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As the Ottoman Turkish Empire entered a permanent phase of decline in the late 17th century it was engaged in a protracted state of conflict loosing territories both in Europe and the Caucasus. The victors were the Christian States the old ] and ] Empires and the new nation states of Greece, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.<ref>Mann, Michael ''“The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing”'' Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.112-113</ref>Rival European powers encouraged the development of nationalist ideologies among the Ottoman subjects in which the Muslims were portrayed as an ethnic “fifth column” leftover from a previous era that could not be integrated into the planned future states. The struggle to rid them selves of Ottomans became an important element of the self-identification of the Balkan Christians.<ref>Carmichael, Cathie,. ''"Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans"'' Routledge 2002, pp.21-22</ref> |
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As the Ottoman Turkish Empire entered a permanent phase of decline in the late 17th century it was engaged in a protracted state of conflict loosing territories both in Europe and the Caucasus. The victors were the Christian States the old ] and ] Empires and the new nation states of Greece, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.<ref>Mann, Michael ''“The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing”'' Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.112-113</ref>Rival European powers encouraged the development of nationalist ideologies among the Ottoman subjects in which the Muslims were portrayed as an ethnic “fifth column” leftover from a previous era that could not be integrated into the planned future states. The struggle to rid them selves of Ottomans became an important element of the self-identification of the Balkan Christians.<ref>Carmichael, Cathie,. ''"Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans"'' Routledge 2002, pp.21-22</ref> |
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According to Mark Levene, the Victorian public in the 1870s paid much more attention to the massacres and expulsions of Christians than to massacres and expulsions of Muslims, even if on a greater scale. He further suggests that such massacres were even favored by some circles. |
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The Victorian public in the mid-1870s consumed with interests stories about massacres committed against Christians but remained totally oblivious to the possibly many more Muslims who suffered identical faith, not to mention the millions thereafter who suffered from the successive waves of ethnic cleansing in the hands of Bulgarians, Serbs and Greeks. While atrocities committed against Christians in eastern Anatolia were reported in shocking detail, those committed against Muslims were of much lesser Western interest, or even, in some circles positively welcomed.<ref>Levene, Mark., ''"Genocide in the Age of the Nation State"'' 2005 pp.225-226</ref> |
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Mark Levene also argues that the dominant powers, by supporting "nation-statism" at the Berlin congress legitimized what Levene calls "the primary instrument of Balkan nation-building: ]. <ref>Levene, Mark., "Genocide in the Age of the Nation State" 2005 pp.225-226 </ref> |
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Western line-up of historical events was determined totally on religious criteria. The “]” of Rumelian territories in the 1878 ] into supposedly national states places the weight of responsibility for what happen in these regions, especially after 1878, onto the dominant powers. By supporting “nation-statism” in a region in which a multitude of ethnic communities were mixed, the dominant powers at Berlin legitimised what would become over the next century the primary instrument of Balkan nation-buliding: ].<ref>Levene, Mark., "Genocide in the Age of the Nation State" 2005 pp.225-226 </ref> |
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''“the Turk shall live no longer, neither in the Morea, nor in the whole earth”''<ref>Greek Revolutionary Song</ref> |
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==Background== |
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==Background== |
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Justin McCarty estimates that between 1821 and 1922 around five and a half million Muslims were driven out of Europe and five million more were killed or died of disease and starvation while fleeing.<ref>McCarthy, Justin ''“Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922”'' Princeton: Darwin Press 1995, pp.335-340</ref> Cleansing occurred as a result of the Serbian and Greek independence in the 1820s and 1830s, the ] 1877-1878, and culminating in the ] 1912-1913. Mann describes these acts as ''“murderous ethnic cleansing on stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe”'' referring to the 1914 ] report.<ref>Mann, Michael ''“The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing”'' Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.113</ref><ref>Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars (Washington, DC: The Endowment, 1914)</ref>It is estimated that at the turn of the 20th century there were 4,4 million Muslims living in the Balkan zone of Ottoman control.<ref>Cornis-Pope, Marcel Neubauer, John ''"History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe"'' 2004 pp.21 </ref>More than one million Muslims left the Balkans in the last three decades of the nineteenth century.<ref>Todorova, Maria., ''"Imagining the Balkans"'' Oxford University Press 2009, pp.175 </ref>Between 1912 and 1926 nearly 2,9 million Muslims were either killed or forced to emigrate to Turkey.<ref>Cornis-Pope, Marcel Neubauer, John ''"History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe"'' 2004 pp.21 </ref>It is estimated that in the course of the World War I and the Turkish War of Independence 2,5 million Muslims died in Anatolia while hundreds of thousands of refugees arrived from former Ottoman territories and Russia.<ref>Shissler, Ada Holland., ''"Between two empires''" 2003 pp.22</ref> |
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Justin McCarty estimates that between 1821 and 1922 around five and a half million Muslims were driven out of Europe and five million more were killed or died of disease and starvation while fleeing.<ref>McCarthy, Justin ''“Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922”'' Princeton: Darwin Press 1995, pp.335-340</ref> Cleansing occurred as a result of the Serbian and Greek independence in the 1820s and 1830s, the ] 1877-1878, and culminating in the ] 1912-1913. Mann describes these acts as ''“murderous ethnic cleansing on stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe”'' referring to the 1914 ] report.<ref>Mann, Michael ''“The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing”'' Cambridge University Press 2005, pp.113</ref><ref>Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars (Washington, DC: The Endowment, 1914)</ref>It is estimated that at the turn of the 20th century there were 4,4 million Muslims living in the Balkan zone of Ottoman control.<ref>Cornis-Pope, Marcel Neubauer, John ''"History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe"'' 2004 pp.21 </ref>More than one million Muslims left the Balkans in the last three decades of the nineteenth century.<ref>Todorova, Maria., ''"Imagining the Balkans"'' Oxford University Press 2009, pp.175 </ref>Between 1912 and 1926 nearly 2,9 million Muslims were either killed or forced to emigrate to Turkey.<ref>Cornis-Pope, Marcel Neubauer, John ''"History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe"'' 2004 pp.21 </ref>It is estimated that in the course of the World War I and the Turkish War of Independence 2,5 million Muslims died in Anatolia while hundreds of thousands of refugees arrived from former Ottoman territories and Russia.<ref>Shissler, Ada Holland., ''"Between two empires''" 2003 pp.22</ref> |
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==Atrocities== |
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==Atrocities== |
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*Between 10,000<ref>William St Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence, 2008, </ref> and 30,000<ref>McCarthy, Justin ''"Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922"'' Princeton:Darwin Press 1995</ref><ref>Cité par Hercules Millas, ''"History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey"'', History Workshop, n°31, 1991. </ref><ref>W. Alison Phillips, ''"The War of Greek Independence"'', 1821 to 1833, p. 61.</ref> Turks were killed in ] by Greek rebels in the summer of 1821, including the entire Jewish population of the city. |
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*Between 10,000<ref>William St Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence, 2008, </ref> and 30,000<ref>McCarthy, Justin ''"Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922"'' Princeton:Darwin Press 1995</ref><ref>Cité par Hercules Millas, ''"History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey"'', History Workshop, n°31, 1991. </ref><ref>W. Alison Phillips, ''"The War of Greek Independence"'', 1821 to 1833, p. 61.</ref> Turks were killed in ] by Greek rebels in the summer of 1821, including the entire Jewish population of the city. |
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''“The Turk shall live no longer, neither in the Morea, nor in the whole earth”''<ref>Greek Revolutionary Song</ref> |
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*During the ] a significant number of Turks were either killed, perished or became refugees. There are different estimates about the casualties of the war. Crampton describes an exodus of 130,000-150,000 expelled of which approximately half returned for an intermediary period encouraged by the ]. Hupchick and McCarthy point out that 260,000 perished and 500,000 became refugees.<ref>Dennis P. Hupchick, The Balkans:From Constantinople to Communism, 2002, p.265</ref><ref>McCarthy, J., ''"Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922",'' Princeton: Darwin Press 1995, p.64, p.85</ref>The Turkish scholars Karpat and Ipek argue that up to 300,000 were killed and 1 - 1,5 million were forced to emigrate.<ref>Karpat, Kemal H. ''"Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays"'' 2004 pp.764</ref><ref>Nedim Ipek, 1994, Turkish Migration from the Balkans to Anatolia, pp. 40-41</ref> |
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*During the ] a significant number of Turks were either killed, perished or became refugees. There are different estimates about the casualties of the war. Crampton describes an exodus of 130,000-150,000 expelled of which approximately half returned for an intermediary period encouraged by the ]. Hupchick and McCarthy point out that 260,000 perished and 500,000 became refugees.<ref>Dennis P. Hupchick, The Balkans:From Constantinople to Communism, 2002, p.265</ref><ref>McCarthy, J., ''"Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922",'' Princeton: Darwin Press 1995, p.64, p.85</ref>The Turkish scholars Karpat and Ipek argue that up to 300,000 were killed and 1 - 1,5 million were forced to emigrate.<ref>Karpat, Kemal H. ''"Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays"'' 2004 pp.764</ref><ref>Nedim Ipek, 1994, Turkish Migration from the Balkans to Anatolia, pp. 40-41</ref> |
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*Massacres against Turks and Muslims during the Balkan Wars in the hands of ], ] and ] are described in detail in the 1912 Carnegie Endowment report.<ref>Carnegie Report, ''Macedonian Muslims during the Balkan Wars'',1912</ref>Hupchick estimates that nearly 1,5 million Muslims died and 400,000 became refugees as a result of the Balkan Wars.<ref>Hupchick, 2002, pp.321</ref> |
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*Massacres against Turks and Muslims during the Balkan Wars in the hands of ], ] and ] are described in detail in the 1912 Carnegie Endowment report.<ref>Carnegie Report, ''Macedonian Muslims during the Balkan Wars'',1912</ref>Hupchick estimates that nearly 1,5 million Muslims died and 400,000 became refugees as a result of the Balkan Wars.<ref>Hupchick, 2002, pp.321</ref> |
As the Ottoman Turkish Empire entered a permanent phase of decline in the late 17th century it was engaged in a protracted state of conflict loosing territories both in Europe and the Caucasus. The victors were the Christian States the old Habsburg and Romanov Empires and the new nation states of Greece, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.Rival European powers encouraged the development of nationalist ideologies among the Ottoman subjects in which the Muslims were portrayed as an ethnic “fifth column” leftover from a previous era that could not be integrated into the planned future states. The struggle to rid them selves of Ottomans became an important element of the self-identification of the Balkan Christians.
According to Mark Levene, the Victorian public in the 1870s paid much more attention to the massacres and expulsions of Christians than to massacres and expulsions of Muslims, even if on a greater scale. He further suggests that such massacres were even favored by some circles.
Mark Levene also argues that the dominant powers, by supporting "nation-statism" at the Berlin congress legitimized what Levene calls "the primary instrument of Balkan nation-building: ethnic cleansing.
Justin McCarty estimates that between 1821 and 1922 around five and a half million Muslims were driven out of Europe and five million more were killed or died of disease and starvation while fleeing. Cleansing occurred as a result of the Serbian and Greek independence in the 1820s and 1830s, the Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878, and culminating in the Balkan Wars 1912-1913. Mann describes these acts as “murderous ethnic cleansing on stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe” referring to the 1914 Carnegie Endowment report.It is estimated that at the turn of the 20th century there were 4,4 million Muslims living in the Balkan zone of Ottoman control.More than one million Muslims left the Balkans in the last three decades of the nineteenth century.Between 1912 and 1926 nearly 2,9 million Muslims were either killed or forced to emigrate to Turkey.It is estimated that in the course of the World War I and the Turkish War of Independence 2,5 million Muslims died in Anatolia while hundreds of thousands of refugees arrived from former Ottoman territories and Russia.
Turkey
