotenhermen | title = Harm Reduction Associated with Inhalation and Oral Administration of Cannabis and THC. | journal = Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics | volume = 1 | issue = 3-4 | pages = 133–152 | year = 2001 | month = June | doi = 10.1300/J175v01n03_09 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all?content=10.1300/J175v01n03_09}}</ref> | |||
| By comparison, studies on the ] of cannabis found that subjects were "only 40% as likely to report respiratory symptoms as users who do not vaporize, even when age, sex, cigarette use, and amount of cannabis consumed are controlled."<ref name="pmid17437626">{{cite journal | author = Earleywine M, Barnwell SS | title = Decreased Respiratory Symptoms in Cannabis Users Who Vaporize. | journal = ] | volume = 4 | page = 11 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17437626 | pmc = 1853086 | doi = 10.1186/1477-7517-4-11}}</ref> Another study found vaporizers to be "a safe and effective cannabinoid delivery system."<ref name="pmid17429350">{{cite journal | author = Abrams DI, Vizoso HP, Shade SB, Jay C, Kelly ME, Benowitz NL | title = Vaporization as a Smokeless Cannabis Delivery System: A Pilot Study. | journal = ] | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 572–578 | year = 2007 | month = November | pmid = 17429350 | doi = 10.1038/sj.clpt.6100200 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17821306}}</ref><ref name="pmid16637053">{{cite journal | author = Hazekamp A, Ruhaak R, Zuurman L, van Gerven J, Verpoorte R | title = Evaluation of a vaporizing device (Volcano) for the pulmonary administration of tetrahydrocannabinol | journal = ] | volume = 95 | issue = 6 | pages = 1308–1317 | year = 2006 | month = June | pmid = 16637053 | doi = 10.1002/jps.20574}}</ref> | |||
| ]''.<ref name="pmid17382831">{{cite pmid|17382831}}</ref>]] | |||
| While a study in New Zealand of 79 lung-cancer patients suggested daily cannabis smokers have a 5.7 times higher risk of lung cancer than non-users,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSHKG10478820080129|title=Cannabis bigger cancer risk than cigarettes: study|publisher=Thomson Reuters}}</ref> another study of 2252 people in Los Angeles failed to find a correlation between the smoking of ] and lung, head or neck cancers.<ref name="Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=2006-05-26 |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref> These effects have been attributed to the well documented anti-tumoral properties of ], specifically ] (THC) and ]. Some studies have also found that moderate cannabis use may protect against head and neck cancers,<ref name="pmid19638490">{{cite journal |author=Liang C, McClean MD, Marsit C, ''et al.'' |title=A population-based case-control study of marijuana use and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma |journal=Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa) |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=759–68 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19638490 |doi=10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0048}}</ref> as well as lung cancer.<ref name="Study finds no marijuana-cancer connection">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/25/AR2006052501729_pf.html |publisher=Washington Post |date= |title=Study Finds No Cancer-Marijuana Connection}}</ref> Some studies have shown that ] may also be useful in treating breast cancer.<ref name="Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,312132,00.html |publisher=Fox News |date=2007-11-19 |title=Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis use has been assessed by several studies to be ] of anxiety, psychosis, and depression.<ref name="pmid=15574485">{{cite journal | author = Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J, ''et al.'' | title = Prospective Cohort Study of Cannabis Use, Predisposition for Psychosis, and Psychotic Symptoms in Young People. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 330 | issue = 7481 | page = 11 | year = 2005 | month = January | pmid = 15574485 | pmc = 539839 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12446533">{{cite journal | author = Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M, Hall W | title = Cannabis Use and Mental Health in Young People: Cohort Study. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 325 | issue = 7374 | pages = 1195–1198 | year = 2002 | month = November | pmid = 12446533 | pmc = 135489 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1195 }}</ref> Indeed, a 2007 ] estimated that cannabis use is ], in a ] manner, to an increased risk in the development of psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moore THM, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A ''et al.'' |year=2007 |title= Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9584 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3 |pmid=17662880}}</ref> ], however, and the meaning of the correlation and its direction is a subject of debate that has not been resolved in the scientific community. Some studies assess that the causality is more likely to involve a path from cannabis use to psychotic symptoms rather than a path from psychotic symptoms to cannabis use,<ref name="pmid15733249">{{cite journal | author = Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Ridder EM | title = Tests of Causal Linkages Between Cannabis Use and Psychotic Symptoms. | journal = Addiction | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 354–366 | year = 2005 | month = March | pmid = 15733249 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01001.x }}</ref> while other studies assess the opposite direction of the causality, or hold cannabis to only form parts of a "causal constellation", while not inflicting mental health problems that would not have occurred in the absence of the cannabis use.<ref>Hall, Wayne; Degenhardt, Lousia; Teesson, Maree. "". Office of Public Policy and Ethics, ], and National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre University of New South Wales Australia published in '']'' (December 2004). Vol 23 Issue 4. pp. 433–443.</ref><ref>Arseneault, Louise; Cannon, Mary; Wiitton, John; Murray, Robin M. "". ] published in '']'' (2004). #184, pp. 110–117.</ref> | |||
| Though cannabis use has at times been associated with stroke, there is no firmly established link, and potential mechanisms are unknown.<ref name="pmid1932970">{{cite journal | author = Halpin SF, Yeoman L, Dundas DD | title = Radiographic examination of the lumbar spine in a community hospital: an audit of current practice | journal = ] | volume = 303 | issue = 6806 | pages = 813–815 | year = 1991 | month = October | pmid = 1932970 | pmc = 1671162 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.303.6806.813}}</ref> Similarly, there is no established relationship between cannabis use and heart disease, including exacerbation of cases of existing heart disease.<ref name="pmid18294478">{{cite journal | author = Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Mittleman MA | title = An exploratory prospective study of marijuana use and mortality following acute myocardial infarction | journal = ] | volume = 155 | issue = 3 | pages = 465–70 | year = 2008 | month = March | pmid = 18294478 | pmc = 2276621 | doi = 10.1016/j.ahj.2007.10.049 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-8703(07)01044-7}}</ref> Though some ] studies have shown changes in neurological function in long term heavy cannabis users, no long term behavioral effects after abstinence have been linked to these changes.<ref name="pmid17680367">{{cite journal | author = Gonzalez R | title = Acute and Non-Acute Effects of Cannabis on Brain Functioning and Neuropsychological Performance. | journal = ] | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 347–61 | year = 2007 | month = September | pmid = 17680367 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-007-9036-8}}</ref> | |||
| === Adulterants === | |||
| ]s in cannabis are less common than in other drugs of abuse. ] (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used at times to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/digitaaldepot/BriefrapportWiet.pdf |title= Electronenmicroscopisch onderzoek van vervuilde wietmonsters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hss_md_3-2007.pdf |title=Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Contamination of herbal or 'skunk-type' cannabis with glass beads}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hss_md_11-2007__update.pdf |title=Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Update on seizures of cannabis contaminated with glass particles}}</ref> Increasing the weight of ] products in Germany with ] caused ] in at least 29 users.<ref name="pmid18403778">{{cite journal |author=Busse F, Omidi L, Timper K, ''et al.'' |title=Lead poisoning due to adulterated marijuana |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=15 |pages=1641–2 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18403778 |doi=10.1056/NEJMc0707784}}</ref> In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of ] (]) were found in adulterated marijuana.<ref name="pmid18945564">{{cite journal |author=Venhuis BJ, de Kaste D |title=Sildenafil analogs used for adulterating marijuana |journal=Forensic Sci. Int. |volume=182 |issue=1-3 |pages=e23–4 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=18945564 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.002}}</ref> | |||
| == Gateway drug theory == | |||
| <!---***Do Not change the name of the title here, it WILL be reverted.*---> | |||
| {{further|]}} | |||
| Some claim that trying cannabis increases the probability that users will eventually use "harder" drugs. This hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of anti-cannabis drug policy in the United States,<ref name="CB">{{cite web|url=http://www.criminalbrief.com/?p=5445|title=The Great Smoke-Out|last=Lundin|first=Leigh|date=2009-03-01|publisher=Criminal Brief}}</ref> though the validity and implications of these hypotheses are highly debated.<ref name="Rand">{{cite web|date=2002-12-02 |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation}}</ref> Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name="pmid8246462">{{cite journal | author = Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M | title = Cigarette Smoking as a Predictor of Alcohol and Other Drug Use by Children and Adolescents: Evidence of the "Gateway Drug Effect". | journal = ] | volume = 63 | issue = 7 | pages = 302–306 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8246462 | doi = 10.1111/j.1746-1561.1993.tb06150.x}}</ref> | |||
| No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use of cannabis and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. However, the prevalence of tobacco cigarette advertising and the practice of mixing tobacco and cannabis together in a single large ], common in Europe, are believed to be a factor in promoting nicotine dependency among young persons investigating cannabis.<ref>, p. 4. "''Cannabis'' has been described as a 'Trojan Horse' for nicotine addiction, given the usual method of mixing ''Cannabis'' with tobacco when preparing marijuana for administration."</ref> | |||
| A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.<ref name="pmid16191720">{{cite journal | author = Hall WD, Lynskey M | title = Is ''Cannabis'' A Gateway Drug? Testing Hypotheses About the Relationship Between ''Cannabis'' Use and the Use of Other Illicit Drugs. | journal = ] | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–48 | year = 2005 | month = January | pmid = 16191720 | doi = 10.1080/09595230500126698 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&doi=10.1080/09595230500126698&magic=pubmed||1B69BA326FFE69C3F0A8F227DF8201D0}}</ref> | |||
| A new user of cannabis who feels there is a difference between anti-drug information and their own experiences will apply this distrust to public information about other, more powerful drugs. Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.<ref name="journalwatch">{{cite web|author=Saitz, Richard|date=2003-02-18|url=http://general-medicine.jwatch.org/cgi/content/full/2003/218/1|title=Is marijuana a gateway drug?|publisher=Journal Watch}}</ref> Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be ], and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01906.x|author=Degenhardt, Louisa et al.|title=Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians|year=2007}}</ref> | |||
| Another gateway hypothesis is that while cannabis is not as harmful or addictive as other drugs, a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors" involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be in situations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.<ref name="morral2002">{{cite journal |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118957921/abstract |author=Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM |title=Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect |journal=] |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=1493–504 |year=2002 |pmid=12472629 |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpp.org/about/faq.html|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ}}</ref> By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may be regarded as gateway drugs.<ref name="pmid8246462"/> However, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs, and alcohol/tobacco are in turn easier to obtain earlier than cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those people who are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.<ref name="Rand"/> | |||
| == Legal status == | |||
| <!-- PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ]. THANKS. --> | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main|Legality of cannabis}} | |||
| {{See also|Drug prohibition|Drug liberalization|AB 390}} | |||
| Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted ] against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by ] and sometimes a ], rather than ], focusing more on those who ] the drug on the black market. | |||
| In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of ]s near the borders of the Netherlands,<ref></ref> closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in ], ] in 2004.<ref>: Global issues and local experiences, Perspectives on Cannabis controversies, treatment and regulation in Europe, 2008, p. 157.</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long ] terms in some countries, particularly in ], where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of ] or even ]. | |||
| ==Price== | |||
| The price or street value of cannabis varies strongly by region and area. In addition, some dealers may sell potent buds at a higher price.<ref>http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2005/volume_2_chap7_cannabis.pdf</ref> | |||
| In the United States, ] is overall the #4 value crop, and is #1 or #2 in many states including ], ] and ], averaging $3,000/lb.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=4444 |title=Report on U.S. Domestic Marijuana Production |publisher=NORML |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=4414 |title=Marijuana Crop Reports |publisher=NORML |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> It is believed to generate an estimated $36 billion market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/business/story?id=2735017&page=1|publisher=2008 ABCNews Internet Ventures|title=Marijuana Called Top U.S. Cash Crop}}</ref> Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling the supply to buyers. The ] claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical U.S. retail prices are 10-15 dollars per gram (approximately $290 to $430 per ]). Street prices in North America are known to range at about $150 to $250 per ].<ref>{{cite book |author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |title=World drug report |year=2008 |publisher=United Nations Publications|isbn=978-92-1-148229-4 |url=http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2008/WDR_2008_eng_web.pdf |format=PDF|page=264}}</ref> | |||
| The ] reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.<ref>{{cite book |author=European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction |title=Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe |year=2008 |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |location=Luxembourg |isbn=978-92-9168-324-6 |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_64227_EN_EMCDDA_AR08_en.pdf |format=PDF|page=38}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, a cannabis plant has an approximate street value of £300.<ref>http://www.southyorks.police.uk/news/newssyp/dearnesaferneighbourhoodteamsntrecoverscannabisstreetvalueapproximately£9000</ref> | |||
| == Truth serum == | |||
| Cannabis was used as a ] by the ] (OSS), a US government ] formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at ]; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."<ref name='Whiteout'>{{cite book | last = Cockburn | first = Alexander | coauthors = Jeffrey St. Clair | title = Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press | publisher = Verso | year = 1998 | pages = 117–118| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s5qIj_h_PtkC&printsec=frontcover#PPA118,M1 | isbn = 1859841392}}</ref> | |||
| In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS ] operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster ]. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's ] operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.<ref name='Whiteout'/> | |||
| == Breeding and cultivation == | |||
| <!-- PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at ]. THANKS. --> | |||
| ] plant]] | |||
| {{Main|Cannabis cultivation}} | |||
| It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was first discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "]" were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as ], ], ], and ] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have made it possible to grow strains with fewer seeds and higher potency. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2074151|publisher=Slate.com|title=The Myth of Potent Pot|date=November 19, 2002|author=Daniel Forbes}}</ref> | |||
| {{anchor|Skunk}} | |||
| "Skunk" refers to several named strains of potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and often hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of ''Cannabis sativa'' and ''C. indica'' (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in ] in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2006.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime}} Ch. 2.3.</ref> | |||
| Skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of female herbal cannabis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/195/6/488 |title=High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis - Di Forti et al. 195 (6): 488 - The British Journal of Psychiatry |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.109.064220 |publisher=Bjp.rcpsych.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> | |||
| After revisions to ] in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis.<ref></ref> | |||
| It is noted that one of the earliest strains of skunk to appear was that of "SKUNK #1", which has been inbred since 1978.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cgi.dutch-passion.nl/index.php?p=seeds&grow=1 |title=Dutch-Passion - Power Plant ®, Powerplant (mostly Sativa) was developed by us in 1997 from new South African genetics. This |publisher=Cgi.dutch-passion.nl |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> High potency herbal cannabis has been around potentially, even longer. | |||
| A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking style to the higher THC content.<ref>{{cite web | author = Tj. T. Mensinga et al. | url = http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf | format = PDF | title = A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Cross-Over Study on the Pharmacokinetics and Effects of ''Cannabis''. | publisher = ]}}</ref> High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single ] at times lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. The researchers suggested that THC may accumulate in blood-serum when cannabis is smoked several times per day. | |||
| Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC resulted in no impairment to learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2;"> | |||
| ;Cannabis plant | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ]s | |||
| ** ] (CBD) | |||
| ** ] (CBN) | |||
| ** ] (THC) | |||
| ** ] (THCV) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] or ] | |||
| * ] or ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ;Cannabis health | |||
| * ] | |||
| ;Cannabis legality | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ;Cannabis use demographics | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| </div> | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| === Footnotes === | |||
| <!-- Please do not add any more nicknames, this should give an overview of the most common ones. --> | |||
| {{Cnote|a|'''Weed''', '''pot''', '''buddha''' or '''bud''', '''Mary Jane''', '''grass''', '''herb''', '''dope''', '''schwag''', and '''reefer''', are among the many other nicknames for marijuana or cannabis as a drug.<ref name="urlMarijuana Dictionary">{{cite web | url = http://www.marijuanadictionary.com/ | title = Marijuana Dictionary }}</ref>}} | |||
| {{Cnote|b|Sources for this section (as well as far more information) can be found in the ] article.}} | |||
| === Citations === | |||
| {{Reflist|2}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| * {{cite book | title = Cannabis: A History | authorlink = Martin Booth|last=Booth|first=Martin | publisher = ] & ] | year = 2005 | pages = | ISBN=978-0-312-42494-7}} | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=O7AoY6ljSygC&printsec=frontcover}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Wiktionary|Marijuana}} | |||
| {{Commons category|Cannabis}} | |||
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| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Cannabis resources}} | |||
| {{Cannabinoids}} | |||
| {{Drug use}} | |||
| <!-- Currently unused, need to merge back into the article: | |||
| == History == | |||
| ] | |||
| Cannabis was known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound in some early societies, and has been used continuously in many parts of the world. Other societies have developed a social ] surrounding the drug.<!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), ...--> | |||
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Revision as of 21:04, 25 March 2010
WEED IS BAD