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| MARY PENN | |||
| {{Other uses}} | |||
| {{redirect|Mushrooms|the 1991 television episode|Mushrooms (Law & Order)}} | |||
| {{redirect|Toadstool|the video game character|Toad (Mario)}} | |||
| ]'', commonly known as "fly agaric"]] | |||
| A '''mushroom''' is the fleshy, ]-bearing ] of a ], typically produced above ground on soil or on its ] source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, '']'', hence the word mushroom is most often applied to those fungi (], ]) that have a stem ('']''), a cap ('']''), and gills (lamellae, sing. ]) on the underside of the cap, just as do store-bought white mushrooms. | |||
| The word "mushroom" can also be used for a wide variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, and the term is used even more generally, to describe both the fleshy fruiting bodies of some ] and the woody or leathery fruiting bodies of some ], depending upon the context of the word. | |||
| Forms deviating from the standard ] usually have more specific names, such as "]", "]", and "]", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "]s" in reference to their similarity to '']'' or their place '']''. By extension, the term "mushroom" can also designate the entire fungus when in culture or the ] (called a ]) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself. | |||
| == Identification == | |||
| ] | |||
| Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of their ] structure. Most are ] and gilled. Their spores, called ]s, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot off ] and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a ], is used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and cream, but almost never blue, green, or red. | |||
| While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to ] times and the ], combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and ]. Chemical ] are also used for some genera. | |||
| In general, identification to ] can often be accomplished in the field using a local ]. Identification to ], however, requires more effort; one must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints. | |||
| == Classification == | |||
| ]'', an example of a ], a mushroom without a stalk, fruiting on a log]] | |||
| ]'' another type of ] mushroom.]] | |||
| {{main|Sporocarp (fungi)|Basidiocarp|Ascocarp}} | |||
| Typical mushrooms are the fruitbodies of members of the order ], whose type genus is '']'' and type species is the field mushroom, '']''. However, in modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruitbodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders in the class ]. For example, ] are in the ], false chanterelles like '']'' are in the ], milk mushrooms ('']'') and russulas ('']'') as well as '']'' are in the ], while the tough leathery genera '']'' and '']'' are among the ], but '']'' is in the ], and the little pin-mushroom genus, '']'', along with similar genera, are in the ]. | |||
| Within the main body of mushrooms, in the ], are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom ('']'' ''oreades''), ], ], ], ]s, and other ]s, ] like species of '']'', ], ], etc. | |||
| An atypical mushroom is the ], which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored ] fruitbody of a '']'' or ] colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic ] '']''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Volk |first=Tom |url=http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug2001.html |title=''Hypomyces lactifluorum'', the lobster mushroom |year=2001 |work=Fungus of the Month |accessdate=2008-10-13}}</ref> | |||
| Other mushrooms are non-gilled, and then the term "mushroom" is loosely used, so that it is difficult to give a full account of their classifications. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called ]s), others have spines, such as the ] and other ], and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for ]s, ]s, ], ], ], ]s, and ]. Thus, the term ''mushroom'' is more one of common application to ] fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise ] meaning. There are approximately 14,000 described species of mushrooms.<ref name=Chang>{{cite book |author=Miles PG, Chang S-T|title=Mushrooms: cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect, and environmental impact |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, FL |year=2004 |isbn=0-8493-1043-1 }}</ref> | |||
| == Mushroom vs. toadstool == | |||
| ]) and stalk (]) vary widely. Shown here is a species of '']''.]] | |||
| The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. | |||
| The term "toadstool" was often, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous mushrooms or to those that have the classic umbrella-like cap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 A.D., the terms ''tadstoles, frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode stoles, toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol, toadstoole, and paddockstooles'' sometimes were used synonymously with ''mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns''.<ref name=Ramsbottom_1954>{{cite book | author=Ramsbottom J | title=Mushrooms & Toadstools: a study of the activities of fungi | publisher=Collins |location=London |year=1954 }}</ref> | |||
| The word has apparent analogies in ] ''padde(n)stoel'' (''toad''-''stool/chair'', mushroom) and ] ''Krötenschwamm'' (''toad''-''fungus'', alt. word for ]). | |||
| Others have proposed a connection with ] "Todesstuhl" (lit. "death's chair").<ref></ref> Since ''Tod'' is a direct ] to ''death'', in that case it would be a German borrowing. | |||
| The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word ''mousseron'' in reference to moss (''mousse''). The toadstool's connection to ]s may be direct, in reference to some species of ],<ref></ref> or may just be a case of ] from the German word.<ref></ref> However, there is no clear-cut delineation between edible and poisonous fungi, so that a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The term "toadstool" is nowadays used in storytelling when referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is '']''. | |||
| == Growth rates == | |||
| ] in summer near ]]] | |||
| Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the ] including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids. | |||
| The ] as well as the common ] initially form a minute ], referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its ] and expand, mainly by inflating preformed ]s that took several days to form in the ]. | |||
| Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, like ''] plicatilis'' (formerly ''] plicatlis''), that literally appear overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nelson N |url=http://collectivesource.com/fungi/newpages/Coprinus_plicatilis.html |title=Parasola plicatilis |date=2006-08-13 |accessdate=2008-10-13}}</ref> The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the ] and after heavy rainfall or in ]y conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They "mushroom" to full size. | |||
| Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruitbodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting ]. For example ] grows slowly, and because of this combined with human cultivation, it is now ]. | |||
| == Size and age == | |||
| ]'') at various states of development]] | |||
| Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying ] can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of '']'' in ] in the ] is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated 2,200 acres. Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like ] that bridge colonized separated woody substrates.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.extremescience.com/biggestlivingthing.htm | title = A Fungus Among Us | publisher = Extreme Science | accessdate = 2007-11-14 | date = n.d. }}</ref> | |||
| == Human use == | |||
| ]'', one of the most widely cultivated mushrooms in the world.]] | |||
| {{see|Ethnomycology}} | |||
| === Edible mushrooms === | |||
| {{main|Edible mushroom|Mushroom hunting|Fungiculture}} | |||
| ]s are used extensively in ], in many ]s (notably ], ], and ]). Though mushrooms are commonly thought to have little nutritional value, many species are high in fiber and provide vitamins such as ], ], ], ], ], ]. Though not normally a significant source of ], some mushrooms can become significant sources after exposure to ], though this also darkens their skin.<ref>{{cite news | author=Associated Press | title=Light-zapped mushrooms filled with vitamin D: Bringing 'shrooms out of the dark packs them with sunshine nutrient |date=2006-04-18 | publisher=MSNBC | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12370708 | accessdate = 2008-10-13}}</ref> Mushrooms are also a source of some minerals, including ], ] and ]<ref>{{cite web | title=Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Mushrooms, white, raw | url=http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts/vegetables-and-vegetable-products/2482/2 | accessdate=2009-07-10}}</ref>. | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Most mushrooms that are sold in ] have been commercially grown on ]s. The most popular of these, '']'', is generally considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments, though some individuals do not tolerate it well. Several varieties of ''A. bisporus'' are grown commercially, including whites, ], and ]. Other cultivated species now available at many grocers include ], ] or ], ], and ]. In recent years increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers.<ref>FAO, </ref> | |||
| ] output in 2005]] | |||
| There are a number of species of mushroom that are ]ous, and although some resemble certain edible species, eating them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should not be undertaken by individuals not knowledgeable in mushroom identification, unless the individuals limit themselves to a relatively small number of good edible species that are visually distinctive. ''A. bisporus'' contains carcinogens called ]s, the most abundant of which is ]. However, the carcinogens are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.<ref>{{cite web |author=Sieger AA (ed.) |url=http://www.psms.org/sporeprints/sp338.html |title=Spore Prints #338 |work=Bulletin of the Puget Sound Mycological Society | date=1998-01-01 |accessdate=2008-10-13}}</ref> | |||
| More generally, and particularly with gilled mushrooms, separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. | |||
| Additionally, even edible mushrooms may produce an allergic reaction, from a mild asthmatic response to severe ] shock. | |||
| People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as ], or simply "Mushrooming". | |||
| ] is the world's largest edible mushroom producer.<ref></ref> | |||
| === Toxic mushrooms=== | |||
| {{main|Mushroom poisoning}} | |||
| ]" mushrooms next to a box of matches.]] | |||
| Of central interest with respect to the chemical properties of mushrooms is the fact that many species produce ] that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or ]. | |||
| Although there are only a small number of ], several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. | |||
| Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit (see ]s) the meal, or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. | |||
| === Psychoactive mushrooms === | |||
| {{main|Psilocybin mushrooms}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Mushrooms that have psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the '']'' ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the ] and '']'' (priest-healer). | |||
| ] mushrooms possess ]. Commonly known as "magic mushrooms," "zoomers" or "shrooms," they are openly available in ]s in many parts of the world, or on the ] in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybian mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as ]. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Griffiths R, Richards W, Johnson M, McCann U, Jesse R |title=Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later |journal=Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England) |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=621–32 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18593735 |doi=10.1177/0269881108094300 |url=http://jop.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18593735}}</ref> | |||
| Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms like '']'', is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as ]. Minute amounts have been reported to stop ] and ]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sewell RA, Halpern JH, Pope HG |title=Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD |journal=Neurology |volume=66 |issue=12 |pages=1920–2 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16801660 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000219761.05466.43 |url=http://www.neurology.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16801660}}</ref> A double-blind study, done by the John Hopkins Hospital, showed that psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects reported that ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme ].<ref name="pmid = 16826400"> | |||
| {{Cite journal | |||
| | author = Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R. | |||
| | title = Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. | |||
| | journal = Psychopharmacology (Berl). | |||
| | volume = 187 | |||
| | issue = 3 | |||
| | pages = 268–83 | |||
| | publisher = | |||
| | location = | |||
| | year = 2006 | |||
| | month = Aug | |||
| | url = | |||
| | doi = 10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5 | |||
| | pmid = 16826400 | |||
| }}</ref><ref name="weil">{{Cite web | |||
| | title = Looking for Mushroom Magic? | |||
| | url = http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/id/QAA400055 | |||
| | date = 2006-10-16 | |||
| | first = Andrew | |||
| | last = Weil | |||
| | accessdate = 2009-04-25 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| '']'' pictured above is also psychoactive. The active constituents are ] and ]. The Muscaria chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contain no ] or ], and are not ]. Some dry these in the sun to transform the Ibotenic acid into the more psychoactive Muscimol. | |||
| === Medicinal mushrooms === | |||
| {{main|Medicinal mushrooms}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Many species of medicinal mushrooms have been used in folk medicine for thousands of years. The use of medicinal mushrooms in folk medicine, is best documented in the ]. Medicinal mushrooms are now the subject of study for many ]s and medical researchers. The ability of some mushrooms to inhibit ] growth and enhance aspects of the ] has been a subject of research for approximately 50 years.<ref>{{Cite journal |author= Borchers AT, Krishnamurthy A, Keen CL, Meyers FJ, Gershwin ME |title= The immunobiology of mushrooms | |||
| |journal= Exp Biol Med |volume=233 |issue=3 |pages=259–76 |year=2008 |pmid=18296732 |doi=10.3181/0708-MR-227}}</ref> International mushroom research continues today, with a focus on mushrooms that may have ] activity, anti-] activity, anti-]ic activity, and ] enhancing activity. Recent research has found that the ] naturally contains the cholesterol drug ],<ref name="pmid7614366"> | |||
| {{Cite journal | |||
| | author = Gunde-Cimerman N, Cimerman A. | |||
| | title = Pleurotus fruiting bodies contain the inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase-lovastatin. | |||
| | journal = Exp Mycol. | |||
| | volume = 19 | |||
| | issue = 1 | |||
| | pages = 1–6 | |||
| | publisher = | |||
| | location = | |||
| | year = 1995 | |||
| | month = Mar | |||
| | url = | |||
| | doi =10.1006/emyc.1995.1001 | |||
| | pmid = 7614366 | |||
| | issn = 0147-5975 | |||
| }}</ref> mushrooms produce large amounts of ] when exposed to ],<ref name="vitD"> | |||
| {{Cite web | |||
| | url = http://articles.latimes.com/2008/mar/31/health/he-eat31 | |||
| }}</ref> and that certain fungi may be a future source of ].<ref name=pmid16572833>{{Cite journal |pmid=16572833 |year=2006 |month=Jan |last1=Ji |first1=Y |last2=Bi |last3=Yan |last4=Zhu |title=Taxol-producing fungi: a new approach to industrial production of taxol |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |issn=1000-3061 |journal=Sheng wu gong cheng xue bao = Chinese journal of biotechnology |url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+33069-62-4 |format=Free full text |first2=JN |first3=B |first4=XD}}</ref> To date, ] and the ] drugs ], and ], are the most famous pharmaceuticals which have been isolated from the ] kingdom. Other pharmaceuticals derived from fungi include ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| === Other uses === | |||
| ] | |||
| Mushrooms can be used for ] ] and other natural fibers. The ]s of ] are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic ]s mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes. | |||
| Some fungi, types of ]s loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as ]). | |||
| Mushrooms and ] play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (i.e. using ] to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (i.e. using fungi to lower bacteria levels in contaminated water). The US Patent and Trademark Office can be searched for patents related to the latest developments in ] and ]. | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * {{cite journal | author = Lindequist, U. |coauthors = Niedermeyer, T.H.J. ; Jülich, W.D. | year = 2005 | |||
| |title = The pharmacological potential of mushrooms.| journal = Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. | doi = 10.1093/ecam/neh107 | url=http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/2/3/285 | pmid = 16136207 | volume = 2 | pages = 285 | issue = 3 | pmc = 1193547 | unused_data = Sep;2(3):285-99.}} | |||
| ==Footnotes== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{refbegin}} | |||
| * ''Edible Wild Mushrooms of North America: A Field-to-kitchen Guide'' (1992) ISBN 0-292-72080-0 | |||
| * ''Mushrooms of Northeastern North America'' (1997) ISBN 0-8156-0388-6 | |||
| * '']'' (1991) ISBN 0-89815-388-3 | |||
| * ''Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms'' (2000) ISBN 1-58008-175-4 | |||
| * ''Mushroom Cultivator: A Practical Guide to Growing Mushrooms at Home'' (1983) ISBN 0-9610798-0-0 | |||
| * ''Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact'' (2004) ISBN 0-8493-1043-1 | |||
| * ''Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save The World'' (2005) ISBN 1-58008-579-2 | |||
| * ''Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi'' (1986) ISBN 0-89815-169-4 | |||
| * ''Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation'' (2004) ISBN 0-932551-64-5 | |||
| * ''Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World'' (1996) ISBN 0-89815-839-7 | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Wiktionary}} | |||
| {{Commons|Mushrooms}} | |||
| {{Cookbook|Mushroom}} | |||
| {{Wikisource1911Enc}} | |||
| === Identification === | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * , '']'' | |||
| * | |||
| * (All images are made available under a ] license.) | |||
| * , from the International Field Guides database | |||
| === Research associations === | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
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| * | |||
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Revision as of 13:26, 20 May 2010
MARY PENN