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'''Teenage pregnancy''' is defined as a teenaged or underaged girl (usually within the ages of 13–19) becoming ]. The term in everyday speech usually refers to women who have not reached ], which varies across the world, who become pregnant.

The average age of ] (first menstrual period) in the United States is 12 years old, though this figure varies by ethnicity<ref>{{cite article| title = When Little Girls Become Women: Early Onset of Puberty in Girls | url=http://www.center4research.org/children11.html| accessdate = 2009-07-22 | year=2001| author=]}}</ref> and weight, and first ] occurs only irregularly until after this. The average age of menarche has been declining and continues to do so. Whether ] leads to early pregnancy depends on a number of factors, both societal and personal. Worldwide, rates of teenage pregnancy range from 143 per 1000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1000 in South Korea.<ref name=ncbi>{{cite journal |author=Treffers PE |title= |language=Dutch; Flemish |journal=Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd |volume=147 |issue=47 |pages=2320–5 |year=2003 |month=November |pmid=14669537 }}</ref><ref name=oecd>UNICEF. (2001). {{PDFlink||888&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>

Pregnant teenagers face many of the same ] issues as women in their 20s and 30s. However, there are additional medical concerns for younger mothers, particularly those under fifteen and those living in developing countries.<ref name=savethechildren>{{cite journal |author=Mayor S |title=Pregnancy and childbirth are leading causes of death in teenage girls in developing countries |journal=BMJ |volume=328 |issue=7449 |page=1152 |year=2004 |month=May |pmid=15142897 |pmc=411126 |doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1152-a |url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7449/1152-a}}</ref> For mothers between 15 and 19, age in itself is not a risk factor, but additional risks may be associated with socioeconomic factors.<ref name=makinson>{{cite journal |author=Makinson C |title=The health consequences of teenage fertility |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=132–9 |year=1985 |pmid=2431924 |doi=10.2307/2135024 }}</ref>

] supporting teenage pregnancy as a ] in ] include lower ]al levels, higher rates of ], and other poorer "life outcomes" in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a ] in many communities and cultures. For these reasons, there have been many studies and campaigns which attempt to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage pregnancies.<ref name=natcamp>The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). {{PDFlink||147&nbsp;KB}}. Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref> In other countries and cultures, particularly in the ], teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not involve a social stigma.<ref>Population Council (2006) ''Population Briefs'', January 2006, Vol. 12, No. 1. Retrieved April 18, 2007.</ref> Among ] ], the ] and ] have the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while ] and ] have the lowest.<ref>http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/peo_tee_bir_rat-people-teenage-birth-rate, which cites http://www.unicef-irc.org/cgi-bin/unicef/Lunga.sql?ProductID=328</ref>

== Global incidence ==
{{main|Global incidence of teenage pregnancy}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|+
Teen birth and abortion rates, 1996<ref name=UNICEF-2001>{{cite paper|url = http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf | title = A league table of teenage births in rich nations | publisher = UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence | date = July 2001 | author = UNICEF | version = Innocenti Report Card No.3 | format = PDF}}</ref><br />
<small>per 1000 women 15–19</small>
|-
!Country
!birth rate
!abortion rate
!Combined rate
|-
| ] || 7.7 || 3.9 || 11.6
|-
| ] || 7.5 || 4.9 || 12.4
|-
| ] || 6.6 || 6.7 || 13.3
|-
| ] || 12.2 || 1.3 || 13.5
|-
| ] || 9.9 || 5.2 || 15.1
|-
| ] || 13.0 || 5.3 || 18.3
|-
| ] || 9.8 || 9.6 || 19.4
|-
| ] || 9.4 || 13.2 || 22.6
|-
| ] || 8.2 || 15.4 || 23.6
|-
| ] || 7.7 || 17.7 || 25.4
|-
| ] || 13.6 || 18.3 || 31.9
|-
| ] || 20.1 || 12.4 || 32.5
|-
| ] || 21.5 || 20.6 || 42.1
|-
| ] || 30.5 || 13.1 || 43.6
|-
| ] || 20.1 || 23.9 || 44
|-
| ] || 22.3 || 22.1 || 44.4
|-
| ] || 29.6 || 21.3 || 50.9
|-
| ] || 33.4 || 22.5 || 55.9
|-
| ] || 29.9 || 30.2 || 60.1
|-
| ] || 55.6 || 30.2 || 85.8
|}

{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ '''Live births per 1000 women 15–19 years old, 2002:'''<ref name=globalis> UNFPA, State of World Population 2003, Retrieved Jan 22, 2007.</ref>
]
!Country
!Teenage birth rate
<small>per 1000 women 15–19</small>
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| 3
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| 4
|-
| {{flag|China}}
| 5
|-
| {{flag|Switzerland}}
| 5
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| 5
|-
| {{flag|Spain}}
| 6
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| 6
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}
| 6
|-
| {{flag|Sweden}}
| 7
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| 7
|-
| {{flag|Slovenia}}
| 8
|-
| {{flag|Finland}}
| 8
|-
| {{flag|Luxembourg}}
| 9
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| 9
|-
| {{flag|Belgium}}
| 9
|-
| {{flag|Greece}}
| 10
|-
| {{flag|Cyprus}}
| 10
|-
| {{flag|Norway}}
| 11
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| 11
|-
| {{flag|Malta}}
| 12
|-
| {{flag|Austria}}
| 12
|-
| {{flag|Ireland}}
| 15
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}
| 16
|-
| {{flag|Canada}}
| 16
|-
| {{flag|Australia}}
| 16
|-
| {{flag|Albania}}
| 16
|-
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| 17
|-
| {{flag|Israel}}
| 17
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| 17
|-
| {{flag|Iceland}}
| 19
|-
| {{flag|Croatia}}
| 19
|-
| {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| 20
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| 21
|-
| {{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| 23
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| 24
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| 24
|-
| {{flag|Lithuania}}
| 26
|-
| {{flag|Estonia}}
| 26
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| 27
|-
| {{flag|Belarus}}
| 27
|-
| {{flag|Russia}}
| 30
|-
| {{flag|Georgia}}
| 33
|-
| {{flag|Macedonia}}
| 34
|-
| {{flag|Armenia}}
| 34
|-
| {{flag|Romania}}
| 37
|-
| {{flag|Ukraine}}
| 38
|-
| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
| 38
|-
| {{flag|Bulgaria}}
| 41
|-
| {{flag|Chile}}
| 44
|-
| {{flag|Brazil}}
| 45
|-
| {{flag|United States}}
| 53
|-
| {{flag|Indonesia}}
| 55
|-
| {{flag|Mexico}}
| 64
|-
| {{flag|South Africa}}
| 66
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| 73
|-
| {{flag|Nigeria}}
| 103
|-
| {{flag|Niger}}
| 233
|}

] found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women under age 20 worldwide, more than 90% in developing countries. ] and ] are the leading cause of ] among women between the ages of 15 and 19 in such areas.<ref name=savethechildren/> The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in ], where women tend to marry at an early age.<ref name=ncbi/> In ], for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.<ref name=subsahara>Locoh, Therese. (2000). "." ''WIN News.'.' Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>

In the ], early ] sometimes means adolescent pregnancy, particularly in ] regions where the rate is much higher than it is in ] areas. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in ] and ], although it remains relatively high. In the industrialized Asian nations such as ] and ], teenage birth rates are among the lowest in the world.<ref name=escap>Mehta, Suman, Groenen, Riet, & Roque, Francisco. United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (1998). . Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>

The overall trend in ] since 1970 has been a decreasing ], an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}} Most continental ] countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good ] and high levels of ] use (in the case of the ] and ]), ] and ]tization (in the case of ] and ]) or both (in the case of ]).<ref name=oecd/>

The teenage birth rate in the ] is the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high.<ref name=oecd/> The U.S. teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock.<ref></ref> The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s; this decline manifested across all ]s, although teenagers of ] and ] ] retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of ]s and ]s. The ] attributed about 25% of the decline to ] and 75% to the effective use of ].<ref>." Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>
<ref name=guttermacher>Wind, Rebecca. The Guttmacher Institute. (February 19, 2004).</ref> However, in 2006 the teenage birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr57/nvsr57_07.pdf |title=www.cdc.gov |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> This could imply that teen pregnancy rates are also on the rise, however the rise could also be due to other sources: a possible decrease in the number of abortions or a decrease in the number of miscarriages, to name a few.
The ] teenage birth has also trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens in the period between 1992–2002.<ref name=teenpregna>Dryburgh, H. (2002). Teenage pregnancy. Health Reports, 12 (1), 9–18; Statistics Canada . (2005). Health Indicators, 2005, 2. Retrieved from </ref>

==Causes of teenage pregnancy==
In some societies, early ] and traditional ]s are important factors in the rate of teenage pregnancy. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility.<ref name=subsahara/> In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities compared to the rate in cities.<ref name=escap/> The lack of education on safe sex, whether it’s from parents, schools, or otherwise, is a cause of teenage pregnancy. Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality. Some teens have said to be pressured into having sex with their boyfriend when the teen was young and yet no one had taught these teens how to deal with this pressure or to say "no".<ref>Macleod, C. (1999). The 'causes' of teenage pregnancy: Review of South African research--Part 2. South African Journal of Psychology, 29(1), 8. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.</ref>

In societies where adolescent marriage is uncommon, young age at first ] and lack of ] use may be factors in teen pregnancy.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=toosoon>, US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 25, 2007.</ref> Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned.<ref name=toosoon/><ref name=psi> Policy Studies Institute, University of Westminster, 30 Oct 1998</ref>

===Adolescent sexual behavior===
{{See also|Adolescent sexuality}}
According to information available from the ], sex by age 20 is the normal age across the world, and countries with low levels of adolescent pregnancy accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.<ref name=guttmacher2>Guttmacher Institute. (2005). . Retrieved August 8, 2006.</ref>

However, in a ] study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn’t really want to do".<ref name=kaiser>{{PDFlink||147&nbsp;KB}} Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2005. Retrieved 23 Jan 2007</ref> Several polls have indicated ] as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.<ref name=" pollingdata">The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). . Retrieved July 13, 2006.</ref><ref name=psychologytoday>Allen, Colin. (May 22, 2003). "." ''Psychology Today.'.' Retrieved July 14, 2006.</ref> Inhibition-reducing ] and ] may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity. If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. ]. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking to teenage pregnancy are ], ], and ]s, including ]. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are ], such as ], ], and ], of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of ] – it appears that teenage ] ] have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their non-using, and ], ], and ] using peers. Amphetamines are widely prescribed to treat ] – internationally, the countries with the highest rates of recorded amphetamine prescription to teenagers also have the highest rates of teenage pregnancy.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=kaiser/><ref name=Besharov/><ref>, Leonard Sax, M.D., Ph.D., 2005, Doubleday books, p. 128. See also comments made by Dr. ] on NPR's Fresh Air, September 23, 2003.</ref>

===Contraception===
{{main|Birth control}}

Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.<ref name=" pollingdata"/><ref name=" britsexed ">Slater, Jon. (2000). "." ''The UNESCO Courier.'.' Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref> Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1000 women. The 2010 target is currently looking highly ambitious. Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.<ref>Adams, A., & D'Souza, R. (2009). Teenage contraception. General Practice Update, 2(6), 36-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.</ref>

In the United States, according to the 2002 National Surveys of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than those of other ages to use contraceptives (18% of 15- to 19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% average for women ages 15 to 44).<ref name=trusell&Wynn>National Surveys of Family Growth{{cite journal | journal = Contraception | title = Reducing unintended pregnancy in the United States | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/january-2008| author = James Trussell and L.L. Wynn |date=January 2008}}</ref> More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended.<ref name=speidel>{{cite journal|journal = Contraception | year = 2008 | month = September | title = The Potential of Long-acting Reversible Contraception to Decrease Unintended Pregnancy | author = J. Joseph Speidel, Cynthia C. Harper, and Wayne C. Shields | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/september-2008 }}
</ref> Over half of ] were to women not using ],<ref name=trusell&Wynn /> most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.<ref name=speidel /> 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 ''Seventeen'' magazine poll admitted to having had ] with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 '']'' poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.<ref name=" pollingdata"/>

Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.<ref></ref>

In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use ]s incorrectly or forget to take ]. ] are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users.<ref name=Besharov>Besharov, Douglas J. & Gardiner, Karen N. (1997). . ''Children and Youth Services Review, 19 (5/6),'' 341–67. Retrieved July 13, 2006.</ref> Reversible longer term methods such as ]s, ], or injections (], ]), require less frequent user action, lasting from a month to years, and may prevent pregnancy more effectively in women who have trouble following routines, including many young women. The simultaneous use of more than one contraceptive measure further decreases the risk of unplanned pregnancy, and if one is a condom barrier method, the transmission of sexually transmitted disease is also reduced.<ref></ref>

===Age discrepancy in relationships===
According to the conservative lobbying organization ], studies in the US indicate that age discrepancy between the teenage girls and the men who impregnate them is an important contributing factor. Teenage girls in relationships with older boys, and in particular with adult men, are more likely to become pregnant than teenage girls in relationships with boys their own age. They are also more likely to carry the baby to term rather than have an abortion. A review of California's 1990 vital statistics found that men older than high school age fathered 77 percent of all births to high school-aged girls (ages 16–18), and 51 percent of births to junior high school-aged girls (15 and younger). Men over age 25 fathered twice as many children of teenage mothers than boys under age 18, and men over age 20 fathered five times as many children of junior high school-aged girls as did junior high school-aged boys. A 1992 Washington state study of 535 adolescent mothers found that 62 percent of the mothers had a history of being raped or sexual molested by men whose ages averaged 27 years. This study found that, compared with nonabused mothers, abused adolescent mothers initiated sex earlier, had sex with much older partners, and engaged in riskier, more frequent, and promiscuous sex. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of children born to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older.<ref>Gracie Hsu, Family Research Council <small>(courtesy link)</small></ref>

===Sexual abuse===
{{main|Sexual abuse}}

Studies have found that between 11 and 20 percent of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60 percent of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary; the Guttmacher Institute found that 60 percent of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males who on average were six years their senior. One in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.<ref></ref>

Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70 percent of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls; by contrast, 25 percent for women who did not give birth as teens were molested.<ref></ref><ref>Elizabeth M. Saewyc, Lara Leanne Magee and Sandra E. Pettingell (2004) </ref><ref>Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, Volume 36, Number 3, May/June 2004</ref><ref> University of Southern California, Science Blog, 2004</ref>

In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered ]. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see ]).

===Dating violence===
{{main|Dating violence}}

Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |author=Rosen D |title="I Just Let Him Have His Way" Partner Violence in the Lives of Low-Income, Teenage Mothers |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=6–28|year=2004 |doi=10.1177/1077801203256069 |url=http://vaw.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/1/6}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Quinlivan J |title=Teenage pregnancy |journal=O & G |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=25–6 |format=PDF |date=Winter 2006 |url=http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/publications/o-g_pdfs/OG-Winter-2006/teenage-pregnancy.pdf |accessdate=2009-06-22}}</ref><ref></ref><ref name=autogenerated2></ref> They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviours on part of their boyfriends.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Women under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18.<ref></ref> A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence.<ref></ref> Similar results have been found in studies in the United States. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of ] within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.<ref name=autogenerated2/>

In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of the girls aged 11–15 years and 56% of girls aged 16–19 years reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.<ref></ref>

===Socioeconomic factors===
Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. A hospital-based cohort study was undertaken over 4 months among women admitted to a rural hospital in West Bengal. The study cohort consisted of teenage mothers between 15–19 years old and a control cohort of mothers between 20–24 years old. Data included demographic variables, available medical records, and complications viz. anemia, preterm delivery, and low birth weight. Anemia was defined as a hemoglobin level below 10 gm% during the last trimester of pregnancy, preterm delivery was defined as occurring within 37 weeks of gestation, and low birth weight was defined as babies weighing less than 2500&nbsp;grams at birth. The Result: Teenage pregnancy comprised 24.17% of total pregnancies occurring in the hospital during the study period.<ref>Banerjee, B., Pandey, G., Dutt, D., Sengupta, B., Mondal, M., & Deb, S. (2009). Teenage Pregnancy: A Socially Inflicted Health Hazard. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 34(3), 227-231. doi:10.4103/0970-0218.55289.</ref>

]
] is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy.<ref name=Besharov/> Economically poor countries such as ] and ] have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as ] and ].<ref name=globalis/>

In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18s are concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.<ref>"" (Spring 2007)''Health Statistics Quarterly Volume 33''</ref> In ], the teenage birth rate in the well-off ] is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer ] it is 10.0 per 1000.<ref name=oecd/> Sociologist ] noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in ]:<ref>Males, Mike (2001) , c Youth Today.</ref>

Teen pregnancy costs the United States over $7 billion annually.
<ref></ref>
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
!County
!Poverty rate
!Birth rate*
|-
|]
|5%
|5
|-
|] (Caucasians)
|18%
|50
|-
|] (Hispanics)
|40%
|100
|}
<small>* per 1000 women aged 15–19</small>

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or ] before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.<ref name=psi/>

===Childhood environment===
Women exposed to abuse, ], and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences.<ref>Tamkins, T. (2004) Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, March–April, 2004</ref> Studies have also found that boys raised in homes with a battered mother, or who experienced physical violence directly, were significantly more likely to impregnate a girl.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, ''et al.'' |title=Abused boys, battered mothers, and male involvement in teen pregnancy |journal=Pediatrics |volume=107 |issue=2 |page=E19 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11158493 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/2/e19 |doi=10.1542/peds.107.2.e19}}</ref>

Studies have also found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity, and the lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the United States and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.<ref>Ellis, Bruce J. et al. (2003) Child Development, v74 n3 p801-21 May–Jun 2003</ref><ref>Quigley, Ann (2003) Health Behavior News Service, May 27, 2003</ref>

Low ]al expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Allen E, Bonell C, Strange V, ''et al.'' |title=Does the UK government's teenage pregnancy strategy deal with the correct risk factors? Findings from a secondary analysis of data from a randomised trial of sex education and their implications for policy |journal=J Epidemiol Community Health |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=20–7 |year=2007 |month=January |pmid=17183010 |doi=10.1136/jech.2005.040865 |url=http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/61/1/20 |pmc=2465587}}</ref> A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens.<ref name=" Jacobson ">{{cite journal |author=East PL, Jacobson LJ |title=The younger siblings of teenage mothers: a follow-up of their pregnancy risk |journal=Dev Psychol |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=254–64 |year=2001 |month=March |pmid=11269393 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.254 }}
</ref><ref name=" Furstenberg ">{{cite journal |author=Furstenberg FF, Levine JA, Brooks-Gunn J |title=The children of teenage mothers: patterns of early childbearing in two generations |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=54–61 |year=1990 |pmid=2347409 |doi=10.2307/2135509 }}</ref> A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of ] between parents and child and also to inadequate ].<ref name=" pollingdata"/>

] youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the United States, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly 3 times the rate for girls in the general population.<ref>{{PDFlink||42.1&nbsp;KB}} A Joint Project of The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy and UCAN (Uhlich Children’s Advantage Network) 16 Feb 2006</ref>

== Media influence ==
A study conducted in 2006 found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were also more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves.<ref>L’Engle, Kelly Ladin, Jane D.Brown, and Kristin Kenneavy. (2006). The mass media are an important context for adolescents’ sexual behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 186–192.</ref>

==Limiting teenage pregnancies==
Many health educators have argued that comprehensive ] would effectively reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, although opponents argue that such education encourages more and earlier sexual activity.

In the UK, the teenage pregnancy strategy, which was run first by the ] and is now based out of the Children, Young People and Families directorate in the ], works on several levels to reduce teenage pregnancy and increase the social inclusion of teenage mothers and their families by:
*joined up action, making sure branches of government and health and education services work together effectively;
*prevention of teenage pregnancy through better sex education and improving contraceptive and advice services for young people, involving young people in service design, supporting the parents of teenagers to talk to them about sex and relationships, and targeting high-risk groups;
*better support for teenage mothers, including help returning to education, advice and support, work with young fathers, better childcare and increasing the availability of supported housing.

The teenage pregnancy strategy has had mixed success. Although teenage pregnancies have fallen overall, they have not fallen consistently in every region, and in some areas they have increased. There are questions about whether the 2010 target of a 50% reduction on 1998 levels can be met.

In the United States the topic of sex education is the subject of much contentious debate. Some schools provide "abstinence-only" education and ]s are increasingly popular. A 2004 study by Yale and Columbia Universities found that fully 88 percent of those who pledge abstinence have premarital sex anyway.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hauser |first=Emily L. |title=Advise, console |work=Opinion |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=2008-09-07 |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2008/sep/07/opinion/chi-teen-pregnancy-thinksep07 |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref> Most public schools offer "abstinence-plus" programs that support abstinence but also offer advice about contraception. A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.<ref name=joe>Moncloa, Fe, Johns, Marilyn, Gong, Elizabeth J., Russell, Stephen, Lee, Faye, & West, Estella. (2003). . ''Journal of Extension, 41 (2).'.' Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>

The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.<ref name=dutchmodel>Valk, Guus. (2000). . ''The UNESCO Courier. Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref>

In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Indonesia and Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools.<ref name=escap/> Non-governmental agencies such as the ] provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against ] have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female ] and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as ], Indonesia, and the Indian state of ].

==Outcomes==
===Medical outcomes===
Maternal and ] health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of ] and ] is higher among adolescent mothers.<ref name=makinson/><ref name=natcamp/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Belsky DH |title=Prenatal care and maternal health during adolescent pregnancy: a review and meta-analysis |journal=J Adolesc Health |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=444–56 |year=1994 |month=September |pmid=7811676 |doi=10.1016/1054-139X(94)90491-K }}</ref> Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive ], often seeking it in the ], if at all.<ref name=makinson/> The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to suffer from health issues in childhood or be ] than those born to older women.<ref>Guttmacher Institute. (1999, September). . Retrieved May 29, 2006.</ref>
However, studies have indicated that young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those that do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers, many of whom do not have health insurance, appear to result from lack of access to high-quality medical care.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Raatikainen K, Heiskanen N, Verkasalo PK, Heinonen S |title=Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care |journal=Eur J Public Health |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=157–61 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=16141302 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/cki158 |url=http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/16/2/157}}</ref>
Many pregnant teens are subject to ] from poor ]s common in adolescence, including attempts to ] through ], ]s, ], ], and consumption of ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gutierrez Y, King JC |title=Nutrition during teenage pregnancy |journal=Pediatr Ann |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=99–108 |year=1993 |month=February |pmid=8493060}}</ref>

Inadequate ] is an even more marked problem among teenagers in ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanchez PA, Idrisa A, Bobzom DN, ''et al.'' |title=Calcium and vitamin D status of pregnant teenagers in Maiduguri, Nigeria |journal=J Natl Med Assoc |volume=89 |issue=12 |pages=805–11 |year=1997 |month=December |pmid=9433060 |pmc=2608295 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Peña E, Sánchez A, Solano L |title= |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Arch Latinoam Nutr |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=141–9 |year=2003 |month=June |pmid=14528603 }}</ref> ] result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting ].<ref name=savethechildren/> The ] estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as great for women between 15 and 19 years than for those between the ages of 20 and 24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged between 10 and 14 than for women of about twenty years of age. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name=subsahara/>

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years of age and younger, as an underdeveloped ] can lead to difficulties in ]. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by ] in ]; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to ], ], ], or ].<ref name=savethechildren/> For mothers in their late teens, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.<ref name=makinson/>

===Socioeconomic and psychological outcomes===
Several studies have examined the ], ], and ] impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as ] or ], may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can use family and community support, social services and child-care support to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.

====Impact on the mother====
Being a ''young mother'' in an industrialized country can affect one's ]. Teen mothers are more likely to ] of ].<ref name=natcamp/> Recent studies, though, have found that many of these mothers had already dropped out of school prior to becoming pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy were as likely to graduate as their peers.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth during their teens completed ] 10–12% as often and pursued ] 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.<ref>Hofferth, Sandra L., Reid, Lori, Mott, & Frank L. (2001). . ''Family Planning Perspectives, 33 (6).'' Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref>

''Young motherhood'' in an industrialized country can affect ] and ]. Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.<ref></ref> The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.<ref name=natcamp/> One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were ] at the time of giving birth.<ref>Levine Coley, Rebekah & Chase-Lansdale, Lindsay. (1997). . ''American Psychologist.'' Retrieved May 29, 2006.</ref> Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought ] within the first five years of their child's life.<ref name=natcamp/> A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the ] found that only 11% received a ], while the remaining 89% were ].<ref>Social Exclusion Unit. (1999). . Retrieved May 29, 2006.</ref> Most British teenage mothers live in ], with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.<ref name=dfes>{{PDFlink |1=}}</ref> Teenage women who are pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sean-c-powers.com/TeenagePregnancy.html |title=The Psychological Effects of Teenage Women During Pregnancy |accessdate=2009-01-05}}</ref> Professor John Ermisch at the institute of social and economic research at Essex University and Dr Roger Ingham, director of the centre of sexual health at Southampton University – found that comparing teenage mothers with other girls with similarly deprived social-economic profiles, bad school experiences and low educational aspirations, the difference in their respective life chances was negligible.<ref></ref>

Teenage Motherhood may actually make economic sense for '''poorer''' young women, some research suggests. For instance, long-term studies by Duke economist V. Joseph Hotz and colleagues, published in 2005, found that by age 35, former teen moms had earned more in income, paid more in taxes, were substantially less likely to live in poverty and collected less in public assistance than similarly poor women who waited until their 20s to have babies. Women who became mothers in their teens — freed from child-raising duties by their late 20s and early 30s to pursue employment while poorer women who waited to become moms were still stuck at home watching their young children — wound up paying more in taxes than they had collected in welfare.<ref>{{cite news |last=Males |first=Mike |authorlink=Mike Males |title=The real mistake in 'teen pregnancy' |work=Opinion |publisher=] |date=2008-07-13 |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-op-males13-2008jul13,0,4392044.story |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref> Eight years earlier, the federally commissioned report "Kids Having Kids" also contained a similar finding, though it was buried: "Adolescent childbearers fare slightly better than later-childbearing counterparts in terms of their overall economic welfare."{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}

One-fourth of adolescent mothers will have a second child within 24 months of the first. Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have a closely-spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kalmuss DS, Namerow PB |title=Subsequent childbearing among teenage mothers: the determinants of a closely spaced second birth |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=149–53, 159 |year=1994 |pmid=7957815 |doi=10.2307/2136238 }}</ref>

====Impact on the child====
Early motherhood can affect the ] of the infant. The occurrence of ] and ]al issues is increased in children born to teen mothers.<ref name=aap>{{cite journal |title=American Academy of Pediatrics: Care of adolescent parents and their children |journal=Pediatrics |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=429–34 |year=2001 |month=February |pmid=11158485 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/2/429 |doi=10.1542/peds.107.2.429 |author1=American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Adolescence and Committee on Early Childhood and Adoption, and Dependent Care}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hofferth SL, Reid L |title=Early Childbearing and Children's Achievement And Behavior over Time |journal=Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health |volume=34 |issue=1 |page= 41|year=2002 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3404102.html |doi=10.2307/3030231}}</ref> One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to ] their infant through ] such as ], ], and ], or to be ] and ] toward his or her needs.<ref name=aap/> Another found that those who had more ] were less likely to show ] toward their children or to rely upon ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Crockenberg S |title=Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers |journal=Child Dev |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=964–75 |year=1987 |month=August |pmid=3608666 |doi=10.2307/1130537 }}
</ref>

Poor ] in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to ] from secondary school, be held back a ], or score lower on ].<ref name=natcamp/> Daughters born to adolescent ]s are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.<ref name=natcamp/><ref name=" Furstenberg "/> A son born to a young woman in her teens is three times more likely to ] in ].<ref>Maynard, Rebecca A. (Ed.). (1996). ''.'' Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref>

====Impact on other family members====
Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of ] and ] and more likely to accept ], ], and ] at younger ages; younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of ] and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to ]s.<ref>East, Patricia L. (1996).
.
''Family Planning Perspectives, 28 (4)''. Retrieved May 27, 2006.</ref> An additional study discovered that those with an older sibling who is a teen parent often end up babysitting their nieces and nephews and that young girls placed in such a situation have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves.<ref name=" Jacobson " />
Social workers play an important role in intervention with families.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} They work with the families to address common problems and health issues in order to promote a positive outcome for both the family and the baby.

==Teenage fatherhood==
In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the so-called ]). In countries such as ] the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=escap/>

In other countries, such as the ] and the ], the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the fathers of their children.<ref name=oecd/><ref>National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2007). </ref> In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married.<ref>"" ''Office For National Statistics''</ref> Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. Research has shown that when teenage fathers are included in decision-making during pregnancy and birth, they are more likely to report increased involvement with their children in later years.<ref>Fagan, Jay; Barnett, Marina; Bernd, Elisa; and Whiteman, Valerie (2003) Fathering, Oct 2003</ref> In the U.S, eight out of ten teenage fathers do not marry their child's mother.<ref></ref>

However, "teenage father" may be a misnomer in many cases. Studies by the ] and the ] found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older.<ref>De Vita, Carol J. (1996) "The United States at Mid-Decade," Population Bulletin, vol. 50, no. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, Inc., March 1996)</ref><ref>Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics (1991). Monthly Vital Statistics Report, vol. 42, no. 3, Supplement 9. National Center for Health Statistics, Sept. 1993</ref> The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40 percent of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.<ref>Family Planning Perspectives, July/August 1995.</ref> A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.<ref>California Resident Live Births, 1990, by Age of Father, by Age of Mother, California Vital Statistics Section, Department of Heath Services, 1992.</ref> In the UK 72% of jointly registered births to women under the age of 20, the father is over the age of 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.<ref> ''Office For National Statistics'' pp 14–15. ''Note: 24% of births to women under 20 were solo registrations where the age of the father cannot be determined.''</ref>

==List of famous teenage parents==
{{Refimprove|section|date=December 2008}}
<!-- If you add to this list be sure to include a citation; this is required for any currently living person, per wikipedia policy ]. -->

===Pre-20th century===
*Medieval ] ] was 14, 16 and 17 years old when she gave birth to her first three children by her husband King ]: ], ] and ] respectively. She and Henry also had two additional children born several years later: ] and Katherine.
*], the first wife of ] gave birth to her first child Edward at the age of 13. Although Edward did not survive infancy, she had six additional children with her husband before dying in childbirth from her last child, ].
*At the age of 13, ] gave birth to her only child, who later became ].
*Napoleon's mother, ], gave birth to five children before she was 20. Only two of them survived: Napoleon and his elder brother Joseph Bonaparte.
*], translator and guide to ], gave birth to her son ] in 1805, while on expedition, and traveled with him to the ] and back. Although Sacagawea's exact birth date is unknown , she was around 17 years old at the time of the birth.

===20th century===
*] was 18 when in 1961 she gave birth to the 44th President of the United States, ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Zimmerman |first=Jonathan |title=Poverty, not sex ed, key factor in teen pregnancy |work=Open Forum |pages=B–7 |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=2008-09-04 |url= http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/09/03/EDFG12NIUM.DTL |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*] had a girl, Christina Claire Ciminella, on May 30, 1964, the same day her high school diploma was mailed to her. Michael Ciminella was not the biological father but married Naomi to give Christina his surname. Christina is now most notably known as ], an American singer.<ref>http://www.naomijudd.com/thejudds.php</ref>
*].<ref>http://bollywood501.com/classic_f/dimple_kapadia/</ref>
*] dropped out of ] in order to have her daughter, ] in 1987. The father was an American Marine. Anouska is now studying acting in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news |title=?; WHY ARE THEY FAMOUS? |format=fee required for full access |work=] |publisher=] |date=1996-08-18 |url= http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19960818/ai_n14062709 |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*] aka Lil’ Wayne had his baby, Reginae, with his now ex-wife Antonia "Toya" Johnson when he was 15 and she 14.<ref>{{cite news |last=Odum |first=Shanel |title=Toya Carter Speaks Out (Part 2) |publisher=] |date=2007-10-01 |url=http://www.vibe.com/news/news_headlines/2007/10/toya_carter_2/ |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref></ref>
*Child actress turned diplomat ] was 19 when she gave birth to her first child, Linda Susan, in 1948.<ref name="EdwardsP355">Edwards 355</ref><ref>Black 419–21</ref><ref name="WindelerP68">Windeler 68</ref>

===21st century===
*Pop singer ], winner of ] 2004, was 17 when she gave birth to a daughter named Zion Quari' in 2001; in 2005 she released a controversial song about single motherhood titled Baby Mama.<ref>http://www.popstarsplus.com/music_fantasiabarrino.htm=</ref>
*], a member of the pop band Hanson, was 19 when his 18-year-old wife Natalie gave birth to their first child, a son named Jordan Ezra, in 2002.<ref></ref>
*], of the controversial Russian pop band ], was 19 when she gave birth to her daughter Viktoria Pavlovna Volkova in September 2004; she had spoken publicly about having an abortion the year before.<ref></ref>
*Singer and actress ] was 18 when she gave birth to her first child, Daniel Julez Smith Junior, in October, 2004.<ref>{{cite web |last=Grossman |first=Wendy |coauthors=Peterson, Todd |date=2004-10-26 |title=Solange Knowles Gives Birth to a Boy |work=] |publisher=] |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,734570,00.html |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biography for Solange Knowles |publisher=] |url=http://akas.imdb.com/name/nm1090271/bio#tn15content |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*], who joined the pop group The Pussycat Dolls after winning a reality tv show, was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter in 2005.<ref>{{cite news |last=Starr Seibel |first=Deborah |title=BRONX CHEER — 'PUSSYCAT' WINNER ESCAPED SCHOOL OF HARD KNOCKS |publisher=] |date=2007-05-06 |url=http://www.nypost.com/seven/05062007/tv/bronx_cheer_tv_deborah_starr_seibel.htm |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Mel |title=Asia speaks about her win of Search for the Next Doll |publisher=] |date=2007-05-08 |url= http://www.buddytv.com/articles/pussycat-dolls-present-the-search-for-the-next-doll/pussycat-dolls-present-the-sea-6302.aspx |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Cleverocity |title=Pussycat Dolls Present: The Search for the Next Doll |work=Television |publisher=] |date=2007-05-08 |url= http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2007/05/08/707376-pussycat-dolls-present-the-search-for-the-next-doll |accessdate=2009-02-15}}</ref>
*Oscar-nominated actress ] was 17 when she gave birth to her first child, a girl named Felicity-Amore, in 2007.<ref></ref>
*], who is the younger sister of pop singer ], gave birth to daughter Maddie Briann Aldridge at 17 on June 19, 2008. The father is Casey Aldridge. She announced she was pregnant at just 16.<ref></ref>
*], 18, the teenage daughter of ]'s ] former<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/07/26/palin.resignation/index.html#cnnSTCText</ref> Alaskan Governor ], gave birth on December 27, 2008 to a son named Tripp.<ref>http://www.mercurynews.com/celebrities/ci_11332675</ref>
*], French actress and daughter of ], gave birth to son Marlowe Jack Tiger Mitchell in 2002 at age 19.<ref name="Times">{{cite web|url=http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/article1599012.ece|title=Wild child|work=Times Online|year=8th April 2007|author=Summer Litchfield|accessdate=2008-01-26}}</ref>

==Agencies Involved in the Lowering of High Pregnancy Rates in the US==

Recently, the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy was formed. They are dedicated to solving the issue of teen pregnancy in the ]. Another US organization dedicated to the prevention of unplanned pregnancy in teens is Stay Teen, an ad campaign and website.

Every year since 2002, this campaign celebrates the National Day to Prevent Teen Pregnancy on the first Wednesday of May. President ] has publicly supported this day.<ref>http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/national/pdf/2009/2009_ND_obama_message.pdf</ref>

==In the arts, films and literature==
Teenage pregnancy has been used as a theme or plot device in fiction, including ]s, ]s, and ]. The setting may be historical ('']'', ''Hope and Glory'') or contemporary ('']''). While the subject is generally treated in a serious manner ('']''), it can sometimes play up to stereotypes in a comic manner (] in '' ]'').

The pregnancy itself may be the result of ] (Rose in '']''), a ] (] in '']''), a romantic relationship (] in '']''); (] in '']''); or a first time sexual encounter (] in ]) unusually, in '']'', the central character becomes pregnant through ]. The drama often focuses around the discovery of the pregnancy and the decision to opt for ] ('']''), ] ('']'', ]), ] (''],'' '']'' and '']'') or life as a ] (''],'' '']'', '']''). In the German play '']'' (and the ]), the central female character gets pregnant and dies from a botched abortion. '']'' deals with the aftermath of a teenage pregnancy that ends with a dead newborn baby. While the pregnant girl herself is normally the chief protagonist, '']'' centers on a 15-year-old boy whose girlfriend becomes pregnant, while '']'' focuses on the reactions of the family, particularly the soon-to-be grandfather.

Other fiction, particularly in a long-running television series, looks at the long-term effects of becoming a parent at a very young age ('']''). In '']'', because ] is only 16 years older than her daughter ], the two are more like sisters than parent and child. '']'' also features the teenage daughter of a woman who was herself a teenage mother. In '']'', Benny Lopez, Deborah Engerman gave birth to George at 16. In the ] television show '']'' centers on Amy Juergens, a 15 year old who becomes a teenage mother after a one night stand. In the popular '']'' television show '']'' the character '']'' was said to have had her sons '']'' at 13, and '']'' at 16. In the japanese drama ], the protagonist Miki Ichinose becomes pregnant with her boyfriend's child at age 14. The show examines the impact of her pregnancy on her, her family, her school life, the life of her boyfriend and his family, and the society in which she resides.

Additionally, ] shows have featured teenage pregnancy stories. ] launched two reality shows about the topic, '']'' and '']'', in 2009. Each show depicts the gritty reality that pregnant teens face from friends and family while going through this life changing event, allowing teens to see what actually happens in this scenario through an outlet other than a scripted plot. ] that look at the author’s own experience of teenage motherhood include '']'' and ''Gather Together in My Name'' by ], ''] '' by ], and '']'' by ].

Songs about teenage pregnancy include downbeat tales of abuse ("]"), poverty ("]") and back-alley abortion ("]"), as well as upbeat and defiant tunes such as "]". American pop singer ], who was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter, released a controversial song about single motherhood titled "]", describing the difficulty of raising a child alone with limited financial and family support. (Many U.S. radio stations would not play the song, ostensibly because it contains a ].) "There Goes My Life", a modern ] song by ], focuses on the reaction of the father, who rhetorically asks, "I'm just a kid myself; how am I going to raise one?" As the daughter grows up, his attitude changes, and the song ends with his tearful farewell as she leaves for college. Due to its implied ] message, "There Goes My Life" was sung at the inauguration of ] in 2005 {{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}.

==See also==
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* ]
* ]
* ]
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* ]
* ]
* ]
* ] (website)
* ]
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==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==

{{refbegin}}

* Adams, A., & D'Souza, R. (2009). Teenage contraception. General Practice Update, 2(6), 36-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
* Banerjee, B., Pandey, G., Dutt, D., Sengupta, B., Mondal, M., & Deb, S. (2009). Teenage Pregnancy: A Socially Inflicted Health Hazard. Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 34(3), 227-231. doi:10.4103/0970-0218.55289.
* Macleod, C. (1999). The 'causes' of teenage pregnancy: Review of South African research—Part 2. South African Journal of Psychology, 29(1), 8. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
*{{cite book
|last=Armstrong |first=Bruce
|editor=Alex Gitterman
|title=Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations
|edition=2nd
|year=2001
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=023111396X
|pages=
|chapter=Adolescent Pregnancy
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Checkland |first=David and James Wong
|editor=
|title=Teen Pregnancy and Parenting: Social and Ethical Issues
|edition=
|year=1999
|publisher=University of Toronto Press
|location=Toronto, Canada; Buffalo, NY
|isbn=0802042155
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Dash |first=Leon
|editor=
|title=When Children want Children: The Urban Crisis of Teenage Childbearing
|edition=1st Illinois paperback
|year=2003, 1989
|publisher=University of Illinois Press
|location=Urbana, IL
|isbn=0252071239
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Erickson |first=Pamela I.
|editor=
|title=Latina Adolescent Childbearing in East Los Angeles
|edition=
|year=1998
|publisher=University of Texas Press
|location=Austin, TX
|isbn=0292720939
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Kaplan |first=Elaine Bell
|editor=
|title=Not Our Kind of Girl: Unraveling the Myths of Black Teenage Motherhood
|edition=
|year=1997
|publisher=University of California Press
|location=Berkeley, CA
|isbn=0520087364
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Harris|first=Irving B.
|editor=
|title=Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle of Poverty?
|edition=
|year=1996
|publisher=Yale Child Study Center: Distributed by Yale University Press
|location=New Haven, CT
|isbn=0300068921
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Luker |first=Kristin
|editor=
|title=Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy
|year=1996
|publisher=Harvard University Press
|location=Cambridge, MA
|isbn=0674217020
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Rhode |first=Deborah L.
|editor=Nancy Ehrenreich
|title=The Reproductive Rights Reader
|edition=
|year=2007
|publisher=New York University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=9780814722305
|pages=
|chapter=Politics and Pregnancy: Adolescent Mothers and Public Policy
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Seitz |first=Victoria
|editor=Edward Zigler, Sharon Lynn Kagan, and Nancy Wilson Hall
|title=Children, Families, and Government: Preparing for the Twenty-First Century
|edition=
|year=1996
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=0521242193
|pages=
|chapter=Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting
|chapterurl=}}
*{{cite book
|last=Silverstein |first=Helena
|editor=
|title=Girls on the Stand: How Courts Fail Pregnant Minors
|edition=
|year=2007
|publisher=New York University Press
|location=New York, NY
|isbn=9780814740316
|pages=
|chapter=
|chapterurl=}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{dmoz|Health/Teen_Health/Teen_Pregnancy|Teen Pregnancy}}
*{{dmoz|Society/Sexuality/Children_and_Adolescents/Teen_Pregnancy_Prevention|Teen Pregnancy Prevention}}

===Organizations===
*
*
*
*
*

===Articles===
*{{broken link|date=October 2009}}
*
* by Philip Baker, RCOG

{{Reproductive health}}
{{Sexual ethics}}

<!--来自 吴语维基百科//-->

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Revision as of 17:41, 13 April 2010