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The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy began after complaints were made about the publication of twelve editorial cartoons depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad which initially appeared in the centre right Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on September 30 2005. As the controversy has grown, some or all of the cartoons have been reprinted in newspapers in more than 20 other countries .

The publication of the cartoons has led to significant unrest around the world, particularly in Islamic countries, primarily because depictions of Muhammad are prohibited as a measure against idolatry (see aniconism in Islam), but also because of the perceived sterotyping of Arabs or Muslims.

The drawings, including a depiction of Muhammad with a bomb inside or under his turban, accompanied an article on self-censorship and freedom of speech. Flemming Rose, the cultural editor of Jyllands-Posten, commissioned twelve cartoonists for the project and published the cartoons to highlight the difficulty experienced by Danish writer Kåre Bluitgen in finding artists to illustrate his children's book about Muhammad. Cartoonists previously approached by Bluitgen were reportedly unwilling to work with him for fear of violent attacks by extremist Muslims.

Although Jyllands-Posten maintains that the drawings were an exercise in free speech, there are Muslims and non-Muslims in Denmark and elsewhere who maintain that they are culturally offensive, blasphemous, portray Muhammad as a terrorist, and therfore serves only to promote racial or religious stereotypes about Arabs and Muslims. Some Muslims have compared them to the cartoons used by Nazi's to demonise Jews . The cartoons may also be viewed as a form or non-violent protest in response to the threats and intimidation encountered by those who publicly criticise Islam, especially the tendency of extremists to react violently to such criticism. The Denmark based 'Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network' said "the cartoons among others things identified Islam with terrorism,(this) can only increase the xenophobia and racism that these populations are already victims of in Europe. Furthermore, this kind of image contributes to discrediting entire countries and their populations."

Several death threats have been made against those responsible for the cartoons, reportedly resulting in the cartoonists going into hiding and the newspaper enhancing its security precautions. Reaction from the international community was also swift; the foreign ministries of eleven Islamic countries demanded action from the Danish government, and Libya eventually closed its embassy in Denmark in protest after the government refused to censure the newspaper or apologise. The Danish prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen said, "The government refuses to apologise because the government does not control the media or a newspaper outlet; that would be in violation of the freedom of speech".

A large consumer boycott was organised in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Arabic-speaking countries. In response there have been calls by free speech proponents for an anti-boycott. Recently the foreign ministers of seventeen Islamic countries renewed calls for the Danish government to punish those responsible for the cartoons, and to ensure that such cartoons are not published again. The Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Arab League have demanded that the United Nations impose international sanctions upon Denmark. Protests have also taken place against the cartoons, many of them violent. On 4 February, the buildings containing the Danish and Norwegian embassies in Syria were set ablaze, although no one was hurt. Also in Beirut the Danish General Consulate was set on fire, while deaths have been reported in riots in Afghanistan.

Timeline

The cartoons were first published in late September 2005; approximately two weeks later, nearly 3,500 people demonstrated peacefully in Copenhagen. In November, several European newspapers re-published the images, triggering more protests. Labour strikes began in Pakistan the following month, and several organizations criticized the Danish government. More protests occurred in January 2006, and later that month a boycott of Danish goods began. Several countries withdrew their ambassadors to Denmark, and widespread protests began. The protests, some of them violent, continued in February. In Damascus, Syria, both the Norwegian embassy and a building containing the Danish, Swedish, and Chilean embassies were stormed and set afire by protesters. The Danish General Consulate in Beirut was burned down by more than 10,000 protesters. At least five people died in Afghanistan and one teenager was killed in Somalia.

The events

Debate about self-censorship

On September 17 2005, the Danish newspaper Politiken ran an article under the headline "Dyb angst for kritik af islam" ("Deep fear of criticism of Islam"). The article discussed the difficulty encountered by the writer Kåre Bluitgen, who was initially unable to find an illustrator who was prepared to work with Bluitgen on his children's book Koranen og profeten Muhammeds liv ("The Qur'an and the prophet Muhammad's life"). Three artists declined Bluitgen's proposal before an artist agreed to assist anonymously. According to Bluitgen:

One , with reference to the murder in Amsterdam of the film director Theo van Gogh, while another the lecturer at the Carsten Niebuhr Institute in Copenhagen. In October 2004, a lecturer was assaulted by five assailants who opposed the lecturer's reading of the Qur'an to non-Muslims during a lecture at the Niebuhr institute at the University of Copenhagen.

The refusal of the first three artists to participate was seen as evidence of self-censorship and led to much debate in Denmark, with other examples for similar reasons soon emerging. The comedian Frank Hvam declared that he did not dare satirise the Qur'an on television, while the translators of an essay collection critical of Islam also wished to remain anonymous due to concerns about violent reaction.

Publication of the drawings

On September 30 2005, the daily newspaper Jyllands-Posten ("The Jutland Post") published an article titled "Muhammeds ansigt" ("The face of Muhammad"). The article consisted of 12 cartoons (of which only some depicted Muhammad) and an explanatory text, in which Flemming Rose, Jyllands-Posten's culture editor, commented:

The modern, secular society is rejected by some Muslims. They demand a special position, insisting on special consideration of their own religious feelings. It is incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech, where you must be ready to put up with insults, mockery and ridicule. It is certainly not always equally attractive and nice to look at, and it does not mean that religious feelings should be made fun of at any price, but that is less important in this context. we are on our way to a slippery slope where no-one can tell how the self-censorship will end. That is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has invited members of the Danish editorial cartoonists union to draw Muhammad as they see him.

After an invitation from Jyllands-Posten to around forty different artists to give their interpretation on how Muhammad may have looked, twelve different caricaturists chose to respond with a drawing each. Some of these twelve drawings portray Muhammad in different fashions; many also comment on the surrounding self-censorship debate. In the clockwise direction of their position in the page layout:

• The Islamic star and crescent partially symbolizing the face of Muhammad; his right eye is the star, the crescent surrounds his beard and face.
• Muhammad with a bomb in his turban, with a lit fuse and the Islamic creed written on the bomb. This drawing is considered the most controversial of the twelve.
• Muhammad standing in a gentle pose with a halo in the shape of a crescent moon. The middle part of the crescent is obscured, revealing only the edges which resemble horns.
• An abstract drawing of crescent moons and Stars of David, and a poem on oppression of women "Profet! Med kuk og knald i låget som holder kvinder under åget!". In English the poem could be read as: "Prophet, you crazy bloke! Keeping women under yoke"
• Muhammad as a simple wanderer, in the desert, at sunset. There is a donkey in the background.
• A nervous caricaturist, shakingly drawing Muhammad while looking over his shoulder.
• Two angry Muslims charge forward with sabres and bombs, while Muhammad addresses them with: "Rolig, venner, når alt kommer til alt er det jo bare en tegning lavet af en vantro sønderjyde" (loosely, "Relax guys, it's just a drawing made by some infidel South Jutlander". South Jutland as reference would, for a Dane, connote the feeling of something like the middle of nowhere).
• An Arab-looking boy in front of a blackboard, pointing to the Farsi chalkings, which translate into "The editorial team of Jyllands-Posten is a bunch of reactionary provocateurs". The boy is labelled "Mohammed, Valby school, 7.A", implying that this is a second-generation immigrant to Denmark rather than the founder of Islam. On his shirt is written "Fremtiden" (the future).
• Another drawing shows Muhammad prepared for battle, with a short sabre in one hand and a black bar censoring his eyes. He is flanked by two women in niqaabs, having only their wide open eyes visible. The subtle joke would be that if what is visible of the women and what is visible of Mohammed were subtracted from one another, then nothing would be left.
• Muhammad standing on a cloud, greeting dead suicide bombers with "Stop Stop vi er løbet tør for Jomfruer!" ("Stop, stop, we have run out of virgins!"), an allusion to the promised reward to martyrs.
• Another shows journalist Kåre Bluitgen, wearing a turban with the proverbial orange dropping into it, with the inscription "Publicity stunt". In his hand is a child's stick drawing of Muhammad. The proverb "an orange in the turban" is a Danish expression meaning "a stroke of luck": here, the added publicity for the book.

And in the centre:

• A police line-up of seven people wearing turbans, with the witness saying: "Hm... jeg kan ikke lige genkende ham" ("Hm... I can't really recognise him"). Not all people in the line-up are immediately identifiable. They are: (1) A generic Hippie, (2) politician Pia Kjærsgaard, (3) possibly Jesus, (4) possibly Buddha, (5) possibly Muhammad, (6) a generic Indian Guru, and (7) journalist Kåre Bluitgen, carrying a sign saying: "Kåres PR, ring og få et tilbud" ("Kåre's public relations, call and get an offer")

Police investigation of Jyllands-Posten

A number of Muslim organizations submitted complaints to the Danish police claiming that Jyllands-Posten had committed an offence under section 140 and 266b of the Danish Criminal Code.

Section 140 of the Criminal Code prohibits any person from publicly ridiculing or insulting the dogmas of worship of any lawfully existing religious community in Denmark. Section 266b criminalises the dissemination of statements or other information by which a group of people are threatened, insulted or degraded on account of their religion. Danish police began their investigation of these complaints on 27 October 2005.

On 6 January 2006, the Regional Public Prosecutor in Viborg decided to discontinue the investigation as he found no basis for concluding that the cartoons constituted a criminal offence. He stated that, in assessing what constitutes an offence, the right to freedom of speech must be taken into consideration. That while the right to freedom of speech must be exercised with the necessary respect for other human rights, including the right to protection against discrimination, insult and degradation, no apparent violation of the law had occurred.

Jyllands-Posten response

Jyllands-Posten published two open letters on its website, both in Danish and Arabic versions, and the second letter also in an English version. The second letter was dated 30 January, and includes the following explanation and apology:

In our opinion, the 12 drawings were sober. They were not intended to be offensive, nor were they at variance with Danish law, but they have indisputably offended many Muslims for which we apologize.

Danish Muslim clerics tour the Middle East

Unsatisfied with the reaction of the Danish Government and Jyllands-Posten and feeling provoked additionally in particular by a televised interview with Dutch member of parliament and Islam critic Hirsi Ali, who was received by Danish prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen, and by the situation of Muslims in Denmark in general, which they perceived as racist and condescending, a group of Danish Muslim clerics from multiple organisations set out for a tour of the Middle East to present their case and ask for support. For this purpose a 43-page dossier was created.

Who travelled where and when, and met whom to ask for what is not yet exactly transparent, but this appears to be established so far: Among the leadership of the group were Imam Ahmad Abu Laban of the Islamisk Trossamfund and Akhmad Akkari, spokesman of the Danish-based European Committee for Prophet Honouring. Danish Sheik Rais Huleyhil was named head of the coalition. Among the people the group claims to have met on their visit to Egypt were: The General Secretary of the Arab League Amr Moussa, the Egyptian Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa and the Sheik of Cairo's Al-Azhar university Mohammed Sayed Tantawi and the Egyption foreign office.

Reprinting in other newspapers

On January 10 2006, the cartoons were reprinted in the small Norwegian Christian newspaper Magazinet (circulation: 5.000). Later they were reprinted in the German newspaper Die Welt, the French daily France Soir, and many other European newspapers as well as newspapers in New Zealand (The Dominion Post) and Jordan. In response to an outcry from the Muslim community, the chief editor of France Soir was fired by Raymond Lakah, the Franco-Egyptian and Roman Catholic owner of the newspaper.

Three of the cartoons were reprinted in the Jordanian weekly newspaper al-Shihan. The cartoons accompanied an editorial by Jihad Momani, a former Jordanian senator. He urged Muslims to "be reasonable." He asked: "Who offends Islam more? A foreigner who endeavors to draw the prophet as described by his followers in the world, or a Muslim with an explosive belt who commits suicide in a wedding party in Amman or elsewhere". Momani was fired, and the publisher, Arab Printers Company, withdrew copies of the newspaper from circulation. Momani issued a public apology for reprinting the cartoons, saying that he did not mean to cause offence. On February 4 2006 Momani was arrested by Jordanian police and charged with insulting religion. Several of the cartoons were also reprinted in the Jordanian newspaper al-Mehwar, and the editor Hisham Khalidi was also arrested on February 4, 2006 and charged with insulting religion. Both charges were dropped two days later.

In the United States, the Philadelphia Inquirer reprinted one of the cartoons alongside a story on the controversy, stating:

The Inquirer intends no disrespect to the religious beliefs of any of its readers. But when a use of religious imagery that many find offensive becomes a major news story, we believe it is important for readers to be able to judge the content of the image for themselves, as with the 1987 photograph by Andres Serrano of a crucifix in urine. On that basis we reprint this cartoon.

Most other major US newspapers have declined to publish the cartoons, citing concerns over their inflammatory nature.

In South Africa, a Muslim organization, the Jamiatul Ulama Transvaal (Council of Muslim Theologians) obtained an interdict from the Johannesburg High Court on February 3 2006 against several South African newspaper companies, preventing them from publishing the cartoons.

On February 6, the Jerusalem Post; in Israel reprinted the cartoons, according to a Danish newspaper citing Ritzau.

In Malaysia, Lester Melanyi, the editor-on-duty of Sarawak's Sarawak Tribune resigned from his post for allowing the reprinting of a caricature in page 12 of the February 4 edition of the newspaper. This also led to the newspaper's chief editor to be summoned to the Internal Security Ministry office in Kuching.

Danish journalistic tradition

Freedom of speech in Denmark was obtained in a new constitution with democracy in 1849 and parliamentarism in 1901 together with other liberties, including freedom of religion. These freedoms have been defended vigorously ever since. Freedom of speech was abandoned temporarily only during the German occupation of Denmark during World War II.

Section 77 of the Constitutional Act of Denmark (1953) reads: “Any person shall be at liberty to publish his ideas in print, in writing, and in speech, subject to his being held responsible in a court of law. Censorship and other preventive measures shall never again be introduced.” The constitution can only be amended after a long process including new elections to the Parliament and a national referendum.

Section 140 of the Danish Penal Code prohibits blasphemy. However, this law has not been used since 1938. Section 266b of the Danish Penal Code prohibits expressions that threaten, deride or degrade on the grounds of race, colour, national or ethnic origin, belief or sexual orientation. It has never, however, been used to prohibit statements offensive to religion. The Danish public prosecutor determined that the Muhammad cartoons were not blasphemy in Danish law..

Jesus and other religious figures are often portrayed in Denmark in ways that many other societies would consider illegal blasphemy. In 1984 the artist Jens Jørgen Thorsen was commissioned by a local art club to paint the wall of a railway station. The work displayed a naked Jesus with an erect penis. In 1992 Thorsen directed the film Jesus vender tilbage which showed Jesus as sexually active and involved with a terrorist group. . While Thorsen’s work provoked much public debate, he was not charged with any legal offence.

Danish newspapers are privately owned and independent from the government and any action from the government to influence their writings would be heavily opposed. There are no restrictions on the political viewpoints which people may publish.

In the 1960s, Denmark abandoned the law prohibiting pornography, giving rise to widespread criticism and demonstrations around the world. Pornography became available in most shops carrying magazines, and sex shops also widely available. Selling sexual services is fully legal, and ads for sexual services can be seen in ordinary newspapers. The Royal Danish Theatre even had a ballet performance with naked ballet dancers (Dødens Triumf). Bathing nude in the ocean is not uncommon and allowed almost everywhere, bathing topless is very common. Denmark was the first country to give gay couples the same rights as obtained in heterosexual marriage..

Many movies which are restricted or forbidden in other countries are available in their original versions in Denmark. The only restrictions on movies are age restrictions in order to protect children, at age 7, 11 and 15. There are frequent caricatures of Queen Margrethe II.

A 2004 report by the European Network Against Racism concluded that the Danish media devoted an excessive proportion of their time to the problems posed by immigrants, and most often Islamic immigrants, while often ignoring the problems that these immigrants face. Over the 3 month period studied, from September 1 2004 to November 20 2004, 19 out of the 24 Jyllands-Posten's editorials on "ethnic issues" were negative, while 88 out of 120 op. ed. pieces on "ethnics" were negative, and 121 out of 148 letters to the editor on "ethnics" were negative.

Islamic tradition

The Qur'an, Islam's holiest book, condemns idolatry, but has no direct condemnations of pictorial art. Direct prohibitions of pictorial art, or any depiction of sacred figures, are found in some hadith, or recorded oral traditions.

Views regarding pictorial representation within the Muslim community have varied from group to group, and from time to time. Shi'a Muslims have been generally tolerant of pictorial representation of human figures, Sunni Muslims less so. However, the Sunni Ottomans, the last dynasty to claim the caliphate, were not only tolerant but even patrons of the miniaturists' art. Many Ottoman miniatures depict Muhammad; they usually show Muhammad's face covered with a veil or as a featureless void emanating light (depicted as flames). Pictorial surveys of Islamic religious art can be found on the internet. Note that the last site also contains some extremely and intentionally offensive modern depictions of Muhammad.

Most contemporary Muslims believe that ordinary portraits and photos, films and illustrations, are permissible. Only some Salafi and Islamist interpretations of Sunni Islam still condemn pictorial representations of any kind. Offensive satirical pictures are a somewhat different case — disrespect to Islam or to Muhammad is still widely considered blasphemous or sacrilegious.

According to the BBC "It is the satirical intent of the cartoonists, and the association of the Prophet with terrorism, that is so offensive to the vast majority of Muslims." Furthermore, the cartoons were published in a conservative mainstream newspaper in the context of what many Muslims perceive to be an pervasive bias in many western countries, exemplified by the French law on religious symbols in schools, the short film Submission, and the 2005 Sydney race riots.

International laws related to the issue

Articles 19 and 20 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights read:

Article 19

• 1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference.
• 2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.
• 3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.

Article 20

• 1. Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.
• 2. Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.

Denmark signed the Covenant March 20, 1968, and ratified it January 6, 1972. She made a reservation in respect of Article 20, paragraph 1, since she had previously voted in the United Nations against the prohibition against propaganda for war.

see also ICCPR

International reactions

What started with the problem of a Danish author to find an illustrator for his forthcoming book about Islam has become an international crisis. It has led to violence, arrests, interstate tensions, and a renewed debate about the scope of free speech and the place of Muslims in the West, and the West in Muslim countries. Many governments, organizations and individuals worldwide have issued statements, trying to define their stance.

Opinions

Opinions in Denmark

A poll on January 29, from Epinion for Danmarks Radio, the national broadcasting company of Denmark, showed that of 579 Danes asked, 79% believe that the Prime Minister of Denmark should not apologise to the Muslims, with 48% citing that would be political interference with the freedom of press, while 44% thought the Prime Minister should try harder to resolve the controversy. 62% of those asked believed that Jyllands-Posten shouldn't apologise either, and while 58% did feel that while it was the right of Jyllands-Posten to publish the images, they could understand the Muslim criticism.

On February 3, another poll from Epinion made for Danmarks Radio, had asked 509 people "Considering the events that have occurred in the past week, should Jylland-Posten have published the depictions?". 47% said they shouldn't have been published, 46% said the opposite, while the last 7% did not know which stance to take.

The question of whether the drawings should have been printed in the first place has been intensively discussed in Denmark from letters to the editors of news publications, to national television, to open debate meetings at high schools and universities. The controversy arises from several sources:

• Most Islamic traditions forbid representations of Muhammad.
• The satirical nature of some of the drawings was not considered respectful, especially one that shows Muhammad with a bomb in his turban, thereby re-enforcing the stereotypical association of Islam with terrorism.
• The drawings upset the Muslim community in Denmark at a time when relations between Muslims and European society are strained.

The Islamic Society in Denmark has proposed that a three day celebration of Muhammad should be held in Denmark, putting a focus on Muhammad's life. They further proposed that this be coordinated in part by the Islamic Society, Jyllands-Posten, and at least some of the five universities in Denmark. This was declined by the universities, as they do not take part in religious activities.

The editor who originally approved the cartoons, Carsten Juste, later declared that the opponents of free speech had "won" because the furor would almost undoubtedly deter future editors from printing anything similar. He thought it unlikely that anyone would print a caricature of Muhammad within a generation. He also said that, had he known exactly what the consequences would be, that is death threats, boycotts and terror threats, he would not have printed the cartoons.

Many people in Denmark have criticised the government's handling of the affair, particularly the prime-minister's decision not to meet with the Islamic ambassadors in October.

On December 20 twenty-two former Danish ambassadors sent an open letter to the prime-minister criticising his decision not to open a dialogue with the international representatives.

In early February, Swedish newspaper Dagens Nyheter published an article that focused not on the cartoons but the cartoonists (who were not named). It was based on interviews with a few of the cartoonists, several of whom regretted creating the pictures. (Dagens Nyheter also noted that although the cartoons have received worldwide attention and have been published several times, the cartoonists have only earned the initial few hundred Danish kroner each for their work.)

On February 4 the newspaper Dagbladet Information published twelve Anders Fogh Rasmussen cartoons satirising his handling of the entire affair.

Opinions of Muslims

A great many Muslims were angered by the publication of what they considered offensive images. This anger has been expressed in violent and peaceful public protests, newspaper articles, emails, and SMS messages in Arabic and Islamic countries. Although the artists have denied representing Mohammed as a terrorist, many Muslims felt that "a bomb in a turban, with a lit fuse and the Islamic creed written on the bomb" suggested a connection between Muhammad and terrorism. There are multiple ways to interpret this particular drawing though, for example that some Muslims are putting violence into the religion by using bombs, or that Islam is a bomb waiting to go off.

Other Arabs and Muslims have expressed their condemnation of the cartoons: "In it is considered freedom of speech if they insult Islam and Muslims," columnist Mohammed al-Shaibani wrote in Kuwait's Al-Qabas daily on January 30. "But such freedom becomes racism and a breach of human rights and anti-Semitism if Arabs and Muslims criticize their religion and religious laws."

A number of Muslim commentators, including Ehsan Ahrari of the Asia Times, have pointed at laws in Germany, France, Austria and seven other countries in Europe which explicitly regard the denial of the Holocaust as a crime, free speech considerations notwithstanding. They maintain that offensive imagery regarding the Jewish religion and the Jewish people is largely prohibited in the media in post-Holocaust Europe. The media in general practices self-restraint in this matter; nonetheless, Muslims allege that a different set of standards seem to apply for the Islamic faith.

In a BBC news programme, Asghar Bukhari of the British Muslim organization MPACUK and Roger Koeppel, editor of Die Welt, the German newspaper that published the cartoons, debated the issue. Bukhari suggested to Koeppel that a German paper would be particularly mindful of the effect of such imagery, considering the lengthy history of anti-Semitic propaganda and demonization of Jews in German media prior to the Holocaust, when caricatures of Jews as rich financiers or evil Bolsheviks were commonplace. Koeppel replied that he did not consider the caricatures of Muhammad in the same vein.

The public anger was accompanied by a condemnation from Arabic and Islamic governments. The Muslim World League (MWL) called on UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan to activate international laws against insolence toward religion.

The Justice and Islamic Affairs Minister of the United Arab Emirates, Mohammed Al Dhaheri, called it "cultural terrorism, not freedom of expression," according to the official WAM news agency. "The repercussions of such irresponsible acts will have adverse impact on international relations." In Tunisia, Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, president of the Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture (the Islamic world's counterpart to UNESCO) called the drawings "a form of racism and discrimination that one must counter by all available means." He said, "It's regrettable to state today, as we are calling for dialogue, that other parties feed animosity and hate and attack sacred symbols of Muslims and of their prophet," said also Jordan's largest circulation daily, government-run Al-Rai, said the Danish government must apologize.

The condemnations have also come from the General Secretariat of the Organization of Islamic Conference, saying:

It is evident that the intention of Jylland Posten was motivated to incite hatred and violence against Muslims. By exposing the level of understanding of Islamic religion and its symbols the dailies have seriously damaged their credibility in the eyes of Muslim world and harmed democracy, freedom of the press, violated decency and civilized norms.

However, not all Muslims placed blame entirely on the West. In Iraq, the country's top Shiite cleric, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, decried the drawings but did not call for protests. Al-Sistani suggested that militant Muslims were partly to blame for distorting Islam's image. In the United Arab Emirates, the periodical Al-Ittihad published an opinion piece which argued that

the world has come to believe that Islam is what is practiced by Bin Laden, Zawahiri, Zarqawi, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Salafis, and others who have presented a distorted image of Islam. We must be honest with ourselves and admit that we are the reason for these drawings.

Some Muslims, mainly in Europe, have supported the re-publication of the images so that individual Muslims can make up their own minds and welcomed the debate on the issues that that cartoons have raised. It has also been pointed out that cartoons in the Arab and Islamic press "demonising" Jews and Israelis are common.

Iran's largest newspaper has announced that it will be holding a "international cartoon contest about the Holocaust" in reaction to the images. Says the papers graphics editor: "The Western papers printed these sacrilegious cartoons on the pretext of freedom of expression, so let's see if they mean what they say and also print these Holocaust cartoons".

International opinion

Some commentators have remarked on the polarisation of the issue, and the vested interests involved in that polarisation. For example, Tariq Ramadan, a member of Tony Blair's committee to combat Islamic extremism, claims to see an "unholy alliance" between the anti-immigrant right wing in Europe and the dictatorial regimes in the Middle East. As the reasoning goes, some seek to portray Muslims as enemies of Western values and incapable of integration in European society. At the same time various dictatorial regimes in the Islamic world seek to unite their populations behind them by creating external enemies, which they claim are attacking Islam. By polarising the issue these two groups have increased the division between Islamic and Western society. British newspapers took an unusually similar editorial line on the issue, agreeing with the government's assessment of the issue. Even those considered on the 'right' criticised the intellectual justifications given by Continental titles..

Irshad Manji wrote that Muslims should learn to mock themselves, and accept mockery. Also that the focus on Muhammad was inappropriate, given that it was a monotheistic religion.

Criticism on muslim reactions

Commentators find the reactions from the muslim community hypocritical. They point to the numerous anti-semetic and anti-christian publications in arab media. Furthermore, they think it odd that cartoons are considered blasphamous when terrorist attacks in the name of Islam hardly provoke any comments from muslims. Also, aniconism is not limited to Islam, yet violent outcry like this seems to be more frequent in muslim society.

In addition they think it is remarkable that in countries like Syria, where demonstration is short of impossible, riots could result in buildings being burned. Considering the current Hariri investigation, this is not an inconvenient distraction for Syria.

Rumours and misinformation

Burning the Qur'an

On January 4 rumours that Danes would burn the Qur'an circulated in the Arab world. . This did not take place. The Danish Foreign Minister said at a press conference on January 5 that

It is very important for me to stress that the Koran has not been burned in Denmark. Such a repulsive act would be strongly condemned by the Government. The Danish Police has made clear that it can be criminal to burn the Koran and that this could lead to a prison sentence.

(Koran is Qur'an in Danish).

The probable cause of the rumor is an SMS spread by a small group of Danish neo-nazis and right wing extremists, which indeed told people to buy and burn the Qu'ran at a demonstration on January 4 in central Copenhagen. Approximately 40 Danish extreme right-wing nationalists and some neo-nazis did demonstrate at that day in the city of Hillerød near Copenhagen. They were closely followed by the Danish police but neither Qur'ans nor other sacred items were burned..

Bounty on cartoonists

On December 2 2005, Danish newspaper Berlingske Tidende published a story on their front page indicating that the Pakistani religious party, Jamaat-e-Islami had put a bounty of $10,000 on any of the cartoonists, and that this had been published in several Pakistani newspapers and other media. Berlingske Tidende's only source was the Danish Embassy in Pakistan. However there was no indication in Pakistan that any fliers had been distributed encouraging people to commit such a crime, and it was revealed that just one newspaper contained a small footnote article referring to the bounty, as opposed to what had been written in the Danish newspaper.

Claims of double standard of Jyllands-Posten

On February 4 2006, Danish newspaper Politiken printed that Jyllands-Posten in 2003 received a submission of a cartoon of the resurrection of Jesus and did not print it. The article alleges that the reason JP did not publish the image was concern that it would lead to an outcry. Editor-in-chief Carsten Juste defended the decision of not printing the cartoon by claiming the submission of the cartoon was uncommissioned, and they had no reason to print it. Juste also said, most uninvited submissions to the newspaper are of poor quality and they most likely have printed caricatures of Jesus before, though he could not name any particular incident.

Additional images

A Muslim religious organisation in Denmark, Islamisk Trossamfund, played a large part in bringing attention to the cartoons to Muslims of the Middle East during a recent tour. According to some sources they also added three additional images to the group and claimed that they had been published in Jyllands-Posten as well . These three images are all considerably more obscene than the published cartoons, and none of them had previously been published by Jyllands-Posten or any other mainstream media outlet. On February 1 BBC World aired a story showing one of these three images, and incorrectly claimed that it had been published in Jyllands-Posten.

Akhmad Akkari, spokesman of the Danish-based European Committee for Prophet Honouring which co-organised the tour, claimed to be unaware of the origin of the three pictures and said that they had been sent by unknown persons to Muslims in Denmark. Arkkari purported to justify the use of the three drawings as providing "insight in how hateful the atmosphere in Denmark is towards Muslims." However, when Akkari was asked if the Muslims who had received these pictures could be interviewed, Akkari refused to reveal their identities.

On Feb. 6, 2006, blogger Dennis Nixon identified one of the pictures, showing a man with a pig snout, as being a poor-quality photocopy of an Associated Press photograph, taken in August 2005, of Jacques Barrot, a contestant in the French Pig-Squealing Contest.

Membership of Islamisk Trossamfund

Further questions have been raised about the legitimacy of Islamisk Trossamfund's claims and actions. During its tour of the Middle East, the organisation claimed to represent 21 different Muslim organisations in Denmark, however many of these groups have disclaimed any connection. The organisation also appears to have significantly exaggerated its membership, claiming to represent all 200,000 Muslims in Denmark, when its actual membership is believed to be fewer than 15,000, and about 500 to 1,000 people attend their Friday prayer gathering each week.

Statements by Imam Ahmad Abu Laban

Despite informing Danish media that he would try to stop the boycotts, the leader of the organisation, Imam Ahmad Abu Laban, went on to state during an interview with Al Jazeera that "If the Muslim countries decide to boycott and if the Muslim citizens feel it's their duty to defend the prophet, then it is something we can be happy about".. In a press release dated February 2 2006, Abu Laban said that during the interview he was referring to Muslim respect for Muhammad, not the boycotts. . According to Abu Laban, the cartoon controversy has helped his mosque to vastly increase its membership: "I thank the (Danish) government very much for its stubbornness." Ahmad Abu Laban has previously been declared officially unwelcome in several Arab states.

In response to Danish Muslims who criticised Denmark in Arab territories, Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen said, "I am speechless that those people, whom we have given the right to live in Denmark and where they freely have chosen to stay, are now touring Arab countries and inciting antipathy towards Denmark and the Danish people".

Ownership of Jyllands-Posten

Further misinformation reportedly spread amongst Arab Muslims includes claims that Jyllands-Posten is a government-owned newspaper, which is incorrect. For example, the spokesman for the Danish delegation Muhammed al Samha, and delegation member Ahmed al-Harbi said in the Egyptian newspaper al-Ahram: "Jyllands-Posten, a newspaper belonging to the ruling Danish party — an extreme right-wing party — publishing drawings and sketches of the prophet Muhammad."

Other claims include statements that Danish newspapers are running a campaign against Islam and that the Danish government is planning to publish a censored version of the Qur'an. The confusion might have arisen because of the recent publication of Kåre Bluitgen's children's book Koranen og profeten Muhammeds liv ("The Qur'an and the life of Prophet Muhammed"). It is not published by the government but by an independent publisher (Høst og Søn).

Muslim organizations in Denmark

During a high profile television interview with the leaders of the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades by SVT's (the Swedish Broadcasting Company) news journal, Rapport, the Islamic Society in Denmark was incorrectly described as "an organisation officially representing the Muslim community in Denmark", and failed to provide any comments or views from non-Muslim or Danish government sources, or any opportunity for countercomments.

Confusion between editors-in-chief

Per Kokkvold, the general secretary of the Norwegian Press Society has incorrectly been identified as both the editor-in-chief of Jyllands-Posten, and the artist who created the drawings. His picture has been shown on Al-Arabiya and other TV channels, as well as in printed and online newspapers. Kokkvold has attempted to correct this error, but is not optimistic of success, "if foreign newspapers are as bad at correcting their mistakes as Norwegian ones."

Opinion of the Queen of Denmark

In April 2005 the British newspaper, the Daily Telegraph published an article which quoted Queen Margrethe II of Denmark as saying that the Danes have "to show our opposition to Islam". The comment is from the book Margrethe (2005) ISBN 87-567-7027-8. The statement was however somewhat mistranslated and ripped from the following context: "There is, as said, something moving about people, whom to this degree surrender to a faith. However there is also something frightening about such a totality, which also is a side of Islam. There must be shown counter-play , and once in a while you have to run the risk of getting a less flattering label stuck upon you. Because there is certain things before which one should not be tolerant." The passage as it appeared in the Daily Telegraph was re-printed by the pan-Arabic news paper Al-Hayat, as evidence of Islamophobia in Denmark. Queen Margrethe has previously in her annual new year’s speech scolded the Danes for hostility against immigrants.

Attack on hot dog stand in Copenhagen

The steward of a hot dog stand had reported, that he had been attacked by two muslims in Copenhagen, after which he was hospitalized. After investigations, the Danish police concluded that this has not happened.

Comparable incidents — "freedom of speech" versus "blasphemy"

Believers from a multitude of faiths have frequently called for boycott, arrest, censorship or even murder of critics, artists and commentators whose works they consider blasphemous. The Indian-born British writer Salman Rushdie, for example, was sentenced to death by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini for his book The Satanic Verses on alleged mentions of aspects of Muhammad's life. Since then, Rushdie has lived in hiding. Rushdie's Japanese translator, Hitoshi Igarashi, was stabbed and killed at the university where he taught in Tsukuba, north of Tokyo, and his Italian translator Ettore Capriolo was beaten and stabbed in his appartment in Milan but survived.

In 1993, Rushdie's Norwegian publisher William Nygaard was shot and severely injured in an attack outside his house in Oslo. Thirty-seven people died when their hotel in Sivas, Turkey was burnt down by demonstrators protesting against Aziz Nesin, Rushdie's Turkish translator, who was staying there at the time.

A 2002 editorial in Nigeria's ThisDay newspaper about the year's Miss World contest suggested that Muhammad would probably have chosen one of his wives from among the contestants had he been alive to see it; this resulted in riots in which over 200 people were killed in the city of Kaduna.

In November 2004, Dutch filmmaker, publicist and actor Theo van Gogh was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri, a radical Muslim. Van Gogh had previously received death threats in response to his polemical comments about Islam and his short movie Submission. Dutch-Somali politician Ayaan Hirsi Ali, who wrote the script for the film, received death threats as well, and is currently living in a secret location.

Some Muslim countries, most notably Pakistan, carry prison or death sentences for blasphemy of Muhammad, Allah or Islam. A Lahore court, for example, sentenced Abdul Hasnain Muhammad Yusuf Ali in August 2000 to death and 35 years' imprisonment for "defiling the name of Muhammad" under Section 295(a), 295(c), and 298.

While many nations where Christianity is the dominant religion also have a tradition of separation of church and state which dates back to the Enlightenment, many of them still have historical blasphemy laws on the books which were once enacted to protect Christian beliefs, and which are occasionally enforced. As an example, there are blasphemy laws in Norway. However, the last person to be charged for blasphemy was Arnulf Øverland in 1933; he was acquitted.

In March 2005, Austrian writer Gerhard Haderer published the book "The life of Jesus" in which he depicted Jesus smoking a joint, and as a surfer on Lake Gennesaret. He was called for a hearing in Greece and was sentenced for 6 months for blasphemy; the sentence was later revoked.

Countries with strong Christian fundamentalist movements, such as the United States, have also seen protests against movies, books, and other publications considered blasphemous or pornographic by these movements, sometimes culminating in public book burnings and calls for censorship. For example, the release of The Last Temptation of Christ resulted in death threats against director Martin Scorsese and one incident in France of a cinema showing the movie being attacked with molotov cocktails, injuring thirteen people, four of whom were burned severely.

Some critics have claimed that Western prohibitions on freedom of speech are hypocritical, protecting groups like Jews or blacks while allowing attacks on Muslims, like the cartoons. Typically-cited examples of this alleged hypocrisy are bans on Holocaust denial (in effect in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France) and hate speech. However, it should be noted that Western countries typically draw a sharp distinction between secular matters of race or humanist ethics and the purely religious. (See also Western culture and Religion and politics.) Thus the Islamic prohibition on depictions of Muhammed is not considered an appropriate basis for the limitation of free speech.

See also

• Blasphemy in Islam
• Controversial newspaper caricatures
• Cultural relativism
• Freedom of the press
• Freedom of speech and freedom of the press in Denmark
• Freedom of speech versus blasphemy
• International reactions to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Islam in Denmark
• Timeline of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

Examples of controversial art, films and literature

• Ecce Homo
• Snow White and The Madness of Truth
• Submission
• The Satanic Verses

Other

• 2005 civil unrest in France
• 2005 Sydney race riots
• The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order by Samuel P. Huntington, in which the author anticipated that cultural and religious identity would become a primary agent of conflict.

References

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29. The Danish constitution
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53. freepublic.com
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76. Template:Da icon"Vil isolere imamer i den politiske debat". 2005-06-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
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85. Template:Da iconDronningens nytårstale 1984
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External links

• Template:Da icon The official home-page of Jyllands-Posten
• The page of Jylland-Posten that contains Muhammad cartoons

Official correspondence

• The letter to the Prime Minister from the Muslim ambassadors (PDF)
• First open letter in Arabic to the Muslims of Saudi Arabia from Jyllands-Posten (PDF)
• Second open letter to the Muslims of Saudi Arabia from Jyllands-Posten
  • In Arabic (PDF)
  • In English
• The EU Commission's vice-chairman, Franco Frattini (on this issue)

Islamic views

• IUMS Statement on Publishing Anti-Prophet Cartoons
• Danish cartoons and sacred imagery

News sites

• BBC News article: Q&A: Depicting the Prophet Muhammad
• The Guardian--its articles, indexed by country
• Danish radio broadcasts in English from B&NNS
• Copenhagen Post--Danish Weekly in English
• Jyllands-Posten--related items in English
• World press review by BBC Monitoring
• Protests over images
• Viewpoints: Cartoon row BBC News, 3 February 2006]

Support for Denmark and Jyllands-Posten

• Support Denmark Campaign
• Petition to support Jyllands-Posten
• ADVAR -Action for Danish Goods

Images

• Jihad Against Danish Newspaper - We are all Danes now
• Mohammed Image Archive
  • Mirror site: info2us.dk Mirror site
• Enlargeable images link
• Caricatures of Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen, published by the Danish newspaper Information
• Listing of the cartoons in controversy
• Picture series - burning of the Danish embassy in Syria

Academic analysis

• Complexity and Social Networks Blog at Harvard University discusses and applies various social network theories to the recent event.

Mixed Viewpoints

• BBC Viewpoints Discussion about the cartoon row

• Current events
• Islam and controversy
• Transgressive art
• 2006