Misplaced Pages

Russia: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 16:16, 10 April 2010 view sourceGreyhood (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers91,196 editsm →Science and technology← Previous edit Revision as of 16:42, 10 April 2010 view source 84.21.214.200 (talk) ←Replaced content with 'Land of killers'Tag: blankingNext edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
Land of killers
{{About|the country}}
{{pp-move-indef}}

{{Infobox Country
| native_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Российская Федерация<br>''Rossiyskaya Federatsiya''</span>
| conventional_long_name = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">Russian Federation</span>
| common_name = Russia
| national_anthem = ]{{spaces|2}}<small>(Russian)</small><br>'']''{{spaces|2}}<small>(])<br>State Anthem of the Russian Federation</small>
| image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg
| image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg
| image_map = Russian Federation (orthographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = ]
| latd = 55|latm=45|latNS=N|longd=37|longm=37|longEW=E
| largest_city = ]
| official_languages = ] official throughout the country; ] in various regions
| ethnic_groups = ] 79.8%, ] 3.8%, ] 2%, ] 1.2%, ] 1.1%, ] 0.9%, ] 0.8%, other – 10.4%
| demonym = ]
| government_type = ] ] ]
| leader_title1 = ]
| leader_name1 = ]
| leader_title2 = ]
| leader_name2 = ] <small>(], but leader of ])</small>
| leader_title3 = ]
| leader_name3 = ] <small>(])</small>
| leader_title4 = ]
| leader_name4 = ] <small>(])</small>
| legislature = ]
| upper_house = ]
| lower_house = ]
| sovereignty_type = ]
| established_event1 = ]
| established_date1 = 862
| established_event2 = ]
| established_date2 = 882
| established_event3 = ]
| established_date3 = 1169
| established_event4 = ]
| established_date4 = 1283
| established_event5 = ]
| established_date5 = 1547
| established_event6 = ]
| established_date6 = 1721
| established_event7 = ]
| established_date7 = 7 November 1917
| established_event8 = ]
| established_date8 = 10 December 1922
| established_event9 = ]
| established_date9 = 26 December 1991
| area_km2 = 17,075,400
| area_sq_mi = 6,592,800
| area_rank = 1st
| area_magnitude = 1 E13
| percent_water = 13<ref name=gen/> (including ]s)
| population_estimate = 141,927,297<ref name="pop2010"></ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2010
| population_estimate_rank = 9th
| population_census = 145,166,731<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Census of 2002|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/html/TOM_01_01.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2002
| population_density_km2 = 8.3
| population_density_sq_mi = 21.5
| population_density_rank = 217th
| GDP_PPP_year = 2009
| GDP_PPP = $2.126 trillion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=922&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=16&pr.y=5|title=Russia|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2010-02-02}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_rank = 8th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $15,039<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 51st
| GDP_nominal = $1.255 trillion<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_rank = 11th
| GDP_nominal_year = 2009
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $8,874<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 54th
| HDI_year = 2007
| HDI = {{increase}} 0.817<ref>. The United Nations. Retrieved 5 October 2009.</ref>
| HDI_rank = 71st
| HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">high</span>
| currency = ]
| currency_code = RUB
| time_zone =
| utc_offset = +2 to +11 (exc. +4)
| time_zone_DST =
| utc_offset_DST = +3 to +12 (exc. +5)
| drives_on = right
| cctld = ] (] reserved), (]<sup>2</sup> 2009)
| calling_code = ]
|footnote1 = The Russian Federation is one of the successors to earlier forms of continuous statehood, starting from the 9<sup>th</sup> Century AD when ], a ] warrior, was chosen as the ruler of Novgorod, a point ].
| footnote2 = The .рф ] is available for use in the Russian Federation since the second quarter of 2009 and only accepts domains which use the ].<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|url=http://interfax.ru/society/news.asp?id=19381|publisher=Interfax|title=Russia allowed to register Internet domains in Cyrillic|accessdate=2008-07-20}}</ref>
}}

'''Russia''' ({{pron-en|ˈrʌʃə|en-us-Russia.ogg}}; {{lang-rus|Россия|r=Rossiya}}, {{IPA-ru|rɐˈsʲijə|pron|Ru-Россия.ogg}}), also officially known as the '''Russian Federation'''<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-02.htm|accessdate=2009-06-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The CIA World Fact Book, "Russia"|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|accessdate=2009-06-25}}</ref> ({{lang-rus|Российская Федерация|r=Rossiyskaya Federatsiya}}, {{IPA-ru|rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈraʦəjə|pron|Ru-Rossiyskaya Federatsiya.ogg}}), is a ] in northern ]. It is a ] ] ], comprising ]. Russia shares ] with the following countries (from northwest to southeast): ], ], ], ], ] and ] (both via ]), ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. It also has maritime borders with ] (by the ]) and the ] (by the ]).

At {{convert|17075400|km2|sqmi}}, Russia is by far the ], covering more than a ninth of the ]'s land area. Russia is also the ] with 142 million people.<ref name=gen>{{cite web|title=The Russian federation: general characteristics|url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R|Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-04-05}}</ref> It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning ] and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|title="Russia"|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_4/Russia.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> and is considered an ].<ref></ref>
<ref>CNN, by Simon Hooper, December 2006</ref>
<ref>CNN; by Matthew Chance, June 2007</ref> It has the ] and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.<ref name=loc/>

The nation's history began with that of the ], who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=britannica>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|title=Russia|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-01-31}}</ref> Founded and ruled by a noble ] warrior class and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, ], arose in the 9th century and adopted ] from the ] in 988,<ref name=Curtis/> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and ] cultures that defined ] for the ].<ref name=Curtis>{{cite web|last=excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.)|title=Russia: A Country Study: Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods|publisher=Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress|year=1998|url=http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated and the lands were divided into many small feudal states.

The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was ], which served as the main force in the Russian reunification process and independence struggle against the ]. Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, ] to become the ], which was the ], stretching from Poland in Europe to ] in North America.

Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the Russian Empire to being the largest and leading constituent of the ], the world's first ] ] and a recognized ],<ref>
Superpower politics: change in the United States and the Soviet Union </ref> that played a decisive role in the allied victory in ].<ref name="Weinberg, G.L. 1995 264">{{cite book|author=Weinberg, G.L.|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|isbn=0521558794|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=264|year=1995}}</ref><ref name="theage.com.au">Osbourne, Andrew, . The Age</ref><ref name="Who won World War II">Rozhnov, Konstantin, . BBC. Russian historian Valentin Falin</ref> The Russian Federation was founded following the ] in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the Soviet state.<ref name=uk/> Russia has the world's ] by ] or the ] by ], with the ] nominal military budget. It is one of the five ] ] and possesses the ].<ref name=fas/>

Russia is a ] and a permanent member of the ], a member of the ], ], the ], the ], the ] and the ], the ], and is the leading member of the ].

== Etymology ==
The country´s original name was Русь (Rus'), a medieval state populated mostly by the ]. However, this proper name became more prominent in the later history and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Руськая Земля" (ruskaya zemlya) which could be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of ]". The difference between the two terms would be like the difference between, for example, " Germany" and "German Land" or "Land of Germans". In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as ] by modern historiography.

An old Latin version of the name Rus' was ], mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus' that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the ] version of Rus', spelled Ρωσία , which was the denomination of ] in the ].<ref></ref>

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Russia|Russian explorers}}
Russia is the ]; its total area is {{convert|17075400|km2|sqmi}}. The country ],<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|title=Russian Federation|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> 40 UNESCO ]s,<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Network of Biosphere Reserves — UNESCO|title=Russian Federation|url=http://www.unesco.org/mab/BRs/EurBRlist.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> 40 ] and 101 ]. Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of ], ], ], ], ]s and other ].
] near ], ].]]
], the highest point of the ], Russia and ].]]
], ], ].]]
] forest in winter, ].]]

===Topography===
The two widest separated points in Russia are about {{convert|8000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart along a ] line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a {{convert|60|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long ] separating the ] from the ]; and the farthest southeast of the ], a few miles off ], Japan. The points which are furthest separated in ] are {{convert|6600|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart along a geodesic. These points are: in the west, the same spit; in the east, the ] (Ostrov Ratmanova). The Russian Federation spans 11 ]s. With access to three of the world's oceans&nbsp;— the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific&nbsp;— Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the ].<ref>{{cite book|title =Fish Industry of Russia&nbsp;— Production, Trade, Markets and Investment|publisher=Eurofish, Copenhagen, Denmark|month=August|year=2006|page=211|url=http://www.eurofish.dk/indexSub.php?id=3308&easysitestatid=255998662|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> The ] is the source of what is considered one of the finest ] in the world.

Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly ] to the south and heavily forested to the north, with ] along the northern coast. Russia possesses 10% of the world's ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Oil prices drive the cost of food|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20080222/99853566.html|accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref> Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the ] (containing ], which at {{convert|5642|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest point in both Russia and Europe) and the ] (containing ], which at the {{convert|4506|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest point of ]); and in the eastern parts, such as the ] or the volcanoes on ]. The ], rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia. Russia has an extensive coastline of over {{convert|37000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} along the ] and Pacific Oceans, as well as along the ], ], Black and Caspian seas.<ref name=cia>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Russia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|title=CIA|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref>

The ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and the ] are linked to Russia via the Arctic and Pacific oceans. Russia's major islands and archipelagos include: ], the ], the ], the ], ], the ], and ]. The ] (one controlled by Russia, the other by the United States) are just {{convert|3|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} apart, and ] is about {{convert|20|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from ].

Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water providing it with ] surface water resources. The largest and most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is ], the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious freshwater lake.<ref name=baikal>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies|publisher=United States Geological Survey|url=http://marine.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/baikal/|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Lake Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal|publisher=] World Heritage Centre|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/754|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> Other major lakes include ] and ], two of the ]. Russia is second only to Brazil in volume of ]. Of the country's 100,000 rivers,<ref>{{cite web|title=Angara River|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24432/Angara-River|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> the ] is the most famous, not only because it is the ], but also because of its major role in Russian history.<ref name=cia/>
] is a ].]]
]'s natural habitat is confined to the ].]]

===Climate===
{{main|Climate of Russia}}
The climate of the Russian Federation formed under the influence of several determining factors. The enormous size of the country and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the ] and ], which is prevalent in European and Asian Russia except for the tundra and the extreme southeast. Mountains in the south obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, whilst the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.<ref name=congress>{{cite web|title=Climate|publisher=Library Of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref>

Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons&nbsp;— winter and summer; spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low temperatures and extremely high.<ref name=congress/> The coldest month is January (February on the shores of the sea), the warmest usually is July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot and humid, even in ]. A small part of ] coast around ] has a ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Drozdov, V. A. ''et al.''|title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea|journal=GeoJournal|publisher=Springer Netherlands|location=27.2, pp. 169–178|year=1992|doi=10.1007/BF00717701|volume=27|page=169}}</ref> The continental interiors are the driest areas.
] forest in ], ]. ] is a ] of Russia.]]

===Flora and fauna===
{{main|List of ecoregions in Russia|List of mammals of Russia|List of birds of Russia}}
From north to south the ], also known as ], is clad sequentially in Arctic '']'', coniferous forest ('']''), ], grassland ('']''), and semi-desert (fringing the ]), as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. ] supports a similar sequence but largely is ]. Russia has the world's ],<ref name=loc>{{cite web|last=Library of Congress|title=Topography and drainage|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> known as ''"the lungs of Europe"'',<ref name=guardianforest>{{cite news|author=Walsh, NP|title =It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood|publisher =Guardian (UK)|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/sep/19/environment.russia|accessdate=2007-12-26 | location=London | date=2003-09-19}}</ref> second only to the ] in the amount of ] it absorbs.

There are ] and ] in Russia. A total of 415 animal species have been included in the ] as of 1997<ref></ref> and are now protected.

==History==
{{main|History of Russia}}
===Early periods===

{{see|Eurasian nomads|Scythia|Bosporan Kingdom|Khazaria|East Slavs}}
]: South Russia as the ] of ].]]
] at the arrival of the ].]]
] in the 11th century.]]
]'' by ] on the 1967 Soviet postage stamp.]]
One of the first ] bones of 35,000 years old were found in ] on the ] banks. In prehistoric times, the vast ]s of Southern Russia were home to ]s of ]. In classical antiquity, the ] was known as ].<ref name=Belinskij>{{cite journal|author=Belinskij A, Härke, H|title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo|journal=Archeology|volume=52|issue=2|year=1999|url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref>

Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in such places as ],<ref name=Belinskij/> ],<ref>{{cite book|author=Drews, Robert|title=Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|page=50|isbn=0415326249}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|author=Koryakova, L.|title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture|publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN)|url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html|accessdate=2007-07-20}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite web|title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"|work=Transcript|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html|accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> which bear the earliest known traces of ], a key feature in ] way of life. In the latter part of the 8th century ], ] traders brought ] to the trade emporiums in ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jacobson, E.|title=The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World|publisher=Brill|year=1995|page=38|isbn=9004098569}}</ref>
Between the third and sixth centuries BCE, the ], a Hellenistic ] which succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{cite book|author=Tsetskhladze, G.R.|title=The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology|publisher=F. Steiner|year=1998|page=48|isbn=3515073027}}</ref> was overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions,<ref>{{cite book|author=Turchin, P.|title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|pages=185–186|isbn=0691116695}}</ref> led by warlike tribes, such as the ] and ]. A ], the ], ruled the lower ] basin steppes between the ] and ]s until the 8th century.<ref name=Christian>{{cite book|author=Christian, D.|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|pages=286–288|isbn=0631208143}}</ref>

The ancestors of modern ] are the ], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see Barford, P.M.|title=The Early Slavs|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=15–16|isbn=0801439779|year=2001}}</ref> Moving into the lands vacated by the migrating ], the ] gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from ] toward present-day ] and ] and another from ] toward ] and ].<ref name=Christian2>{{cite book|author=Christian, D.|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|pages=6–7|isbn=}}</ref> From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<ref name=Christian2/> and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native ] tribes, including the ],<ref>{{cite book|author=Paszkiewicz, H.K.|title=The Making of the Russian Nation|publisher=Darton, Longman & Todd|year=1963|page=262}}</ref> the ]s,<ref>{{cite book|author=McKitterick, R.|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1995-06-17 |page=497|isbn=0521364477}}</ref> and the ].<ref name=Mongait>{{cite book|author=]|title=Archeology in the U.S.S.R.|publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House|year=1959|page=335}}</ref>

===Kievan Rus'===
{{main|Kievan Rus'}}
The 9th century saw the establishment of ], a predecessor state to Russia, ] and ]. ]n Norsemen, called "]s" in Western Europe and "]" in the East,<ref>{{cite web|last=See, for instance,|title=Viking (Varangian) Oleg|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/427466/Oleg|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> combined ] and trade in their roamings over much of Europe. In the mid-9th century, they ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic ] ] Seas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Obolensky, D.|title=Byzantium and the Slavs|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=1994|page=42|isbn=088141008X}}</ref>

According to the ], a Varangian from ], named ], was elected ruler of ] in 862. His successor ] moved south and conquered ] in 882,<ref>{{cite book|author=Thompson, J.W.; Johnson, E.N.|title=An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|year=1937|page=268|isbn=0415346991}}</ref> which had been previously dominated by the ];<ref>{{cite book|author=Christian, D.|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|page=343|isbn=0631208143}}</ref> so the state of ] started. ], Rurik's son ] and Igor's son ] subsequently subdued all ] tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the ] and launched ] to ].
]'', a painting by ].]]

In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus' became the largest and most prosperous state in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ukraine: Security Assistance|publisher=U.S. Department of State|url=http://www.state.gov/t/pm/64851.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The reigns of ] (980–1015) and his son ] (1019–1054) constitute the ] of ], which saw ] ] from ] and the creation of the first East Slavic written ], the '']''.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic ] tribes, such as the ] and the ], caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as ].<ref name="Klyuch1">{{cite book|author=Klyuchevsky, V.|title=The course of the Russian history|volume=1|url=http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|isbn=5244000721|year=1987|publisher=Myslʹ}}</ref> The age of ] and decentralization had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the ] that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of ] in the north-east, ] in the north-west and ] in the south-west.

Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the ] of 1237–1240,<ref name="Hamm">{{cite book|author=Hamm, M.F.|title=Kiev: A Portrait, 1800–1917|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691025851|year=1995}}</ref> that resulted in the destruction of Kiev<ref></ref> and the death of about half the population of Rus'.<ref></ref> The invaders, later known as ], formed the state of the ], which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries, impeding the country's economic and social development.<ref>{{cite book|author=Рыбаков, Б. А.|title=Ремесло Древней Руси|year=1948|pages=525–533,780–781}}</ref>

Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the ], while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and the independent ], two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name=Curtis/> The ] together with ] retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the ] and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by ], Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the ] in 1240, as well as the ] in the ] in 1242, breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus'.

===Grand Duchy of Moscow===
{{main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}}
] blessing ] in ], before the ]. A painting by Ernest Lissner.]]
] in ]. Built in the 15th century by an ], it became the site of ] of ] and ].]]
The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the ] ("Moscovy" in the Western chronicles), initially a part of ]. While still under the domain of the ] and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in Western Russia in the early 14th century.

Those were hard times, with frequent ]s and agriculture suffering from the beginning of the ]. Like in the rest of Europe, ]s hit Russia somewhere once every five or six years from 1350 to 1490. However, due to the lower population density and better hygiene (widespread practicing of ]),<ref> {{ru icon}}</ref> the population loss caused by plagues wasn't so severe as in the Western Europe, and the pre-Plague populations seem to have been reached in Russia as early as 1500.<ref>"''''". Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004). p.62. ISBN 0313324921</ref>

Assisted by the ] and Saint ]'s spiritual revival, under the leadership of Prince ] of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the ] (1380). Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities, including eventually the strong rivals, such as ] and ], and thus became the main leading force in the process of Russia's reunification and expansion.

] (''Ivan the Great'') finally threw off the control of the ], consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first to take the title "grand duke of all the Russias".<ref>{{cite web|author=May, T.|title=Khanate of the Golden Horde|url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> After the ] in 1453, Moscow ] of the ]. Ivan III married ], the niece of the last ] ], and made the Byzantine ] his own, and eventually Russian, coat-of-arms.

===Tsardom of Russia===
{{main|Tsardom of Russia}}
] by ], 1897]]
] (1804–1816) in front of ]]]
In development of the ] ideas, the Grand Duke ] (''Ivan the Terrible'') was officially crowned the first ] ("]") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws (]), established the first Russian feudal representative body (]) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<ref name=solovyov>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|pages=562–604|volume=6|isbn=5170021429}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Skrynnikov, R.|title=Ivan the Terrible|publisher=Academic Intl Pr|year=1981|page=219|isbn=0875690394}}</ref>

During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated ]): ] and ] along the ], and ] in South Western ]. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a ], multiconfessional and ].

In contrast to these great achievements in the East, Ivan IV's policy in the West brought quite disastrous results. The Russian state was weakened by the long and unsuccessful ] against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=6|pages=751–908|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> At the same time Tatars of the ], the only remaining successor to the ], continued to invade Southern Russia in a series of slave raids,<ref>"" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, ''Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.''</ref> and were even able to ] in 1571.<ref>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=6|pages=751–809|isbn=5170021429}}</ref>

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient ] in 1598, and in combination with the ],<ref name=b1>"Nighttime temperatures in all summer months, often below freezing, wrecked crops" {{cite book|author=Borisenkov E, Pasetski V.|title=The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena|isbn=5244002120|page=190}}</ref> led to the civil war, the rule of pretenders and foreign intervention during the ] in the early 1600s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=7|pages=461–568|isbn=5170021429}}</ref> ] occupied parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612 the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes: ], a merchant, and ]. A new dynasty, the ], acceded the throne in 1613 by the decision of ], and Russia started its gradual recovery from the crisis.

]'s ]'' by ].]]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of ]. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling ] and ]. In 1648, the peasants of ] joined the ] in rebellion against ] during the ], because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, ], offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, ]. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to ] between Poland and Russia. Finally, Ukraine was split along the river ], leaving the western part (or ]) under Polish rule and eastern part (] and ]) under Russian. Soon after that, in 1670-71 the ] led by ] initiated a major Cossack and peasant uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.

In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of ] was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable ]s and ]. ] pushed eastward primarily along the ], and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the ], on the ], along the ], and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the ] between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by the expedition of ] and ].

===Imperial Russia===
{{main|Russian Empire}}
] officially proclaimed the existence of the ] in 1721. A portrait by ].]]
] ruled Russia during the ]. A portrait by ].]]
Under ] (''Peter the Great''), Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the ], forcing it to cede West ] and ] (two regions lost by Russia in the ]),<ref>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=9, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/09_01.html|isbn=5170021429|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> ], and ], securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<ref>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=15, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/15_01.html}}</ref> On the ] Peter founded a new capital called ], later known as Russia's ''Window to Europe''. ] brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia.

The reign of ]'s daughter ] in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the ] (1756–1763), sometimes called the first actual World War. During this conflict Russia was able to annex ] for a while, and even take Berlin once, however upon Elisabeth's death all these conquests were returned to ] by pro-Prussian ].

] (''Catherine the Great''), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts to establish Russia as one of the ] of Europe. She extended Russian political control over the ] and incorporated most of the Commonwealth territories into Russia during the ], pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe.

In the south, after successful ] against the ], Cathrine advanced Russia's boundary to the ], defeating the ]. As a result of victories over the Ottomans, by the early 19th century Russia also had made significant territorial gains in ]. This continued with ] (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of ] from the Ottomans in 1812.

At the same time, in the second half of the 18th century and in the first half of the 19th, Russians colonised Alaska and even founded some settlements in ], like ]. In 1803-1806 ] was made, followed during the 19th century by the other notable Russian ]. In 1820 ] discovered the ] continent.

] through the ]'' by ]. A scene from ] ].]]
]'s withdrawal from Russia'', a painting by ].]]
In alliance with ] and Austria, Russia fought against ]'s France. ]'s ] at the height of his power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate Russian resistance in combination with the bitterly cold ] dealt him a disastrous defeat, in which more than 95% of his invading force perished.<ref name=uslibrary>{{cite web|title=Ruling the Empire|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/5.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Led by ] and ], the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe as a part of the ], finally entering Paris.

Tsar Alexander I headed Russia's delegation at the ] that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe. The officers of the ] brought ideas of ] back to Russia with them and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive ] of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression.

The prevalence of ] and the conservative policies of ] (1825–1855) impeded the development of Russia in the mid-nineteenth century, when a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the ]. Nicholas's successor ] (1855–1881) enacted significant reforms, including the ] in 1861; these ''Great Reforms'' spurred ] and modernized the Russian army, which had successfully liberated ] from Ottoman rule in ].

However, many socio-economic conflicts were aggravated during ]’s reign (1881-1894) and under his son, ] (1894-1917). Harsh conditions in factories created mass support for the revolutionary ]. In January 1905, striking workers peaceably demonstrated for reforms in ] but were fired upon by troops, killing and wounding hundreds. This event, known as "]", along with the abject failure of the Tsar's military forces in the initially popular ], ignited the ].

Although the uprising was put down and Nicholas II retained much of his power, he was forced to concede major reforms, including granting the ] and ], the legalization of political parties and the creation of an elected legislative assembly, the ]; however, the hopes for basic improvements in the lives of industrial workers were mainly unfulfilled. Between 1850 and 1900, Russia's population doubled, but it remained chiefly rural.<ref>"". ].</ref> The ] was one of the worst of the eleven major ] that scourged Russia between 1845 and 1922.<ref>"" (PDF). ].</ref>

] in 1866 and its spheres of influence.]]
]'' by ], a visual representation of the ].]]
In 1914 Russia entered ] in response to Austria's declaration of war on Russia's ally ], and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its ] allies. The Russian army achieved such successes as the ] in 1916, destroying the military of ] almost completely.

However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, casualties (Russia suffered the highest number of ] of the ]), and rumors of corruption and treason, leading to the outbreak of the ], carried out in two major acts.

A series of uprisings were organized by workers and peasants throughout the country, as well as by soldiers in the Russian army, who were mainly of peasant origin; many of them were led by democratically elected councils called '']''. This first revolution, or ], overthrew the ], which was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the ].

The abdication of ] marked the end of imperial rule in Russia; the last Tsar and his family were imprisoned and ] during the ]. While initially receiving the support of the Soviets, the Provisional Government proved unable to resolve many problems which had led to the February Revolution. The second revolution, the ], led by ] leader ], overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first ].

===Soviet Russia===
{{main|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|History of the Soviet Union|Russian SFSR}}
], leader of the ]s and founder of the USSR.]]
]'', a giant sculpture by ] atop the Soviet pavilion at ] in ].]]
Following the ], a ] broke out between the new regime and the ] ], while the ] concluded hostilities with the ] in World War I. Russia lost its ], Polish, ], and Finnish territories by signing the treaty.

The ] launched a ] in support of anti-Communist forces and both the ] and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the ] and ]. By the end of the ] the Russian economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. During the same period, the ] claimed 5 million victims.<ref>, International Committee of the Red Cross</ref>

The ] together with three other Soviet republics ] the ] on 30 December 1922. Out of the ] that later constituted the Soviet Union, the ], the largest republic in terms of size and making up over half of the total USSR population, dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 69-year history; the USSR was often referred to, though incorrectly, as ''"Russia"'' and its people as ''"Russians"''.

Following ]'s death in 1924, ], an elected ], managed to put down all opposition groups within the party and consolidate much power in his hands. ], the main proponent of the ], was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of ] became the primary line. In 1930s a number of open political trials gained much attention in the USSR and the world. The continued internal struggle in the ] culminated in the ], a period of mass repressions in 1937-38, in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including experienced military leadership.<ref>"". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>

Since the end of 1920s, the government launched a ], rapid ] of the largely rural country, and ] of its agriculture. Millions of citizens were relocated during the ] campaign that accompanied the collectivization. Millions of people passed through the '']'' from 1929 to 1953,<ref>Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct., 1993).</ref> with millions more being ] to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref>According to ], between 1939 and 1953, there was, in the work camps, a 10% death rate per year, rising to 20% in 1938. Robert Conquest in ''Victims of Stalinism: A Comment.'' Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 49, No. 7 (Nov., 1997), pp. 1317-1319 states:"We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4-5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labour settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures."</ref> The temporary transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the ].<ref>R.W. Davies, S.G. Wheatcroft (2004). ''The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–33''. pp. 401. For a review, see {{cite web | format = ] | url = http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/faculty/harrison/reviews/davies-wheatcroft2004.pdf | publisher = Warwick | title = Davies & Weatcroft, 2004}}</ref> However, though with a heavy price, the Soviet Union was transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.

] from ] to ], with ] as a driver of the Soviet locomotive.]]
In 1933, in ], ] and his ] came to power, being outspoken enemies of ] and proponents of ] and German expansion. Very soon the ] changed dramatically, completely dropping the idea of seeking the ] (the very mention of it was eradicated from the new ]). The USSR entered the ], and Soviet diplomacy tried to establish counter-Nazism security pacts with major European countries, but these attempts mostly failed.

The ] of ] and ] towards ]'s annexions of ], ] and finally of ] (following the ] of 1938) enlarged the might of ] and put a threat of war to the Soviet Union. Around the same time the ] allied with ], a rival of the USSR on the ] and an open enemy in the ] in 1938-1939.

In August 1939, after another failure of talks with Britain and France, the Soviet government agreed to conclude the ] with Germany, pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividing their spheres of influence in ]. This allowed ] to finally start ] and to conquer ], ] and other countries acting on single front. At the same time the USSR was able to regain some of the former territories of the ] in Eastern Europe (see ] and ]), and to gain one and a half more years for building up the ].

On 22 June 1941, ] broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,<ref>{{cite web|title=World War II|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2008-03-09|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648813/World-War-II}}</ref> opening the ]. Although the ] had considerable success early on, their onslaught was halted in the ].

], 1942. The vast majority of the fighting in the World War II took place on the ].<ref name="Weinberg, G.L. 1995 264"/> Nazi Germany suffered 80% to 93% of all casualties there.<ref name="theage.com.au"/><ref name="Who won World War II"/>]]
Subsequently the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the ] in the winter of 1942–1943,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648813/World-War-II|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-03-12|title=The Allies' first decisive successes > Stalingrad and the German retreat, summer 1942–February 1943}}</ref> and then in the ] in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the battle of ], in which the city was fully ] between 1941–44 by German and Finnish forces, suffering starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendering.

Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such prominent commanders as ] and ], Soviet forces drove through ] in 1944–45 and ] in May 1945. After marking this by the ], the Soviet Army ] from China's ] and ], contributing to the allied victory over Japan.

] was the first major Soviet event recorded on color film.]]
1941–1945 period of ] is known in Russia as '']''. In this conflict, which included many of ] in human history, Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,<ref name=vadim>{{cite book|author=Erlikman, V.|title=Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik|year=2004|id=Note: Estimates for Soviet World War II casualties vary between sources|isbn=5931651071|publisher=Russkai︠a︡ panorama|location=Moskva}}</ref> accounting for about a third of all ]. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation<ref>{{cite web|title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged ].

The ] occupied ] after the war, including the ] of Germany. Dependent socialist governments were installed in these ]. The USSR maintained control over these nations by many means, sometimes by military force, as in the ]. Becoming the world's second ], the USSR established the ] alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States, which became known as the ].

The ] exported its ] to newly formed independent allies, the People's Republic of China and the ], while also helping these countries in ] and ]. Subsequently the ideas of ] gained ground in ] and many other countries.

After ]'s death and a short period of collective leadership, a new leader ] denounced the ] and started the process of ]. ] labor camps were abolished and a great many of prisoners released;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916205-2,00.html|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-08-01|title=Great Escapes from the Gulag}}</ref> the general easement of repressive policies became known later as ].

].]]
In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial ], '']'', and the Russian ] ] became the first human being to orbit the ] aboard the first manned spacecraft, '']'', on ]. Tensions with the ] heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. ] in ] and Soviet ].

] in ], completed in 1967 on the 50th anniversary of the ]. 540 metre high, it was ] at that time.]]
Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective rule ensued, until ] established himself in the early 1970s as the pre-eminent figure in Soviet politics. Brezhnev's rule oversaw ], since the reforms, attempted by the ] ], were stifled. Those reforms had been aimed into shifting the emphasis of the ] from ] and ] to ] and the production of ]. However that would mean significant ] of economy and implementing ]-like elements, and the ] leadership wouldn't accept this.

In 1979 the Soviet forces entered ] at the request of the existing communist government. The subsequent occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results. Ultimately ] were withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1989 because of international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerilla warfare (enhanced by the U.S.), and a lack of support from Soviet citizens. Tensions rose between the U.S. and Soviet Union in the early 1980s, fueled by anti-Soviet rhetoric in the U.S., the ongoing Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the ], and the controversial downing in 1983 of ] by the Soviets.

Prior to 1991, the ] was the second largest in the world,<ref name=cia1990>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt|publisher=]|accessdate=2008-03-09|title=1990 CIA World Factbook}}</ref> but during its last years it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/russia/economy/russia_economy_unforeseen_results_o~1315.html|title=Russia Unforeseen Results of Reform|publisher=The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook|accessdate=2008-03-10}}</ref> From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader ] introduced the policies of '']'' (openness) and '']'' (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country and make it more ]. However, this unexpectedly led to the rise of ] and ].

In August 1991, an unsuccessful ], directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to its collapse. In ], ] came to power and declared the end of ] rule. The USSR splintered into ] and was ] in December 1991. Boris Yeltsin was elected the ] in June 1991, in the first direct ] in Russian history.

===Russian Federation===
{{main|History of post-Soviet Russia}}
]
]s banknote of 1997, with '']'' monument and ] on the obverse, while ] on the reverse.]]
During and after the ], when wide-ranging reforms including ] and
] and ] were being undertaken,<ref name=OECD/> the Russian economy went through a major crisis. The period was characterized by deep contraction of output, with ] declining by roughly 50% between 1990 and the end of 1995 and industrial output declining by over 50%.<ref name=OECD/><ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Economic Conditions in Mid-1996|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ru0119)}}</ref>

In October 1991, ] announced that Russia would proceed with radical, market-oriented reform along the lines of "]", as recommended by the United States and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/05/12/edme.php|title=Russia: Shock Therapy Isn't the Way to Promote Democracy|publisher=International Herald Tribune|author=Melvin Fagen|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED91F39F932A15751C1A965958260|title= U.S. is abandoning 'shock therapy' for the Russians|author=Sciolino, E.|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-01-20 | date=1993-12-21}}</ref> ] were abolished, ] was started. Millions plunged into poverty, from 1.5% of the population living in poverty in the late Soviet era, to 39%-49% by mid-1993.<ref name=worldbank>{{cite book|author=Branko Milanovic|title=Income, Inequality, and Poverty During the Transformation from Planned to Market Economy|publisher=The World Bank|year=1998|pages=186–189}}</ref>

Delays in wage payment became a chronic problem with millions being paid months, even years late. Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's ]s, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia pays off USSR’s entire debt, sets to become crediting country|publisher=Pravda.ru|url=http://english.pravda.ru/russia/economics/22-08-2006/84038-paris-club-0|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The privatization process largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to groups of individuals with inside connections in the Government and the ]. ] became an everyday rule of life. Many of the newly rich mobsters and businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Clawing Its Way Back to Life (int'l edition)|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_48/b3657252.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of social services; the ] plummeted while the ] skyrocketed. The early and mid-1990s saw extreme lawlessness, rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.<ref name=sokolov>{{cite journal|author=Sokolov, V.|title=From Guns to Briefcases: The Evolution of Russian Organized Crime|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=XXI|issue= 1|date=Spring 2004|url=http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/articles/wpj04-1/sokolov.htm|format={{dead link|date=April 2010}}}}</ref>

] under construction.]]
The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the ], both ethnic conflicts between local groups and separatist ] insurrections against federal power. Since the ] separatists had declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent ] ] was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by separatists, most notably the ] and ], caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention.

High budget deficits and the ] caused the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/aslund0108.pdf|title=Russia's Capitalist Revolution|author=Aslund A|accessdate=2008-03-28|format=PDF}}</ref> and resulted in further GDP decline.<ref name=OECD>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/7/50/2452793.pdf|accessdate=2008-02-24|format=PDF}}</ref> On 31 December 1999 President Yeltsin resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed ], ], who then won ].

Putin ], although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the Northern Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, improving the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage.<ref name=cia/> While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,<ref>{{cite web|author=Treisman, D|title=Is Russia's Experiment with Democracy Over?|url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=16294|publisher=UCLA International Institute|accessdate=2007-12-31}}</ref> Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia.<ref>{{cite news|author=Stone, N|title=No wonder they like Putin|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article2994651.ece|publisher=The Times|accessdate=2007-12-31 | location=London | date=2007-12-04}}</ref> On 2 March 2008, ] was elected ], whilst Putin became ].

==Government and politics==
{{main|Government of Russia|Politics of Russia}}
], part of the ] and the working residence of the ].]]
], the seat of the ], Moscow.]]
According to the ], which was adopted by national referendum on 12 December 1993 following the ], Russia is a ] and formally a ] ], wherein the President is the ]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 80, §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the ] is the ]. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a ]. ] is exercised by the government.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 110, §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-07.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

] is vested in the two chambers of the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 94)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The government is regulated by a system of ] defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as a ] for the people of the Russian Federation. The federal government is composed of three branches:
* ]: The ] ], made up of the ] and the ] adopts ], ], approves treaties, has the ], and has power of ], by which it can remove the President.
* ]: The president is the ] of the military, can veto ] before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
* ]: The ], ], ] and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem ].

] on ] in Moscow.]]
]'' monument in front of the ] in ].]]
According to the Constitution, the justice in the court is based on the equality of all citizens,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 19, §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> judges are independent and subject only to the law,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 120, §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> trials are to be open and the accused is guaranteed a defense.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 123, §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Since 1996, Russia has instituted a moratorium on the ], although capital punishment has not been abolished by law.

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term but constitutionally barred for a third consecutive term);<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 81, §3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> election last held in 2008. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma).
The national legislature is the ], which consists of two chambers; the 450-member ]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, §3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and the 176-member ]. Leading political parties in Russia include ], the ], the ], and ].

===Human rights===
{{main|Human rights in Russia}}
The rights and liberties of the citizens of the ] are granted by Chapter 2 of the ]. Russia is a signatory to the ] and has also ratified a number of other ].

In 2004, ], the first ] of the ], said that "''the fledgling Russian democracy is still, of course, far from perfect, but its existence and its successes cannot be denied.''"<ref></ref>

However, some leading international democracy and human rights organizations consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<ref name="en.wikipedia.org"></ref><ref name="hrw.org">Human Rights Watch on Russia and Chechnya </ref><ref>Human Rights House http://www.humanrightshouse.org/</ref> US-funded international organization ] ranks Russia as "not free", citing "carefully engineered elections" and "absence" of debate.<ref></ref> ] accuses Russia of committing wide ranging human rights abuses, including granting impunity for murderers of human rights activists, imprisoning political dissidents and operating a system of arbitrary arrest.<ref name="en.wikipedia.org"/> ] claims Russia commits grave human rights violations in Chechnya and allows the systematic abuse of migrant workers.<ref name="hrw.org"/> ] is considered amongst the lowest in the world by ] organization ] and is ranked 141st in their annual survey, on the basis that the Russian authorities "black list" figures that are critical of the government, practice "official harassment", and "gag" potential dissidents.<ref></ref>

Russian authorities and many Russian experts dismiss these claims and especially criticise the ]. The ] has called the 2006 ] "prefabricated";<ref></ref> the ministry also claims that such organizations as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same scheme of voluntary extrapolation of ''"isolated facts that of course can be found in any country"'' into ''"dominant tendencies"''. The chairwoman of the Civil Society Institution and Human Rights Council at the ] ] also criticized the Freedom House views on Russia as ''"ridiculous, absurd and far-fetched"''<ref></ref>.

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}}
] nations in 2008: (l-r) ] of India, Dmitry Medvedev of Russia, ] of China and ] of Brazil.]]
The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as ] of the former ].<ref name=uk>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/europe/russia/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat on the ], membership in other international organizations, the rights and obligations under international treaties and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191 countries and has 144 embassies.<ref>
Based on actual count of countries listed
{{cite web
|url=http://www.mid.ru/nsite-sv.nsf/4d82d693c900b211c325756300358f4c/48c43a5acd47994ac32575760040ff1d?OpenDocument
|title=Note about the diplomatic relations of Russia with foreign states
|accessdate=2009-11-28
|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia
}}. Only those listed explicitly as "Embassy of Russia" are included in the embassy count.</ref>
The foreign policy is determined by the ] and implemented by the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Kosachev. K|title=Russian Foreign Policy Vertical|publisher=Russia In Global Affairs|url=http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/numbers/8/578.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security. The country participates in the ] and the ] with ]. Russia is a member of the ] (G8) industrialized nations, the ], ] and ]. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as the ], ], ], and the ]. Former President Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of ].<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|url=http://rian.ru/politics/20041125/743119.html|title=Interview of official Ambassador of Russian Foreign Ministry on relations with the EU|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-06-30}}</ref> Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile ] with ]. The ] was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.<ref>{{cite web|title=NATO-Russia relations|publisher =NATO|url=http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/topic.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Armed Forces of the Russian Federation}}
] and ] military ] teams in a rhombus formation]]
Russia assumed control of Soviet assets abroad and most of the Soviet Union's production facilities and defense industries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 2—Investing In Russian Defense Conversion: Obstacles and Opportunities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/industry/docs/rus95/rdbd4ch2.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The Russian military is divided into the ], ], and ]. There are also three independent arms of service: ], ], and the ]. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.<ref name=iiss/>

], the ]'s ].]]

Russia has ] in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern ] force.<ref name=fas>{{cite web|title=Status of Nuclear Powers and Their Nuclear Capabilities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/summary.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia's ] force is the largest in the world, its surface ] and ] are among the strongest. The country has a large and fully indigenous ], producing most of its own military equipment with only few types of weapons imported. Russia is the world's top supplier of arms, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<ref name="abc.net.au">{{cite web|title=US drives world military spending to record high|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200606/s1661277.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<ref name="RIA Novosti">{{cite web|title=Russia arms exports could exceed $7 bln in 2007 - Ivanov|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-01-27|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20071224/93979601.html}}</ref>

It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be ] for a year of service in Armed Forces; the government plans to increase the proportion of ] to 70% by 2010.<ref name=cia/> Defense expenditure has quadrupled over the past six years<ref>{{Cite book|publisher=FBIS: Informatsionno-Analiticheskoye Agentstvo Marketing i Konsalting|date=14 March 2006|title=Russia: Assessment, Adam Baltin Interview, Opinion Poll on State of Armed Forces}}</ref>. According to ] estimates, official government military spending for 2008 was $58 billion, the ],<ref>{{cite web|http://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2009/05/05A|title=The top 10 military spenders, 2008|publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute figures|accessdate=2009}}</ref> though various sources, including US intelligence,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abcnews.go.com/WN/story?id=3728855|title=Rice: Russia's Military Moves 'a Problem'|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref> and the ],<ref name=iiss>{{cite journal|journal=International Institute for Strategic Studies|title=Overview of the major Asian Powers|page=31|url=http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/060626_asia_balance_powers.pdf|accessdate=2008-01-27}}</ref> have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/spending.htm|publisher=Global Security|title=World Wide Military Expenditures|accessdate=2008-01-06}}</ref>
Currently, the military is undergoing a major ] upgrade worth about $200 billion between 2006 and 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/feb/09/russia.usa|publisher=Guardian|title=Big rise in Russian military spending raises fears of new challenge to west|accessdate=2008-01-06 | location=London | first=Luke | last=Harding | date=2007-02-09}}</ref> Defense Minister ]<ref name="defensebrief">{{cite journal|author=Pukhov, R.|year=2009|title=Serdyukov Cleans Up the Arbat|journal=]|publisher=]|issue=#1 (15) / 2009|url=http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/1-2008/item2/article1/|accessdate=2009-05-19}}</ref> supervises the major reforms aimed to transform a mass mobilization army into a smaller force of contract soldiers.<ref name="barabanov">{{cite web|url=http://cast.ru/eng/?id=333|title=The Army's Chief Destroyer|author=Barabanov, M|date=2009-02-16|publisher=The Moscow Times|accessdate=2009-05-19}}</ref>

===Subdivisions===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Russia}}
] of the Russian Federation.]]
;Federal subjects
The Russian Federation comprises 83&nbsp;].<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 65, §1) In 1993, when the Constitution was adopted, there were 89&nbsp;subjects listed. Some of them were later ]|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, §2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.
* 46 ] (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature.
* 21 ]: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.
* 9 ] (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts.
* 4 ] (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of ], all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part.
* 1 ] (the ]): originally autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
* 2 ] (] and ]): major cities that function as separate regions.

;Federal districts
Federal subjects are grouped into 8 ], each administered by an envoy appointed by the ].<ref name="OkerFD">{{lang|ru|"Общероссийский классификатор экономических регионов" (ОК&nbsp;024–95) введённый 1&nbsp;января 1997&nbsp;г., в ред. Изменения №&nbsp;05/2001. Секция&nbsp;I. Федеральные округа}} (''Russian Classificaton of Economic Regions'' (OK&nbsp;024–95) of 1 January 1997 as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. Section&nbsp;I. Federal Districts)</ref> Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Russia}}
<div style="font-size: 90%">
{| class="wikitable" style="border:1px black; float:left; margin-left:1em;"
! style="background:#F99;" colspan="2"|Ethnic composition (2002)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.1. National composition of population|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref>
|-
|]||79.8%
|-
|]||3.8%
|-
|]||2.0%
|-
|]||1.2%
|-
|]||1.1%
|-
|]||0.9%
|-
|]||0.8%
|-
|Other/unspecified||10.4%
|}
</div>

] in ], 1991 - 1 January 2010 of ].<ref name="gks">{{cite web|title=Demographics|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b09_00/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/7-0.htm|accessdate=2009-02-21}}</ref>]]
Ethnic Russians comprise 79.8% of the population; however the Russian Federation is also home to several sizeable minorities. In total, 160 different other ethnic groups and indigenous peoples live within its borders.<ref>{{cite web|title=1 June 2007: A great number of children in Russia remain highly vulnerable|publisher=United Nations Children's Fund|url=http://www.unicef.org/russia/media_6762.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Though Russia's population is comparatively large, its density is low because of the country's enormous size.<ref>See '']''</ref> Population is densest in ], near the ], and in southwest ]. 73% of the population lives in urban areas while 27% in rural ones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Resident population|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-01.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The population of Russia is 141,927,297 as of 1 January 2010.<ref name="pop2010"/>

In 2008, the population declined by 121,400 people, or by -0.085% (in 2007 – by 212,000, or 0.15% and in 2006 – by 532,600 people, or 0.37%). In 2008 migration continued to grow by a pace of 2.7% with 281,615 migrants arriving to the Russian Federation, of which 95% came from ] countries, the vast majority being Russians or ].<ref name="gks"/><ref name=demo>{{cite web|accessdate=2008-03-05|title=Demography|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b08_00/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/7-0.htm}}</ref>

The number of Russian emigrants declined by 16% to 39,508, of which 66% went to other CIS countries. There are also an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants from the ] states in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia cracking down on illegal migrants|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=15 January 2007|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/15/news/migrate.php|accessdate =}}</ref> Roughly 116 million ethnic Russians live in Russia<ref>, 2002 census, ''Demoscope Weekly''. Retrieved 5 February 2009.</ref> and about 20 million more live in other former republics of the Soviet Union, mostly in ] and ].<ref>"", BBC News, 23 November 2005.</ref>

The population of Russia peaked at 148,689,000 in 1991, just before the ]. It began to experience a rapid decline starting in the mid-90s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/29.htm|publisher=Library of Congress|title=Demographics|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> The decline has slowed to near stagnation in recent years due to reduced ], increased ] and increased ]. The number of deaths during 2008 was 363,500 greater than the number of births. This is down from 477,700 in 2007, and 687,100 in 2006.<ref name="gks"/><ref name=demo/> According to data published by the Russian Federal State Statistics Service, the mortality rate in Russia declined 4% in 2007, as compared to 2006, reaching some 2 million deaths, while the birth rate grew 8.3% year-on-year to an estimated 1.6 million live births.<ref name=ri>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080221/99803097.html|title=Russia's population down 0.17% in 2007 to 142 mln|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref>

The primary causes of Russia's population decrease are a high death rate and low birth rate. While Russia's birth-rate is comparable to that of other European countries (12.1 births per 1000 people in 2008<ref name="gks"/> compared to the ] average of 9.90 per 1000)<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order&nbsp;— Birth rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2054rank.html|accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> its population is declining at a greater rate than many due to a substantially higher death rate (in 2008, Russia's death rate was 14.5 per 1000 people<ref name="gks"/> compared to the European Union average of 10.28 per 1000).<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order&nbsp;— Death rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2066rank.html|accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> However, the Russian Ministry of Health and Social Affairs predicts that by 2011, the death rate will equal the birth rate due to increases in fertility and decline in mortality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080123/97616414.html|title=Russia's birth, mortality rates to equal by 2011 - ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-02-10}}</ref>

{{Largest cities of Russia}}

===Language===
{{main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}}
] is spoken.]]
Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages.<ref name=britannica/> According to the 2002 census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by ] with 5.3 million and ] with 1.8 million speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.3. Population by nationalities and knowledge of Russian; 4.4. Spreading of knowledge of languages (except Russian)|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-16}}</ref> Russian is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual ] the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 68, §2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

Despite its wide dispersal, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken ].<ref name=toronto>{{cite web|title=Russian|publisher=University of Toronto|url=http://learn.utoronto.ca/Page625.aspx|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russian belongs to the ] family and is one of the living members of the ]; the others being ] and ] (and possibly ]). Written examples of ] (''Old Russian'') are attested from the 10th century onwards.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|title=Russian language|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572449/Russian_Language.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

Over a quarter of the world's scientific literature is published in Russian. Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge—60–70% of all world information is published in the English and Russian languages.<ref name=lomonosov>{{cite web|title=Russian language course|publisher=Russian Language Centre, Moscow State University|url=http://www.rlcentre.com/russian-language-course.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The language is one of the six ] of the ].

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Russia}}
], demolished in the Soviet times and rebuilt from 1990–2000]]
], ], ] and ] are Russia’s traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bell, I|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA47|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>
Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia at 16–48% of the population.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zuckerman, P|title=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns, chapter in The Cambridge Companion to Atheism, ed. by Michael Martin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=}}</ref> ] is the dominant religion in Russia.<ref name=relig>{{cite web|title=Religion In Russia|publisher=Embassy of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.russianembassy.org/RUSSIA/religion.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the ] while there are a number of ].<ref>{{cite web|title={{ru icon}} Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской Федерации По данным Федеральной регистрационной службы|date=December 2006|url=http://www.religare.ru/article36302.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.<ref name=encarta>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|title=Russia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_6/Russia.html|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> Smaller Christian denominations such as ], ], and various ] exist.

The ancestors of many of today’s Russians ] in the 10th century.<ref name=encarta/> The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published by the US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90196.htm|accessdate=2008-04-08|title=Russia}}</ref> According to a poll by the ], 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves ] and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.<ref name=religionsurvey>{{cite web|title={{ru_icon}} Опубликована подробная сравнительная статистика религиозности в России и Польше|publisher=religare.ru|date=6 June 2007|url=http://www.religare.ru/article42432.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

].]]
It is estimated that Russia is home to some 15–20 million ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Fact Box: Muslims In Russia|publisher=Radio Free Europe|url=http://rfe.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/07/b7d5e783-749f-4e6a-b77e-8932ece7ad53.html?napage=2|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref name=timesmuslim>{{cite news|author=Page, J|title=The rise of Russian Muslims worries Orthodox Church|published=The Times|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article551693.ece|accessdate=2007-12-27 | location=London | date=2005-08-05}}</ref> However, the Islamic scholar and human rights activist ] has claimed that there are only 7 to 9 million people who adhere to the Islamic faith in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=2869|publisher=Interfax|title=20Mln Muslims in Russia and mass conversion of ethnic Russians are myths&nbsp;— expert|accessdate=2008-04-01}}</ref> Russia also has an estimated 3 million to 4 million Muslim migrants from the ].<ref name=financialtimes>{{cite web|title=Russia's Islamic rebirth adds tension|publisher=Financial Times|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3f3fba2c-474f-11da-b8e5-00000e2511c8.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Most Muslims live in the ], as well as in the ], Moscow,<ref>, VOA News, 18 June 2007</ref> ] and western ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mainville, M|title=Russia has a Muslim dilemma|work=Page A - 17|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle|date=19 November 2006|url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/11/19/MNGJGMFUVG1.DTL|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

] is traditional for three regions of the Russian Federation: ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite news|author=Nettleton, S|title=Prayers for Ivolginsky|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2000/russia/story/train/ivolginsky.monastery/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, ], ], etc., practice ], ], and ] rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. ] are overwhelmingly Orthodox Christian. ] speakers are predominantly Muslim, although several Turkic groups in Russia are not.<ref name=religion2>{{cite web|title=Russia::Religion|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Health in Russia}}
The Russian Constitution guarantees free, ] for all citizens.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 41)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In practice, however, free health care is partially restricted due to ] regime.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian ombudsman about propiska restrictions in modern Russia|url=http://www.newsru.com/russia/06jun2007/lukin.html|accessdate=2008-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Residency Restrictions in Moscow by Brad K. Blitz|url=http://zakirov.ru/Citizenship_Studies.pdf|accessdate=2008-07-23}}</ref>
While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world on a ] basis,<ref>{{cite book|author=Field, M G|title=The health and demographic crisis in post-Soviet Russia: a two-phase development in "Russia’s Torn Safety Nets", edited by Field M. G., Twigg J. L. (eds)|publisher=St. Martin’s Press|location=2000:11–42}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Highlights on Health in the Russian Federation|publisher =World Health Organization|year=1999|url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/e72504.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> since the collapse of the ] the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, and lifestyle changes.<ref>{{cite web|author=Leonard, W R|title=Declining growth status of indigenous Siberian children in post-Soviet Russia|month=April|year=2002|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200204/ai_n9037764|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As of 2007, the average ] in Russia is 61.5 years for males and 73.9 years for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.duma-er.ru/news/29056|publisher=United Russia|title=Продолжительность жизни россиян возросла с 2005 по 2007 г на 2,4 года, до 67,7 года|accessdate=2008-05-01}}</ref> The combined average Russian life expectancy of 67.7 years at birth is 10.8 years shorter than the overall figure in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ee.html|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|title=European Union|accessdate=2008-01-20}}</ref>

The biggest factor contributing to this relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, stress, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crimes). Mortality among Russian men rose by 60% since 1991, four to five times higher than in Europe.<ref name=heart>{{cite web|title=Heart disease kills 1.3 million annually in Russia&nbsp;— chief cardiologist|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070214/60721668.html|accessdate=2007-12-27 }}</ref> As a result of the large difference in life expectancy between men and women and because of the lasting effect of ], where Russia ] in the world, the ] remains to this day and there are 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/>

]
Heart diseases account for 56.7% of total deaths, with about 30% involving people still of working age. A study blamed alcohol for more than half the deaths (52%) among Russians aged 15 to 54 from 1990 to 2001. For the same demographic, this compares to 4% of deaths for the rest of the world.<ref>, ], volume 373, issue 9682, pages 2201 - 2214, 27 June 2009</ref> About 16 million Russians suffer from cardiovascular diseases, placing Russia second in the world, after ], in this respect.<ref name=heart/> Death rates from homicide, suicide, and cancer are also especially high.<ref name=cbs>{{cite web|title=Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System|publisher=CBS News|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/06/28/world/main2992334.shtml|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> 52% of men and 15% of women smoke, more than 260,000 lives believed to be lost each year as a result of tobacco use.<ref name=smokingria>{{cite web|title=Third of Russians smoke, but half welcome public smoking ban|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070221/61054065.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

HIV/AIDS, virtually non-existent in the Soviet era, rapidly spread following the collapse, mainly through the explosive growth of intravenous drug use.<ref>{{cite web|title=HIV/AIDS in the Russian Federation|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/EXTECAREGTOPHEANUT/EXTECAREGTOPHIVAIDS/0,,contentMDK:20320143~menuPK:616427~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:571172,00.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> According to official statistics, there are currently more than 364,000 people in Russia registered with HIV, but independent experts place the number significantly higher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian regional HIV vaccine center seeks $40–50 mln from budget|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070206/60289838.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> In increasing efforts to combat the disease, the government increased spending on HIV control measures 20-fold in 2006, and the 2007 budget doubled that of 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/CountryResponses/Countries/russian_federation.asp Russian Federation AIDS information|title=Russian Federation|accessdate=2008-03-11|publisher=UNAIDS: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS}}</ref> Since the Soviet collapse, there has also been a dramatic rise in both cases of and deaths from tuberculosis, with the disease being particularly widespread amongst prison inmates.<ref>{{cite web|title=119,000 TB cases in Russia&nbsp;— health official|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20060127/43221133.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

In an effort to stem Russia's demographic crisis, the government is implementing a number of programs designed to increase the ] and attract more migrants to alleviate the problem. The government has doubled monthly child support payments and offered a one-time payment of 250,000 Rubles (around US$10,000) to women who had a second child since 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=]—Federal Research Division|month=October|year=2006|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Russia.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> In 2007, Russia saw the highest birth rate since the collapse of the USSR.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/International_Business/Russian_policies_ignite_unprecedented_birth_rate_in_2007/articleshow/2750305.cms|publisher=The Economic Times|title=Russian policies ignite unprecedented birth rate in 2007|accessdate=2008-03-11}}</ref> The First Deputy PM also said about 20 billion rubles (about US$1 billion) will be invested in new prenatal centers in Russia in 2008–2009. Immigration is increasingly seen as necessary to sustain the country's population.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Expert Group Meeting On International Migration and Development|publisher=Population Division; Department of Economic and Social Affairs; United Nations Secretariat|date=6–8 July 2005|url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/ittmigdev2005/P11_Rybakovsky&Ryazantsev.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref>

===Education===
{{main|Education in Russia}}
].]]
Russia has a ] system guaranteed to all citizens by the ],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 43 §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> and has a ] rate of 99.4%.<ref name=cia/> Entry to ] is highly competitive.<ref>{{cite web|author=Smolentseva, A|title=Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia|url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News19/text13.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and space and aviation research is generally of a high order.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia Country Guide|publisher=EUbusiness.com|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/Russia/russia-country-guide/|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title= Background Note: Russia|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3183.htm|accessdate=2008-01-02}}</ref>

Before 1990 the course of school training in ] was 10-years, but at the end of 1990 the 11-year course has been officially entered. Education in state-owned ]s is free; ''first'' tertiary (] level) education is free with reservations: a substantial share of students is enrolled for full pay (many state institutions started to open commercial positions in the last years<ref>{{cite web|title=Higher Education Institutions|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/08-10.htm|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service|accessdate=2008-01-01}}</ref>). In 2004 state spending for education amounted to 3.6% of ], or 13% of consolidated ].<ref></ref>

The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota, or number of students for each state institution. This is considered crucial because it provides access to higher education to all skilled students, as opposed to only those who can afford it. In addition, students are paid a small ] and provided with free housing. Apart from state higher education institutions, many private ones have emerged to address the need for a skilled work-force for ] and ] and economic sectors.<ref name=education2>{{cite web|title=Higher education structure|publisher=State University Higher School of Economics|url=http://www.hse.ru/lingua/en/rus-ed.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Russia}}
]
The economic crisis that struck all post-Soviet countries in the 1990s was nearly twice as intense as the ] in the countries of Western Europe and the United States in the 1930s.<ref>See “What Can Transition Economies Learn from the First Ten Years? A New World Bank Report,” in ''Transition Newsletter'' <http://worldbank.org/transitionnewsletter/janfeb2002>. </ref><ref name=Russia>Robert D. Kaplan. . The New York Times. 8 October 2000.</ref> Even before the ], Russia's ] was half of what it had been in the early 1990s.<ref name=Russia/> Since the turn of the century, rising oil prices, increased foreign investment, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have bolstered economic growth in Russia.<ref name=imf>{{cite web|author=Lipsky, J|title=Statement by John Lipsky, First Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund|work=Press Release No. 07/126|publisher=International Monetary Fund|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2007/pr07126.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

The country ended 2007 with its ninth straight year of growth, averaging 7% annually since 1998. In 2007, Russia's GDP was $2.076 trillion (est. ]), the 6th largest in the world, with GDP growing 8.1% from the previous year. Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineral extraction and exports.<ref name=cia/>

The average salary in Russia was $640 per month in early 2008, up from $80 in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russians weigh an enigma with Putin’s protégé|publisher=MSNBC|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24443419/|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref> Approximately 14% of Russians lived ] in 2007,<ref name="RIA">{{cite web|publisher=RIA Novosti|title=Russia’s economy under Vladimir Putin: achievements and failures|url=http://en.rian.ru/analysis/20080301/100381963.html|accessdate =2008-05-09}}</ref> significantly down from 40% in 1998 at the worst of the post-Soviet collapse.<ref name=worldbank/> Unemployment in Russia was at 6% in 2007, down from about 12.4% in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=RIA Novosti|title=Russia's unemployment rate down 10% in 2007 - report|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080208/98724898.html|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=indexmundi.com|title=Russia&nbsp;— Unemployment rate (%)|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?c=rs&v=74|accessdate=2008-05-09}}</ref>

] petrol station. Russia is the world's ] and ].]]

], ], ], and ] account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad.<ref name=cia/> Since 2003, however, exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably. Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will drop to 3.7% by 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia fixed asset investment to reach $370 bln by 2010 - Kudrin|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/business/20070921/80301609.html|accessdate =2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia is also considered well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461_page_2.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> The country has more ] graduates than any other country in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=CEE Biweekly (page 6)|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics, UniCredit New Europe Research Network|url=http://www.unicredit-tiriac.ro/pdf/CEE-Biweekly_07-05-24.pdf|accessdate=2008-03-28|format=PDF}}</ref>

].]]
A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the tax burden on people, and dramatically increased state revenue.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tavernise, S|title=Russia Imposes Flat Tax on Income, and Its Coffers Swell|publisher=The New York Times|date=23 March 2002|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E0DC163BF930A15750C0A9649C8B63|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia has a ] rate of 13 percent. This ranks it as the country with the second most attractive personal tax system for single managers in the world after the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=Rabushka, A|title=The Flat Tax at Work in Russia: Year Three|publisher =Hoover Institution|url=http://www.hoover.org/research/russianecon/essays/5144587.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Global personal taxation comparison survey&nbsp;– market rankings|publisher=Mercer (consulting firms)|url=http://www.mercer.com.au/pressrelease/details.htm?idContent=1287670|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref>

The ] has run surpluses since 2001 and ended 2007 with a surplus of 6% of GDP. Over the past several years, Russia has used oil revenues from its ] to prepay most of its formerly massive debts,<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia's foreign debt down 31.3% in Q3—finance ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20061031/55272320.html|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> leaving it with ]. Oil export earnings have allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12 billion in 1999 to $597.3 billion on 1 August 2008, the ] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbr.ru/Eng/statistics/credit_statistics/print.asp?file=inter_res_08_e.htm|title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation in 2008|publisher=The Central Bank of the Russian Federation|accessdate=2008-07-30}}</ref>

The economic development of the country though has been uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a disproportionately high amount of the country's GDP.<ref>{{ru_icon}} {{cite web|title=Gross regional product by federal subjects of the Russian Federation 1998–2006|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b01_19/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d000/vrp98-06.htm|accessdate=2008-06-30|publisher=Federal State Statistics Service}}</ref> Much of Russia, especially indigenous and rural communities in ], lags significantly behind. Nevertheless, the ] has grown from just 8 million persons in 2000 to 55 million persons in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|publisher=BusinessWeek|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461.htm|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Over the last five years, fixed capital investments have averaged real gains greater than 10% per year and ]s have achieved real gains more than 12% per year.

Despite the country's strong economic performance since 1999, however, the ] lists several challenges facing the Russian economy including its ], encouraging the growth of ], building ] and improving ].<ref name=countrybrief></ref> Another problem is modernisation of ], ageing and inadequate after years of being neglected;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTPROGRAMS/EXTTRADERESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:21481768~menuPK:64001880~pagePK:210083~piPK:152538~theSitePK:544849,00.html|title=Meeting Russia’s Infrastructure Gap|publisher=The World Bank|accessdate=2008-07-31}}</ref> the government has said $1 trillion will be invested in development of infrastructure by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20070920/80058850.html|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=2008-07-31|title=Russia to invest $1 trillion in infrastructure by 2020 - ministry}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
{{main|Agriculture in Russia}}
]. Russia is the world's top producer of ], ], ], ] and ], and one of the largest producers and exporters of ].]]
] sled in ]. Russia owns about two-thirds of the world's livestock of ]<ref>: ''] in Russia'' by Konstantin Klokov, an abstract.</ref>]]
The ] in Russia was estimated as 1,237,294&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> in 2005, the fourth largest in the world.<ref></ref> Unlike most other countries, Russia has large reserves of unused ], in part due to the drop in agricultural production during the economy crisis of 1990s, when the area planted to grains dropped by 25%. This was accompanied by a severe decline of ] inventories.

In 1999-2009, however, Russia's agriculture demonstrated steady growth,<ref> {{ru icon}}</ref> and the country turned from a grain importer to the third largest grain exporter after ] and ] in 2009.<ref>, rosbankjournal.ru {{ru icon}}</ref> The production of meat has grown from 6,813,000 tonnes in 1999 to 9,331,000 tonnes in 2008, and continues to grow.<ref> {{ru icon}}</ref>

This restoration of agriculture was supported by successful farm credit policy of the government, helping both individual farmers and large privatized corporate farms, that once were Soviet ]es and still own the significant share of agricultural land. While large individual farms and corporate farms concentrate mainly on the production of ] (including for export), as well as ] products, small private ]s produce most of the country's yield of ]s, ]s and ]s.

===Energy===
{{main|Energy in Russia|Nuclear power in Russia}}
] and ] supplier to much of Europe.]]
Russia is known as an ]. The country has the world's largest ], the 8th largest ], and the second largest ]. Russia is the world's ] and ], while also ] and ], though Russia interchanges the latter status with ] from time to time.

Russia is ] in the world and ], the latter due to the well-developed ] production in the country. Large cascades of ]s are built in ] along big rivers like ]. The Asian part of Russia also features a number of major ]s, however the gigantic ] potential of ] and the ] largely remains unexploited.

Russia was the first country to develop civilian ] and to introduce the ]. Currently, Russia is ]. ] Nuclear Energy ] manages all the ]. Nuclear energy is rapidly developing in Russia, with the aim of increasing the total share of nuclear energy from current 16.9% to 23% by 2020. The Russian government plans to allocate 127 billion rubles ($5.42 billion) to a federal program dedicated to the next generation of nuclear energy technology. About 1 trillion rubles ($42.7 billion) is to be allocated from the federal budget to nuclear power and industry development before 2015.<ref>RIA Novosti</ref> Russia remains among the world leaders in ] and is a member of ] international ] project.

===Science and technology===
{{main|Russian Academy of Sciences|Russian Federal Space Agency|United Aircraft Corporation|Rosatom|Rosoboronexport|Russian inventors|Russian explorers|Russian cosmonauts}}
], the ] building in ].]]
], Russian ] scientist, inventor, poet and artist, the founder of ].]]
At the start of the 18th century the ] (the founder of ] and ]) and the work of such champions as ] ] (the founder of ]) gave a great boost for development of science and innovation in Russia.

In the 19th and 20th centuries the country produced a large number of great ] ].

In mathematics ], a ''] of ]'', founded the ]. At least after such prominent scientist as ] the Russian mathematical school became one of the most influential ones in the world and was represented by numerous figures greatly contributing to different fields of mathematics, physics and computing sciences. <ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Mathematicians in the 20th Century|publisher=Princeton University, USA|url=http://www.worldscibooks.com/mathematics/4499.html|accessdate=2010-04-10}}</ref> Chebyshev's students included ] who founded the modern ] (lately deeply developed by such scientists as ], ] and ]), and ] who developed the theory of ]s, playing a central role in information sciences and modern applied mathematics. ] was a founding father of the modern ] and ]. ], a leading mathematician of the 20th century, developed the modern ] and made other major contrubutions to different fields of mathematcis. ] is credited with many important discoveries in mathematical physics and applied sciences. ] developed a theory of ] which played an extremely important role in formation of modern mathematical views and introduced a notion of ] generalyzing ideas of Newton and Leibniz. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with ], a most prestigious award in mathematics. Recently ] was offered the first ever Clay ] award for his final proof of the ] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Poincar&eacute; Conjecture | url= http://www.claymath.org/poincare/index.html}}</ref>

] and his ] in ].]]
In chemistry ] invented the ], that is the main framework of the modern ], while ] was one of the creators of the theory of ], playing a central role in in ]. ] made major contributions to explanation of the mechanism of chemical transformation (1956 ]).

] in ].]]
The Russian physics school began to develop after Lomonosov. During the period of origin of ] ] discovered the ] effect in 1802 and ] discovered an important ] named in his honor. ] discovered a fundamental concept of ] and was the first scientist to indicate interrelation between mass and energy proposing the formula <math>E=kmc^2</math>. ] was among the ]. Russian/Soviet physics in the 20th century was one of leading ones in the world. ] suggested suggested a triplet ] model, introduced a new quantum degree of freedom (later called as ]) for quarks<ref>N. Bogolubov, B. Struminsky, A. Tavkhelidze. On composite models in the theory of elementary particles. ] Preprint D-1968, ] 1965.</ref> and formulated a microscopic theory of ]<ref>{{cite journal|author=N. N. Bogoliubov|title=On a New Method in the Theory of Superconductivity|journal=]|volume=34 (1)|pages=58|year=1958|url=}}</ref>. ] made fundamental contributions to many areas of ]. ] and ] were co-inventors of ]s and ]s. ], ] and ] developed the idea of ] for controlled ] and created its first prototype, which finally led to the modern ] project. ] discovered ] playing important role in studying chemical species.

In biology ] was the first scientist to discover ]es (1892). <ref>{{cite book|last=Sebastion|first=Anton|title=A dictionary of the history of science|publisher=Informa Health Care|location=Google Books Excerpt|year=2001|isbn=185070418X|oclc=9781850704188|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gTXFN-8v95MC&pg=PA267&dq=Dmitry+Iosifovich+Ivanovsky&ei=MDgCSdffBZW0yQSzwoSqDQ&client=firefox-a|accessdate=2008-10-24|language=English|page=267}}</ref> ] is widely known for first describing the phenomenon of ]. ] was a pioneer in investigations of the ] (1908, ]).

In computing sciences the first ] ] was developed by ], together with ], in ].

] in ].]]
] introduced the ], further developed by ], ] and other Russian engineers. ] invented the ] ], while ] introduced the ]. ] and ] were pioneers of ], and ] invented the ] system, widely used today.

] is launched from ], ] carrying one of the first resident crews to the ].]]
Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were ], like ], credited with invention of first helicopters, and ], often called the father of TV, chemist ], noted for his work on ] and ] (1977 ]), economists ] (1971 ]) and ] (1973 ]), physicist ] (an author of the ] theory) and social scientist ] who played an important role in development of sociology in the USA. Many foreigners worked in Russia for a long time, like ] and ].

The greatest Russian successes are in the field of ] and ]. ] was the father of theoretical austronautics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aiaa.org/index.cfm |title=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics - Home Page |publisher=Aiaa.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> His works had inspired leading ] rocket engineers such as ], ] and many others that contributed to the success of the ] at early stages of the ] and beyond.

In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial ], '']'', was launched; in 1961 on ] the first human trip into space was successfully made by ]; and many other Soviet and Russian ] ensued, including the first ] performed by ], the first space exploration ] '']'' and the first ] '']''. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher <ref></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/daily/chartgallery/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14256807&source=features_box4 |title=Premium content |publisher=Economist.com |date=2009-08-19 |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> and the only provider of transport for ] services.

], the most widely used type of ] in the world.]]
Other technologies, where Russia historically leads, include ], ] production and ].

The creation of the first ] along with the first ] for ]s and ] was directed by ]. ] '']'' was the world's first ] as well as the first ], and ] '']'' became the first surface ship to reach the ].

A number of prominent Soviet aerospace engineers, inspired by the theoretical works of ], supervised the creation of many dozens of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number of ''KBs'' (''Construction Bureaus'') that now constitute the bulk of Russian ].

Famous Russian airplanes include the first ] passenger jet ] by ], ] ] series by ] and ], and ] series by ] and his followers. ] is the world's ] ] in history, while ] is the most produced ]. During ] era ] was introduced as the first ] fighter aircraft, and ] bomber became the ]. ] ''Kukuruznik'' is the world's most produced ], and ] is the most produced ].

] Russian tank in the ] service.]]
Famous Russian battle tanks include ], the best tank design of ],<ref>George Parada (n.d.), “” at ''Achtung Panzer!'' website, retrieved on 17 November 2008.</ref> and further tanks of T-series, including the most produced tank in history, ],<ref>Halberstadt, Hans Inside the Great Tanks The Crowood Press Ltd. Wiltshire, England 1997 94-96 ISBN 1-86126-270-1<br>"The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history."</ref> the first fully ] tank ] and the most modern Russian tank ]. The ] and ] by ] constitute the most widely used type of ] throughout the world — so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.<ref name="poyer">Poyer, Joe. ''The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations''. North Cape Publications. 2004.</ref><ref name="weaponomics">{{cite web | title = Weaponomics: The Economics of Small Arms | url = http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/workingpapers/pdfs/2006-13text.pdf }}</ref> With these and other weapons Russia for a long time has been among the world's ], accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<ref name="abc.net.au"/> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<ref name="RIA Novosti"/>

] is the latest civilian product of the Russian aircraft industry.]]
With such technological achievements, however, since the time of ] Russia was lagging significantly behind ] in a number of technologies, especially those concerning ] and ] production. The crisis of 1990-s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science. Many Russian scientists and university graduates left Russia for Europe or United States; this migration is known as a ].

In 2000-s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government launched a campaign aimed into ] and ]. ] ] formulated top 5 priorities for the country's technological development: ], ] (including both common products and the products combined with ]), ] and ].<ref> ]: Medvedev outlines priorities for Russian economy's modernization</ref> Some progress already has been achieved, with Russia's having nearly completed ], the only global ] apart from American ], and Russia's being the only country constructing ].

===Transportation===
{{main|Transport in Russia|Russian Railways}}

] in ].]]
Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run ] monopoly. The company accounts for over 3.6% of Russia’s ] and handles 39% of the total of Russia’s freight traffic (including pipelines) and more than 42% of passenger traffic.<ref name="eng.rzd.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.eng.rzd.ru/isvp/public/rzdeng?STRUCTURE_ID=4 |title=The Company &#124; Russian Railways |publisher=Eng.rzd.ru |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> The total length of common-used railway tracks exceeeds 85,500&nbsp;km,<ref name="eng.rzd.ru"/> second only to the United States. Over 44,000&nbsp;km of tracks are ],<ref></ref> which is the largest number in the world, and additionally there are more than 30,000&nbsp;km of industrial non-common carrier lines. Railways in Russia, unlike in the most of the world, use ] of {{RailGauge|1520mm}}, with the exception of 957&nbsp;km on ] using narrow gauge of {{RailGauge|1067mm}}. The most renown railroad in Russia is ] or ], spanning a record 7 time zones and serving the longest single continuous services in the world, Moscow-] (9,259&nbsp;km, 5,753&nbsp;mi), Moscow–] (10,267&nbsp;km, 6,380&nbsp;mi)<ref>, route No. 002, Moscow-Pyongyang, August 2009. Note: several different routes have the same number.</ref> and ]–Vladivostok (11,085&nbsp;km, 6,888&nbsp;mi).<ref>, route No. 350, Kiev-Vladivostok, August 2009.</ref>

As of 2006 Russia had ], of which 755,000 were paved.<ref name="gks1"> Retrieved on 10 June 2009</ref> Some of these make up the ] system. With a large land area the road density is the lowest of all the ] and ] countries.<ref name="transtatsrus">{{cite web|url=http://www.iraptranstats.net/rus|title=Transport in Russia|accessdate=2009-02-17|work=International Transport Statistics Database|publisher=] }}</ref> A Russian saying states that ''There are two main problems in Russia: fools and roads'', however this very lack of roads was of much help to Russians in the times of ]'s and ]'s invasions.

]'', one of Russia's ]s ().]]
] in Russia mostly go by natural ] or ]. In the ] part of the country the network of channels connects the basins of major rivers. Russia's capital, Moscow, is sometimes called ''"the port of the five seas"'', due to its waterway connections to the ], ], ], ] and ] seas.

Major sea ports of Russia include ] on the ], ] on the ], ] and ] on the Caspian Sea, ] and ] on the Baltic Sea, ] on the White Sea, ] on the ], ] and ] on the Pacific Ocean. In 2008 Russia owned ] ships. Russia is the only country to have ] fleet, which is a great advantage in the economic exploitation of Arctic ] and the development of sea trade through the ] between Europe and East Asia.

There are 74,285&nbsp;km of ]s in Russia, 13,658&nbsp;km of pipelines for ], 158,767&nbsp;km of ]s <ref> ] estimate.</ref> By ] Russia is second only to the United States. Currently, many new pipeline projects are being realized, including ] and ] natural gas pipelines to Europe, and ] to ] and China.

], here shown at ]]]
Russia has 1216 airports,<ref></ref> the busiest being ], ], and ] in Moscow and ] in ]. The total length of airlines in Russia exceeds 600,000&nbsp;km.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://global-economics.ru/?p=340 |title=транспортная система Российской Федерации &#124; Мировая экономика |publisher=Global-economics.ru |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> In the remote regions of the ] and ] the transportation by air (usually by helicopters) is vital, and in some months of the year it is the only transport link to the rest of the country.

Typically, major Russian cities have well-developed and diverse systems of ], with the most common varieties of exploited vehicles being ], ] and ]. Seven Russian cities, namely Moscow, ], ], ], ], ] and ], have undeground ], while ] features a ]. ] in Russia is 465.4&nbsp;km. ] and ] are the oldest in Russia, opened in 1935 and 1955 respectively. These two are among the fastest and ] metro systems in the world, and are famous for rich decorations and unique designs of their stations, which is a common tradition for Russian metros and railways.

==Culture==
{{main|Russian culture}}
] performing in the national costumes.]]

===Folk culture and cuisine===
{{main|Russian folklore|Russian humour|Russian jokes|Russian fairy tales|Russian cuisine}}
There are over 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples in Russia. Ethnic ] with their ] ] culture, ] and ] with their ] ] culture, ] ] ] and ], ] peoples of the ] and ], highlanders of the ], ] of the ] and ] all contribute to diverse and rich culture of Russia. The ethnic culture is preserved in various museums and ethno-parks, reproduced in cuisine, architecture, cinema and arts, and developed by folk bands, dance ensembles and choirs.

Woodcraft Russian architecture, widely associated with the ethnic culture, is at best represented in wooden churches. Russian traditional wooden dwelling is ], while the early type of fortified settlements is known as ]. ], like ], ], ] and ], is also associated with folk culture. Ethnic Russian clothes include ], ] and ] for men, ] and ] for women, with ] and ] as common shoes. The ]s of ] have a separate brand of culture within ethnic Russian, their clothes including ] and ], which they share with the peoples of the ].

], a common Russian dish of ] origin (the word itself is from ] and ] languages). ] handicraft is seen on the background.]]
] widely uses ], ], ], ], and ]. Crops of ], ], ], and ] provide the ingredients for a plethora of ]s, ]s, ]s, ], ], and ]. ] is relatively more popular in Russia if compared with the rest of the world. Flavourful soups and stews include ], ], ], ] and ].

] (a heavy ]) is often added to soups and salads. ], ] and ] are native types of pankakes. ]s (like ]), ] and ] are popular meat dishes, the last two being of ] and ] origin respectively. Popular salads include ], ] and ].

Russians have many ], most prominent being the washing in ], a hot steam bath somewhat similar to ]. Old ] takes its roots in the ] beliefs of ancient Slavs and now is represented in the ]. Epic Russian ]s are another important part of ]. The oldest ]s of ]an cycle were actually recorded mostly in the ], especially in ], where most of the Finnish national epic ] was recorded as well.
], shows a girl with ] twigs in a rural ].]]

]'' by ]. The three ]es of ]: (l-r) ], ] and ].]]
Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions of ]. Typical ethnic Russian musical instruments are ], ], ] and ]. Folk music had great influence on the Russian classical composers, and in modern times it is a source of inspiration for a number of popular ]s, most prominent being ]. ], as well as ] songs of the ], constitute the bulk of repertoire of the world-renown ] and other popular Russian ensembles.

Many ] and ]s were adaptated for ] films, or for feature movies by the prominent directors like ] ('']'', '']'') and ] ('']'', '']''). Some Russian poets, including ] and ], made a number of well-known poetical interpretations of the classical ], and in some cases, like that of ], also created fully original fairy tale poems of great popularity.

===Architecture===
{{main|Russian architecture|Russian architects}}
Russian architecture began with the woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs. Since ] for several ages Russian architecture was influenced predominantly by the ], until the ]. Apart from fortifications (]s), the main stone buildings of ancient Rus' were ]es, with their many ]s, often gilded or brightly painted. ] and other Italian architects brought ] trends into Russia.

The 16th century saw the development of unique ]es culminating in ]. By that time the ] design was also fully developed. In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and ], gradually paving the way for the ] of the 1690s. After ] had made Russia much closer to Western culture, the change of the architectural styles in Russia generally followed that of ].

], a ].]]
], Europe's tallest residential building, is a modern realisation of ] ]' design.]]
The 18th-century taste for ] architecture led to the splendid works of ] and his followers. During the reign of ] and her grandson ], the city of ] was transformed into an outdoor museum of ].

The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Byzantine and ] style (this corresponds to ] in Western Europe). Prevalent styles of the 20th century were the ] (]), ] (] and ]), and the ] (]).

After ]'s death a new Soviet leader, ], condemned the "excesses" of the former architectural styles, and in the late Soviet era the architecture of the country was dominated by plain ]. This helped somewhat to resolve the housing problem, but created a large quantity of buildings of low architectural quality, much in contrast with the previous bright architecture. After the end of the Soviet Union the situation improved. Many churches demolished in Soviet times were rebuilt, and this process continues along with the restoration of various historical buildings destroyed in World War II. As for the original architecture, there is no longer any common style in modern Russia, though ] has a great influence.

===Visual arts===
{{main|Russian visual arts|Russian artists}}
]'' icon by ].]]
Early Russian painting focused on ] and vibrant ]s inherited by Russians from ]. As Moscow rose to power, ] and ] became vital names associated with the beginning of a distinctly ].

The ] was created in 1757, aimed to give Russian artists an international role and status. Notable portrait painters from the Academy include ], ], ], and ]. In the early 19th century, when ] and ] flourished, famous academic artists focused on mythological and Biblical themes, like ] and ].

], symbolic of Russia's historical spiritual quest.]]
] came into dominance in the 19th century. The realists captured Russian identity in landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and ] clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries. Other artists focused on ], showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority; ] flourished under the reign of ], with some artists making the circle of human suffering their main theme. Others focused on depicting dramatic moments in Russian history.

The '']'' (''wanderers'') group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from Academic restrictions. Leading realists include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].

By the turn of the 20th century and on, many Russian artists developed their own vividly unique styles, neither realist nor avante-garde. These include ], ], ] and ].

]. German-Russian masterpiece, looted by ] in ] and restored in 2003.]]
The ] is an umbrella term used to define the large, influential wave of ] that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930. The term covers many separate, but inextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namely ], ], ], ], and ]. Notable artists from this era include ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the ] and 1932, at which point the revolutionary ideas of the ] clashed with the newly emerged conservative direction of ].

In the ] era many artists combined innovation with socialist realism including ], ], ], ], and ]. They employed techniques as varied as ], ], ], and ]. Soviet artists produced works that were furiously ] and ] in the 1940s. After the ] Soviet sculptors made multiple monuments to the war dead, marked by a great restrained solemnity.

In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, forced to emigrate by the Revolution. ], ], ] and others spread their work, ideas, and the impact of Russian art globally.

===Classical music and ballet===
{{main|Russian music|Russian ballet|Russian opera|Russian composers|Russian opera singers|Russian ballet dancers}}
] (1840–1893), composer, the author of the world's most famous works of ballet: '']'', '']'', and '']''.]]
]'' ballet.]]
Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classical composer ] along with ], who embraced Russian national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions, and the ] led by composers ] and ], which was musically conservative. The later Romantic tradition of ], one of the greatest composers of the ], whose music has come to be known and loved for its distinctly Russian character as well as its rich harmonies and stirring melodies, was brought into the 20th century by ], one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.<ref>{{cite book|author=Norris, Gregory; ed. Stanley, Sadie|title=The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition|publisher=MacMillian|year=1980|location=London|page=707|isbn=0333231112}}</ref>

World-renowned composers of the 20th century included ], ], ], ], ] and ]. During most of the Soviet Era, music was highly scrutinized and kept within a conservative, accessible idiom in conformity with the policy of ].

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists ] and ]; cellist ]; pianists ], ], and ]; and vocalists ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia::Music|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=2009-10-05|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia/38636/Music}}</ref>

During the early 20th century, Russian ballet dancers ] and ] rose to fame, and impresario ] and his ]' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.<ref>{{cite book|author=Garafola, L|title=Diaghilev's Ballets Russes|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=576|isbn=0195057015|year=1989}}</ref> Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,<ref>{{cite web|author=Cashin, K K|title=Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet&nbsp;— Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward|url=http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04072005-133328/unrestricted/12_kkc_chap5.pdf|accessdate=2007-12-27|format=PDF}}</ref> and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including ], ], and ]. The ] in Moscow and the ] in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://petersburgcity.com/news/culture/2005/11/18/theatre/|title=A Tale of Two Operas|publisher=Petersburg City|accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref>

===Literature and philosophy===
{{main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy|Russian poets|Russian playwrights|Russian novelists}}
] (1799–1837), the greatest Russian poet and founder of modern Russian literature. The author of '']'' and '']''.]]
] (1821–1881), writer, one of the greatest psychologists in world literature.<ref name="BritannicaRussianLit">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-04-11|title=Russian literature|quote=Dostoyevsky, who is generally regarded as one of the supreme psychologists in world literature, sought to demonstrate the compatibility of Christianity with the deepest truths of the psyche.}}</ref> The author of '']'' and '']''.]]
] (1860-1904) is famous for his plays and short stories. The author of '']'' and '']''.]]
] (1828–1910), novelist and philosopher. The author of '']'' and '']''.]]
] is considered to be among the most influential and developed in the world, contributing many of the world's most famous literary works.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564269/Russian_Literature.html|title=Russian Literature|last=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007|accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> Russia's literary history dates back to the 10th century; in the 18th century its development was boosted by the works of ] and ], and by the early 19th century a modern native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writers of all time. This period and the ] began with ], considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often described as the ''"Russian Shakespeare"''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kelly, C|title=Russian Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions) (Paperback)|publisher=Oxford Paperbacks|isbn=0192801449|year=2001}}</ref>

It continued in the 19th century with the poetry of ] and ], dramas of ] and ], and the prose of ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky in particular were titanic figures to the point that many literary critics have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2008-04-11|title=Russian literature; Leo Tolstoy}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Time Magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943893,00.html?promoid=googlep|accessdate=2008-04-10|title=Freaking-Out with Fyodor|author=Otto Friedrich}}</ref>

By the 1880s Russian literature had begun to change. The age of the great novelists was over and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres of Russian literature for the next several decades which became known as the ]. Previously dominated by ], Russian literature came under strong influence of ] in the years between 1893 and 1914. Leading writers of this age include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].

Some Russian writers, like Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, are known also as philosophers, while many more authors are known primarily for their philosophical works. ] blossomed since the 19th century, when it was defined initially by the opposition of ], advocating Russia's following the Western political and economical models, and ], insisting on developing Russia as unique civilization.

The latter group includes ] and ], the early founders of ]. In its further development, Russian philosophy was always marked by deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics and nationalism; ] and religion were other primary subjects. Notable philosopheres of the late 19th and early 20th centuries include ], ], ] and ]. In the 20th century Russian philosophy became dominated by ].

Following the ] and the ensuing ], Russian cultural life was left in chaos. Some prominent writers and philosophers, like ], ], ], ], ] left the country, while a new generation of talented writers joined together in different organizations with the aim of creating a new and distinctive working-class culture appropriate for the new state, the ].

Throughout the 1920s writers enjoyed broad tolerance. In the 1930s censorship over literature was tightened in line with Joseph Stalin's policy of ]. After his death the restrictions on literature were eased, and by the 1970s and 1980s, writers were increasingly ignoring the official guidelines. The leading authors of the Soviet era included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].

===Cinema, animation and media===
{{main|Cinema of Russia|Russian animation|Radio Day|Television in Russia}}
], the ] in Moscow.]]
While in the industrialized nations of the West, motion pictures had first been accepted as a form of cheap recreation and leisure for the working class, Russian filmmaking came to prominence following the 1917 revolution when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/394161/history-of-the-motion-picture|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=History of the motion picture: The Soviet Union|accessdate=2008-01-07}}</ref> Russian and later ] was a hotbed of invention in the period immediately following the 1917, resulting in world-renowned films such as '']''.<ref name=film>{{cite web|title=Russia::Motion pictures|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably ] and ], would become some of the world's most innovative and influential directors.

Eisenstein was a student of filmmaker and theorist ], who developed the groundbreaking ] of film editing at the world's first film school, the ]. ], whose ''kino-glaz'' (“film-eye”) theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. In 1932, Stalin made ] the state policy; this somewhat limited creativity, however many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, like '']'', '']'', and '']''.<ref name=film/>

1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in the Soviet cinema. ]'s and ]'s comedies of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catch phrases still in use today. In 1961-1968 ] directed an ]-winning ] of ]'s epic '']'', which was ] ever made.<ref>"," ''Film Forum''.</ref> In 1969, ]'s '']'' was released, a very popular film in a genre known as ']s'; the film is traditionally watched by ] before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|publisher=Film Society of Lincoln Center|title=White Sun of the Desert / Beloe solntse pustyni|accessdate=2008-01-18}}</ref>

] scene from the '']'', 1925.]]
Russia also has a long and rich ], which started already in the late ] times. Most of Russia's cartoon production for cinema and television was created during Soviet times, when ] studio was the largest animation producer. Soviet animators developed a great and unmatched variety of pioneering techniques and ] styles, with prominent directors including ], ] and ]. Soviet cartoons are still a source for many popular catch phrases, while such cartoon heroes as Russian-style ], cute little ], Wolf and Hare from '']'' being iconic images in Russia and many surrounding countries.

The late 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema and animation. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economy's rapid development, and production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.<ref name=kino>{{cite web|author=Dzieciolowski, Z|title=Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-Film/russian_film_3726.jsp|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> Russia's total box-office revenue in 2007 was $565 million, up 37% from the previous year<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011|publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers|url=http://www.pwc.com/extweb/ncpressrelease.nsf/docid/B373F0C74AA25A7480257309003B9833|accessdate=2007-12-27}}</ref> (by comparison, in 1996 revenues stood at $6 million).<ref name=kino/> Russian cinema continues to receive international recognition. '']'' (2002) was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. The traditions of Soviet animation were developed in the past decade by such directors as ] and studios like ].

Russia was among the first countries to ] ]. Due to the enormous size of the country Russia leads in ] and repeaters. There were few channels in the Soviet time, but in the past two decades many new state-run and private-owned ] and ] appeared. In 2005 a state-run ] ] started broadcasting, and its Arabic version ] was launched in 2007.

===Modern culture===
{{main|Russian rock|Russian pop|Runet}}
] band ] is one of the leading ] performers.]]Since the late Soviet times Russia has experienced another wave of ] influence, which led to the development of many previously unknown phenomena in the Russian culture. Russia easily has adopted a number of cultural techniques, while providing its own content.

The most vivid example, perhaps, is the ] music, which takes its roots both in the Western ] and ], and in traditions of the ] of Soviet era, like ] and ]. ] (former ]), ] and ] became the main centers of development of the rock music. Popular Russian rock groups include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].

At the same time ] music developed from what was known in the Soviet times as ''estrada'' into full-fledged industry, with some performers gaining international recognition, like ] in ] or ] in China. ] is a very popular and unique group, harmoniously combining the elements of Western ], traditional Russian ] and military ], featuring a number of ] attributes but often performing on the pop scenes.

In the past decades many new sporting activities came into Russia, including ], ], ] and ]. Many subcultures became popular among Russian youth, like ], ], ], ]s and ]rs. Russian Internet, or ], has seen a rapid development in the last years and the rize of a variety of Internet subcultures.

===Sports===
{{main|Sport in Russia}}
], the mascot, at the closing ceremony of ].]]
], the world's highest paid female athlete.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/22/women-athletes-endorsements-biz-sports-cx_tvr_kb_0722athletes.html|accessdate=2008-08-01|author=Tom Van Riper and Kurt Badenhausen|title=Top-Earning Female Athletes|publisher=Forbes}}</ref>]]
Russians have been successful at a number of sports and consistently finish in the top rankings at the ] and in other international competitions. Combining the ] of Soviet Union and Russia, the country is second among all nations by number of gold medals both at the ] and at the ] .

During the Soviet era, the ] placed first in the total number of medals won at 14 of its 18 appearances; with these performances, the USSR was the dominant Olympic power of its era. Since the ], Soviet and later Russian athletes have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics.

Soviet ]s, ] athletes, ]s, ]s, ], ], ], ], ]s, ]s, ]s and ]s were consistently among the best in the world, along with Soviet ], ], ] and ] players. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian athletes have continued to dominate international competitions. The ] were held in Moscow while the ] will be hosted by ].

As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in ], winning various Olympic tournaments, ] and ]. As of 2009 they have various players in the ], notably ] forward ], and are considered as a worldwide basketball force. In 2007, Russia defeated world champions Spain to win ]. Russian basketball clubs such as ] (2006 and 2008 Euroleague Champions) have also had great success in European competitions such as the Euroleague and the ].

] with ].]]
Although ] was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at almost all the ] and ] they contested. Russian players ], ], ] and ] hold 4 of 6 positions in the ] ''Team of the Century''.<ref></ref> As with some other sports, the Russian ice hockey programme suffered after the breakup of the Soviet Union with Russia enduring a 15 year gold medal drought. At that time many prominent Russian players made their career in the ].

In recent years Russia has reemerged as a hockey superpower, winning back to back gold medals in the ] and ] World Championships, and overtaking ] as the ] ice hockey team in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iihf.com/channels/iihf-world-championship-oc09/home/news/news-singleview-world-championship-2009/article/pure-gold-russia-repeats.html?tx_ttnewsbackPid=2717&cHash=f61f91921e|accessdate=2009-05-11|title=Pure gold: Russia repeats!|publisher=]}}</ref> The ] (Kontinental Hockey League) was founded in 2008 as a successor to the ]. It is seen as a rival to the NHL and is ranked the top hockey league in Europe as of 2009.<ref name="IIHFRank">{{cite web | title = Russian league tops first CHL ranking | url = http://www.iihf.com/en/home-of-hockey/news/news-singleview/browse/3/article/russian-league-tops-first-chl-ranking-1.html | accessdate = 2009-11-03}}</ref> ], known in Russian as "hockey with a ball", is another traditionally popular ice sport, with national league games averaging around 3500 spectators.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rusbandy.ru/content.html?PageID=325|title=XV чемпионат России по хоккею с мячом сезон 2006/07 г.г. (Russian Bandy Championship, 2006-7 season)|publisher=bandy.ru}}</ref> The Soviet Union won all the ] from 1957 to 1979.

During the Soviet period, Russia was also a competitive ]ing nation. Despite having fantastic players, the USSR never really managed to assert itself as one of the major forces of international football, although its teams won various championships (such as ]) and reached numerous finals (such as ]). Along with ice hockey and basketball, football is one of the most popular sports in modern Russia. In recent years, Russian football, which downgraded in 1990-s, has experienced a revival. Russian clubs (such as ], ], ], and ]) are becoming increasingly successful on the European stage (CSKA and Zenit winning the ] in 2005 and 2008 respectively). The ] reached the semi-finals of ], losing only to eventual champions ].

Soviet Union dominated the sport of ] for many years, with such athletes as ], who currently holds a record of most Olympic medals won per person and most gold Olympic medals won by a woman. Today, Russia is leading in ] with such stars as ], ] and ]. Russian ] is the best in the world, with almost all gold medals having been swept by Russians at Olympics and World Championships for more than a decade.

] is another popular sport in Russia; in the 1960s, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in figure skating, especially in ] and ], and at every ] from 1964 until 2006, a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. Since the end of the Soviet era, ] has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players. ] is also a widely popular pastime; from 1927, Soviet and Russian chess grandmasters have held the ] almost continuously.

===National holidays and symbols===
{{main|Public holidays in Russia|Russian flag|Russian coat of arms|Russian anthem|Russian Bear|Mother Russia}}
] (Russian ]) at his residence in ].]]
] parade on Moscow's ].]]
There are seven ]. The ] is the first in calendar and in popularity. Russian New Year traditions resemble those of the Western ], with ]s and gifts, and ] (]) playing the same role as ]. ] (Orthodox ]) falls on 7 January, because ] still follows the ] and all Orthodox holidays are 13 days after ] ones. Another two major Christian holidays are ] (]) and ] (]), but there is no need to recognize them as public holidays since they are always celebrated on Sunday. ] and ] are widely celebrated by Russian ]s.

Further Russian public holidays include ] (23 February), which honors Russian men, especially those serving in the army; ] (8 March), which combines the traditions of ] and ]; ] (1 May), now renamed ''Spring and Labor Day''; ]; ] (12 June); and ] (4 November), commemorating the popular uprising which expelled the ] occupation force from Moscow in 1612. The latter is a replacement for the old ] holiday celebrating ] of 1917 (again, it was falling on November because of the difference of calendars). ] and outdoor ]s are common features of all Russian public holidays.

] is the second popular holiday in Russia, it commemorates the victory over ] in ] and is widely celebrated throughout the country. A huge ], hosted by the ], is annually organized in Moscow on ]. Similar parades are organized in all major Russian cities and the cities with the status '']'' or ''City of Military Glory''.

Other popular holidays, which are not public, include ] (New Year according to ] on 14 January), ] (day of Russian students on 25 January), ] (an old pagan holiday a week before the ]), ] (a day of ]'s first ever human trip into space on 12 April), ] (another pagan ] holiday on 7 July) and ] (taking place on 8 July and being the Russian analogue of ], which focuses, however, on the family love and fidelity). On different days in June there are major celebrations of the end of the school year, when graduates from schools and universities traditionally swim in the city ]s; the local varieties of these public events include ] tradition in ].

] on the background of ].]]
] celebration on the ] river in ].]]
State symbols of Russia include the ] ], combined with ] of Moscow in the ]; these symbols date from the ] time. ] appeared in the late ] period and became widely used since ] times. ] shares its music with the ], though not the lyrics (many Russians of older generations just don't know the new lyrics and sing the old ones).

] ] ''God is with us'' and ] motto ''Proletarians of all countries, unite!'' are now obsolete and no new motto has been officially introduced to replace them. ] and the full ] are still widely seen in Russian cities as a part of old architectural decorations. The Soviet ]s are also encountered, often on ] and ]s. The ] continues to be honored, especially the ] of 1945.

] is a recognizable symbol of Russia, while the towers of ] and ] in Moscow are main Russia's architectural symbols. ] is a mascot of ]. ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] are Russia's patron saints.

] is a flower that Russians often associate with their ], while ] is a ]. ] is an animal symbol and ] of Russia, though this image has Western origin and Russians themselves have accepted it fairly recently. The native Russian national personification is ], sometimes called Mother Motherland.

===Tourism===
{{main|Tourism in Russia}}
], nicknamed ''Russian Versaille'', a popular tourist destination in ].]]
], a subtropical Russian resort city and the capital of ].]]
Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviet times, first inner tourism and then international tourism as well. Rich cultural heritage and great natural variety place Russia among the ] in the world. The country ], while many more are on UNESCO's tentative lists.<ref></ref> Major tourist routes in Russia include a travel around the ] of ancient cities, cruises on the big rivers like ], and long journeys on the famous ].

Most popular tourist destinations in Russia are Moscow and ], the current and the former capitals of the country and great cultural centers, recognized as ]. Moscow and Saint Petersburg feature such world-renown museums as ] and ], famous theaters like ] and ], ornate churches like ], ], ] and ], impressive fortifications like ] and ], beautiful squares like ] and ], and streets like ] and ].

Rich palaces and parks of extreme beauty are found in the former ] in suburbs of Moscow (], ]) and Saint Petersburg (], ], ], ], ], ]). Moscow contains a great variety of impressive ] along with ], while Saint Petersburg, nicknamed ''Venice of the North'', boasts of its classical architecture, many rivers, channels and ].
], as well as ] in the whole, attracts by a rare combination of ] ] and ] styles]]

], the capital of ], shows a unique mix of ] ] and ] ] cultures. The city has registered a brand ''The Third Capital of Russia'', though a number of other major Russian cities compete for this status, like ], ] and ], all being major cultural centers with rich history and prominent architecture.

], ] and the cities of ] (], ], ] and others) have at best preserved the architecture and the spirit of ancient and medieval ], and also are among the main tourist destinations. Many ] (typically ]s), ] and ] are scattered throughout Russia, forming its unique cultural landscape both in big cities and in remote areas.

], the highest point of ] and ], a popular ] site.]]
Typical Russian souvenirs include ] and other ], ]s for water heating, ] and ] warm hats, ] clothes and other stuff. Russian ] and ] are among the food that attracts foreigners, along with ], ], ], ] and other products and dishes. Diverse regions and ethnic cultures of Russia offer many more different food and souvenirs, and show a great variety of traditions, like Russian ], Tatar ], or Siberian ] rituals.

] taken apart]]
The warm subtropical ] coast of Russia is the site for a number of popular sea ]s, like ], known for its ]es and wonderful nature. The mountains of the ] contain popular ]s, including ].

The most famous natural tourist destination in Russia is lake ], named ''the Blue Eye of Siberia''. This unique lake, oldest and deepest in the world, has crystal-clean waters and is surrounded by ]-covered mountains. Other popular natural destinations include ] with its ]es and ]s, ] with its many lakes and ] rocks, ] with its snowy mountains and ] with its wild steppes.

{{World Heritage Sites in Russia|state=uncollapsed}}

==International rankings==
{{main|International rankings of Russia}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+'''Rankings'''
!Name
!Year
!Place
!Out of #
!Reference
|-
|] / ] – ]
|2010
|143rd
|179
|
|}

==See also==
{{portal|Russia|Flag of Russia.svg}}
{{main|Outline of Russia}}
* ]
* ]
* ]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
; Government
* —Official governmental portal {{ru icon}}
* —Official site of the parliamentary lower house {{ru icon}}
* —Official site of the parliamentary upper house
* —Official presidential site
*
*
* {{ru icon}}
*
* from the Energy Information Administration
*

; General information
* {{CIA World Factbook link|rs|Russia}}
* at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Russia}}
* {{wikiatlas|Russia}}
* {{wikitravel}}

; Other
*
* —News agency based in Moscow
*
* —Bibliographic database of German publications on Russia (about 175,000 positions)

{{Russia topics}}
{{Related pages|title=]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale|
{{Countries of Europe}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Countries bordering the Baltic Sea}}
{{Countries bordering the Black Sea}}
{{Countries bordering the Caspian Sea}}
}}
{{Related pages|title=International organizations|
{{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)|state=collapsed}}
{{Council of Europe}}
{{G8 nations}}
{{BRIC}}
{{UN Security Council|state=collapsed}}
{{East Asia Summit (EAS)}}
{{APEC}}
{{Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)}}
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}}
{{Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC)}}
{{Slavic-speaking nations}}
{{Quartet on the Middle East|state=collapsed}}
}}
{{Lists of Russians|state=uncollapsed}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

{{Link FA|af}}
{{Link FA|hr}}
{{Link FA|id}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Revision as of 16:42, 10 April 2010

Land of killers