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	{{Roman government}}
	'''Ancient Rome''' was a ] that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the ] as early as the 10th century BC. Located along the ], and centered at the city of ], it became one of the largest ]s in the ].<ref>Chris Scarre, ''The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome'' (London: ], 1995).</ref>

	In its centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a ] to an ] ] to an increasingly ] ]. It came to dominate ], ]/] and the ] through ] and ].

	] and ], the ], including ], ], ], ] and ] broke up into independent kingdoms in the ]. This disintegration is the landmark historians use to divide the Ancient period from the medieval era and the ].

	The Eastern Roman Empire, governed from ], after ] divided the Empire in ], and comprising ], the ], ], ] and ], survived this crisis. Despite the later loss of Syria and Egypt to the ], the Eastern Roman Empire continued for another millennium, until its remains were finally ] Turkish ]. This eastern, Christian, ] stage of the empire is usually called the ] by historians, though the Byzantines would have maintained that their nation was a continuation of the ancient Roman tradition.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2010}}

	Roman civilization is often grouped into "]" with ], a civilization that, along with the Etruscan civilization and the many other civilizations they conquered and assimilated, inspired much of the ]. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] in the ], and its ] continues to have a major influence on the world today.

	==History==
	===Founding myth===
	{{Main\|Roman Kingdom}}

	] in 753 B.C.E by ], who were raised by a she-wolf.]]

	According to the ] of Rome, the city was ] on April 21, ] by twin brothers ] who descended from the ] prince ]<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 3.</ref> and were grandsons of the Latin King, ] of ]. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his cruel brother ] while Numitor's daughter, ], gave birth to the twins.<ref name="FoundofRome">. Retrieved 2007-3-8.</ref><ref name="Livy8">Livy, 1998. page 8.</ref> As Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by ], the twins were considered ].

	The new king feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so they were to be drowned.<ref name="Livy8" /> A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.<ref name="CaesarandChrist">Durant, 1944. Pages 12-14.</ref><ref>Livy, 1998. pages 9-10.</ref>

	The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over which one of them would reign as the ], though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to give their name to the city.<ref>Roggen, Hesse, Haastrup, Omnibus I, H. Aschehoug & Co 1996</ref> Romulus became the source of the city's name.<ref>Livy, 1998. pages 10-11.</ref> In order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome which became rich in manpower but was bereft of women. Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the ]s to a festival and ], leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.<ref>. Retrieved 2007-3-8.</ref>

	Another legend recorded by Greek historian ] says that Prince Aenas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage. After a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them didn't want to leave. One woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships.<ref>Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, ''The Ancient Roman World'' p. 15\|Citation date March 15, 2009</ref>

	===Kingdom===
	{{Main\|Roman Kingdom}}

	The city of ] grew from settlements around a ford on the river ], a crossroads of traffic and trade.<ref name=autogenerated3>a</ref> According to ] evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the ], though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the ] of Italy, on the top of the ].<ref>Matyszak, 2003. page 19.</ref><ref>Duiker, 2001. page 129.</ref>

	The ], who had previously settled to the north in ], seem to have established political control in the region by the late ], forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late ], and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a ], with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.<ref>''Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire'' by Michael Kerrigan. ], London: 2001. ISBN 0-7894-8153-7. page 12.</ref>

	Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the ] as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. ] was the second ], succeeding ]. He began Rome's great building projects with his royal palace the ] and the complex of the ].

	===Republic===
	{{Main\|Roman Republic}}
	According to tradition and later writers such as ], the ] was established around ], when the last of the seven kings of Rome, ], was deposed, and a system based on annually elected ] and various representative assemblies was established.<ref>Matyszak, 2003. pages 43-44.</ref> A ] set a series of checks and balances, and a ]. The most important magistrates were the two ]s, who together exercised executive authority as '']'', or military command.<ref>Adkins, 1998. pages 41-42.</ref> The consuls had to work with the ], which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or ]s, but grew in size and power.<ref> by Richard Hooker. ]. Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-3-24.</ref>

	Other magistracies in the Republic include ]s, ]s, and ]s.<ref name="Lacus"> by George Long, M.A. Appearing on pages 723-724 of ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray, London, 1875. Website written 2006-12-8. Retrieved 2007-3-24.</ref> The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or ].<ref name=autogenerated1>Livy II</ref> Republican voting assemblies included the ''comitia centuriata'' (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the ''comitia tributa'' (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 39.</ref>

	The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the ].<ref>Haywood, 1971. pages 350-358.</ref> The last threat to Roman ] in Italy came when ], a major ] colony, enlisted the aid of ] in ], but this effort failed as well.<ref> and by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 2007-3-21.</ref><ref>Haywood, 1971. pages 357-358.</ref> The Romans secured their conquests by founding ] in strategic areas, establishing stable control over the region.<ref>Haywood, 1971. page 351.</ref> In the second half of the ], Rome clashed with ] in the first of three ]. These wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests, of ] and ], and the ] as a significant imperial power.<ref>Haywood, 1971. pages 376-393.</ref><ref> by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-3-22.</ref> After defeating the ]ian and ]s in the ], the Romans became the dominant people of the ].<ref name=Bagnall>Bagnall 1990</ref><ref> by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-3-22.</ref>

	], a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the ]]]Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the ]' expense, but soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not keep up their land, and the increased reliance on foreign ] and the growth of '']'' reduced the availability of paid work.<ref>Duiker, 2001. pages 136-137.</ref><ref>. ]. Retrieved 2007-3-24.</ref>

	Income from war booty, ] in the new provinces, and ] created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of ]s, the ].<ref name="Liviuseques"> by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 2007-3-24.</ref> The '']'' forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in political power.<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>Adkins, 1998. page 38.</ref> The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocking important ]s and refusing to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.

	Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the ] brothers, a pair of ]s who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed, but the Senate passed some of their reforms in trying to placate the growing unrest of the plebeian and equestrian classes.

	The denial of ] to allied Italian cities led to the ] of 91–].<ref>Durant, 1944. pages 120-122.</ref> The military reforms of ] resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerful general could hold the city and Senate ransom.<ref>. Retrieved 2007-3-23.</ref> This led to civil war between Marius and his protegé ], and culminated in Sulla's ] of 81–79 BC.<ref name=Scullard1>Scullard 1982, chapters I-IV</ref>

	In the mid-1st century BC, three men, ], ], and ], formed a secret pact—the ]—to control the Republic. After Caesar's ], a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to ], with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made ] for life.<ref name=Scullard2>Scullard 1982, chapters VI-VII</ref>

	In 44 BC, Caesar was ] by senators who opposed Caesar's assumption of absolute power and wanted to restore constitutional government, but in the aftermath a ], consisting of Caesar's designated heir, ], and his former supporters, ] and ], took power.<ref>. . Retrieved 2007-3-21.</ref><ref> by Garrett G. Fagan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2004-7-5. Retrieved 2007-3-21.</ref>
	However, this alliance soon descended into a struggle for dominance. Lepidus was stripped of the territories he controlled and given a purely ceremonial position by Octavian, and when Octavian defeated Antony and ] of ] at the ] in 31 BC, he became the undisputed ruler of Rome.<ref name=Scullard3>Scullard 1982, chapter VIII</ref>

	===Empire===
	{{Main\|Roman Empire}}
	With his enemies defeated, Octavian took the name ''Augustus'' and assumed almost absolute power, retaining only a pretense of the Republican form of government.<ref> from ]. Retrieved 2007-3-12.</ref> His designated successor, ], took power without serious opposition, establishing the ], which lasted until the death of ] in 68.<ref>Duiker, 2001. page 140.</ref> The territorial expansion of what was now the ] continued, and the state remained secure,<ref>. by the Department of Greek and ], The ]. Written October, 2000. Retrieved 2007-3-18.</ref> despite a series of emperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt (for example, ] is argued by some to have been insane and ] had a reputation for cruelty and being more interested in his private concerns than the affairs of the state<ref> by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2006-11-10. Retrieved 2007-3-18.</ref>).

	Their rule was followed by the ].<ref name=suetonius>Suetonius</ref> During the reign of the "]" (96–180), the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural ].<ref> from UNRV History. Retrieved 2007-3-12.</ref> The state was secure from both internal and external threats, and the Empire prospered during the ] ("Roman Peace").<ref>O'Connell, 1989. page 81.</ref><ref> by Steven Kreis. The History Guide. Written 2006-2-28. Retrieved 2007-3-21.</ref> With the conquest of ] during the reign of ], the Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned 2.5 million square miles (6.5 million km²).<ref name=Atlas>Scarre 1995</ref> The ] that swept through the Empire in 165–180 AD killed an estimated five million people.<ref> by Verity Murphy. ]. November 7, 2005.</ref>
	] at its greatest extent under ] in AD 117.]]
	The period between 193 and 235 was dominated by the ], and saw several incompetent rulers, such as ].<ref>Haywood, 1971. pages 589-592.</ref> This and the increasing influence of the army on imperial succession led to a long period of imperial collapse and external invasions known as the ].<ref> ''History of Western Civilization'', by E.L. Skip Knox, ]. Retrieved 2007-3-20.</ref><ref>Haywood, 1971. pages 592-596.</ref> The crisis was ended by the more competent rule of ], who in 293 divided the Empire into an eastern and western half ruled by a ] of two co-emperors and their two junior colleagues.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1997-3-17. Retrieved 2007-3-20.</ref>

	The various co-rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for more than half a century. On May 11, 330, Emperor ] firmly established ] as the capital of the ] and renamed it ].<ref> by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2004-1-8. Retrieved 2007-3-20.</ref> The Empire was permanently divided into the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the ]) and the ] in 395.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1999-6-2. Retrieved 2007-3-21.</ref>

	The Western Empire was constantly harassed by ] invasions, and the gradual ] continued over the centuries.<ref>Duiker, 2001. page 155.</ref> In the 4th century, the westward migration of the ] caused the ] to seek refuge within the borders of the Roman Empire.<ref> The University of Calgary. Written August 1996. Retrieved 2007-3-22.</ref> In 410, the ], under the leadership of ], sacked Rome.<ref>Lapham, Lewis (1997). ''The End of the World.'' New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-25264-1. pages 47-50.</ref>

	The ] invaded Roman provinces in Gaul, Hispania, and northern Africa, and in 455 ].<ref>Duiker, 2001. page 157.</ref> On September 4, 476, the Germanic chief ] forced the last Roman emperor in the west, ], to abdicate.<ref> by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1997-8-26. Retrieved 2007-3-22.</ref> Having lasted for about 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the ] came to an end.<ref>Durant, 1944. page 670.</ref>

	The Eastern Empire suffered a similar fate, though not as drastic. ] managed to briefly reconquer ] and ], but Byzantine possessions in the West were reduced to ] and ] within a few years after Justinian's death.<ref>Duiker, 2001. page 347.</ref> In the east, partially resulting from the destructive ], the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of ], whose followers rapidly ], ] and ] the ], and soon presented a direct ].<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage"> by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-4-8.</ref><ref>
	{{Cite book
	\| author = Bray, R.S.
	\| year = 2004
	\| title = Armies of Pestilence
	\| publisher = ]
	\| location = Cambridge
	\| page = 26
	\| isbn = 9780227172407
	\| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=djPWGnvBm08C&pg=PA26&dq=plague+of+justinian+decline&sig=ACfU3U3Y9OfbqWzKvC17ZwtT5opXY8RjeQ#PPP5,M1
	}}</ref> In the following century, the Arabs also ].<ref>
	{{Cite book
	\| author = Kreutz, Barbara M.
	\| year = 1996
	\| title = Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries
	\| publisher = ]
	\| location = Philadelphia
	\| isbn = 978-0812215878
	\| url = http://books.google.com/?id=qamIQbPLMqgC
	}}</ref>

	The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and, beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>Duiker, 2001. page 349.</ref> In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was at its height: ] reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade flourished.<ref> by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2003-4-1. Retrieved 2007-3-22.</ref> However, soon after the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 at the ]. This finally led the empire into a dramatic decline. Several centuries of internal strife and ] invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor ] to send a call for help to the West in 1095.<ref name="Hooker'sByzantinepage"/>

	The West responded with the ], eventually resulting in the ] by participants in the ]. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what little remained of the empire into successor states, the ultimate victor being that of ].<ref>Gibbon, Edward. ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. . Retrieved 2007-4-11.</ref> After the recapture of Constantinople by imperial forces, the empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the ] coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end when ] conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453.<ref> by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 2007-4-3.</ref>

	==Society==
	The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center of its time, with a population of about one million people (about the size of London in the early 19th century, when London was the largest city in the world), with some high-end estimates of 14 million and low-end estimates of 450,000.<ref>Duiker, 2001. page 149.</ref><ref> by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam Research. Written 1997-12-1. Retrieved 2007-4-22.</ref><ref> by Whitney J. Oates. Originally published in ''Classical Philology''.
	Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934), pp101-116. Retrieved 2007-4-22.</ref> The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron ] wheels that ] had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day. Historical estimates show that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction of ancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)<ref>N.Morley, ''Metropolis and Hinterland'' (Cambridge, 1996) 174-83</ref> lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several ]s, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had a ] and temples and similar style buildings, on a smaller scale, to those found in Rome.

	===Class structure===
	{{Main\|Social class in ancient Rome\|Status in Roman legal system}}
	[[File:Roman Empire map.gif\|thumb\|Area under Roman control
	{{legend\|#a64\|]}}
	{{legend\|#a6a\|]}}
	{{legend\|#48a\|]}}
	{{legend\|#bc4\|]}}
	{{legend\|#5cc45e\|Inheriting countries of the ]}}
	]]
	Roman society is largely viewed as ], with ] (''servi'') at the bottom, ] (''liberti'') above them, and free-born citizens (''cives'') at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the ]s, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 ]s at the founding of the city, and the ], who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a ] (''nobilis''); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as ] or ], was known as a '']'' ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians.

	A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the ], according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the ] (''equites'', sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on what military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the ''proletarii'', citizens who had no property at all, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige.

	Voting power in the Republic was dependent on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the ''proletarii'' being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable even to cast their votes.

	Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women gradually were expanded (due to ]) and women reached freedom from ''paterfamilias'', gained property rights and even had more juristidctial rights than their husbands, but still they had no voting rights and were absent from politics.<ref>Frank Frost Abbott, ''Society and Politics in Ancient Rome'', BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, pp.41</ref>

	Allied foreign cities were often given the ], an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (''peregrini''), which gave their citizens rights under ] and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those ''cum suffragio'' ("with vote"; enrolled in a ] and able to take part in the ''comitia tributa'') and ''sine suffragio'' ("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the ] of 91–88 BC, and full ] was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by ] in 212.

	===Family===
	].]]

	The basic units of Roman society were ]s and ].<ref name="Duiker346">Duiker, 2001. page 146.</ref> Households included the head (usually the father) of the household, '']'' (father of the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household.<ref name="Duiker346"/> The head of the household had great power (''patria potestas'', "father's power") over those living with him: He could force marriage (usually for money) and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own, and even had the right to punish or kill family members (though this last right apparently ceased to be exercised after the ]).<ref name="Cassonpageset1">Casson, 1998. pages 10-11.</ref>

	''Patria potestas'' even extended over adult sons with their own households: A man was not considered a ''paterfamilias'', nor could he truly hold property, while his own father lived.<ref name="Cassonpageset1"/><ref> by ]. The ] Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. Written 2001. Visited 2007-4-14.</ref> During the early period of Rome's history, a daughter, when she married, fell under the control (''manus'') of the ''paterfamilias'' of her husband's household, although by the late Republic this fell out of fashion, as a woman could choose to continue recognizing her father's family as her true family.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 339.</ref> However, as Romans reckoned ] through the male line, any children she had belonged to her husband's family.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 340.</ref>

	Little affection was shown for the children of Rome. Unwanted children might be sold as slaves; the mother or an elderly relative brought up both boys and girls; children might wait on tables for the family, but were forbidden to participate in the conversation. A Greek nurse usually taught the children Latin and Greek; the father, the boys how to swim and ride, although he sometimes hired a slave to teach them instead. At seven a boy began his education. Having no school building, classes were held on a rooftop (if dark, the boy had to carry a lantern to school). Wax-covered boards were used because paper, papyrus, and parchment were too expensive—or he could just write in the sand. A loaf of bread to be eaten was also carried. Of course, rich boys had their materials carried by a slave.<ref>LifepacHistory&Geography, Grade6 Unit 3, page 28.z</ref>

	Groups of related households formed a family ('']''). Families were based on blood ties or ], but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the ], some powerful families, or '']'', came to dominate political life.

	] was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early twenties.

	===Education===
	{{Main\|Roman school}}

	In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated ], called '']'', usually of Greek origin.<ref name="Lecture 13"> by Steven Kreis. Written 2006-10-11. Retrieved 2007-4-2.</ref><ref name="Adk211">Adkins, 1998. page 211.</ref><ref name="Werner31">Werner, 1978. page 31.</ref> The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in ], ]fare, ], and public affairs.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent ] at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still in use among some noble families into the imperial era).<ref name=autogenerated3 />

	Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although it should be noted that Roman educational practices were still much different than Greek ones.<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>Duiker, 2001. page 143.</ref> If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a '']'', where a teacher (called a ''litterator'' or a ], and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name="Werner31"/><ref name="TexEd">. Latin ExCET Preparation. Texas Classical Association. Written by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Retrieved 2007-3-27.</ref>

	Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a ''grammaticus'') taught them about ] and ].<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> At the age of 16, some students went on to ] school (where the teacher, almost always Greek, was called a '']'').<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref name=autogenerated3 /> Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome.<ref name=autogenerated3 /> Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays.

	===Government===
	{{Main\|Roman Constitution\|History of the Roman Constitution}}

	Initially, Rome was ruled by ], who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.<ref>Matyszak, 2003. pages 16-42.</ref> The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the ] of the ]. At least in military matters, the king's authority ('']'') was likely absolute. He was also the head of the ]. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the ], which acted as an advisory body for the King; the ], which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the ], which was an assembly of the priestly college that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the ] and holiday schedule for the next month.

	]: ] attacks ], from a 19th century fresco.]] The ]s of the ] resulted in an unusual mixture of ] and ]. The word republic comes from the Latin ''res publica'', which literally translates to :public business." ] traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (]). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the ] represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body.

	In the Republic, the Senate held great authority (''auctoritas''), but no real legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished ]s by ] (''Censura''), who could also remove a Senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include ] or, as under ], embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator ], ]s were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive.

	The Republic had no fixed ], and collected ]es through the practice of ]. Government positions such as ], ], or ] were funded from the office-holder's private finances. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new ]s were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two ]s. In an emergency, a temporary ] could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the ].

	In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The ] was portrayed as only a '']'', or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the emperors became increasingly ], and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned ]. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the ].

	===Law===
	{{Main\|Roman law}}

	The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ] may be traced to the law of the ] (from ]) to the ] of Emperor ] (around 530 AD). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the ], and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental ]. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.

	The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of ''Ius Civile'', ''Ius Gentium'', and ''Ius Naturale''. The ''Ius Civile'' ("Citizen law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 46.</ref> The ] (''sg. Praetor Urbanus'') were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The ''Ius Gentium'' ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.<ref name="Duiker346"/> The ] (''sg. Praetor Peregrinus'') were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. ''Ius Naturale'' encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all being.

	===Economy===
	{{Main\|Roman agriculture\|Roman commerce\|Roman finance\|Roman currency}}

	], built by ] ]]
	Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on ] and trade. Agricultural ] changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast ] and ] estates had supplanted the ] farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The ] of ], ] and ] in ] provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, ] and ] were Italy's main ]s. Two-tier ] was practiced, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per ].

	] and ] activities were smaller. The largest such activities were the ] and ]ing of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some ] factories employed hundreds of workers.

	The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made ] increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on ] for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership.

	Although ] was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed ]age system, with ], ], and ] coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in ]. Before the 3rd century BC, ] was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across ]. The original ] ('']'') had a face value of one ] of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its ] as metal. After ] began debasing the silver ], its ] value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic.

	Horses were too expensive, and other ]s too slow. Mass trade on the ] connected military posts, not markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of ] between Roman regions until the rise of ] in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from ] to ] via ], spanning the entire length of the ].<ref name=Atlas/> Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.

	Some economists like ] consider the Roman Empire a ], similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.<ref></ref>

	===Military===
	{{Main\|Military history of ancient Rome\|Roman military\|Structural history of the Roman military\|Roman army\|Roman navy}}
	{{RomanMilitary}}
	] type armor, used in conjunction with the popular chainmail after the 1st century CE]]

	The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary ]s influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen '']'' that practiced ] tactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the '']'', the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.<ref>John Keegan, ''A History of Warfare'', ] (New York 1993) , p.263; David Potter, "The Roman Army and Navy," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', ] (Cambridge U.K. 2004) , pp. 67-69. For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see Victor Davis Hanson, ''The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece'', Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1989) .</ref>

	By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) men called '']'' could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a ], totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.<ref name="Keegan, p. 264; Potter, pp. 69-70">Keegan, p. 264; Potter, pp. 69-70.</ref>

	The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry ('']'', '']'' and ''])'', a force of light infantry ('']''), and the cavalry ('']''). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.<ref name="Keegan, p. 264; Potter, pp. 69-70"/>

	At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry, and several hundred cavalrymen, for a total of 4,000 to 5,000 men.<ref>Keegan, p.264; Adrian Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army at War 100 BC — CE200'', ] (Oxford 1996) , p. 33; Jo-Ann Shelton, ed., ''As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History'', Oxford University Press (New York 1998), pp. 245-249.</ref> Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 22-24, 37-38; Adrian Goldsworthy, ''Caesar: Life of a Colossus'', ] (New Haven 2006) , pp. 384, 410-411, 425-427. Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy was absence of legionaries on detached duty.</ref>

	Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an ''adsiduus'') who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,<ref>Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought every year except for five. Stephen P. Oakley, "The Early Republic," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) , p. 27.</ref> and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of ''equites'', his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies.<ref>P. A. Brunt, "Army and Land in the Roman Republic," in ''The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1988) , p.253; William V. Harris, ''War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1979) , p. 44.</ref>

	After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for service were gradually reduced. Beginning with ] in 107 BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (''proletarii'') were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required it although Brunt argues that six or seven years was more typical.<ref>Keegan, pp. 273-274; Brunt, pp. 253-259; Harris, pp. 44-50.</ref>

	Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid ''stipendium'' (amounts are disputed but Caesar famously "doubled" payments to his troops to 225 ] a year), could anticipate booty and donatives (distributions of plunder by commanders) from successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, often were granted allotments of land upon retirement.<ref>Keegan, p. 264; Brunt, pp. 259-265; Potter, pp. 80-83.</ref> Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the ''auxilia'') were often recruited in the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''Caesar'', pp. 391.</ref> By the time of Caesar Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Legionaries were paid 900 ] a year and could expect a payment of 12,000 ''sesterces'' on retirement.<ref>Karl Christ, ''The Romans'', University of California Press (Berkeley, 1984), pp. 74-76 .</ref>

	At the end of the ], Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.<ref>Christopher S. Mackay, ''Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History,'' Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge, U.K. 2004), pp. 249-250. Mackay points out that the number of legions (not necessarily the number of legionaries) grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the ] period (200–235 AD).</ref> During the ], the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The ''auxilia'' remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit, the ''cohortes equitatae'', combining cavalry and legionaries in a single formation could be stationed at garrisons or outposts, could fight on their own as balanced small forces or could combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.<ref>Goldsworthy, ‘’The Roman Army’’, p.36-37.</ref>

	The Emperor ] (253–268 AD) began a reorganization that created the last military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the '']'' or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (''limitanei'') stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The basic unit of the field army was the "regiment", ''legiones'' or ''auxilia'' for infantry and ''vexellationes'' for cavalry. Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records show lower actual troop levels (800 and 400).<ref name="Hugh Elton 1996 pp. 89-96">Hugh Elton, ''Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350-425'', Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996) pp. 89-96.</ref>

	Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a '']''. In addition to Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as '']''. By 400 AD, ''foederati'' regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. In addition to the ''foederati'', the Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies. Under the command of the senior Roman general present, they were led at lower levels by their own officers.<ref name="Hugh Elton 1996 pp. 89-96"/>

	]
	Military leadership evolved greatly over the course of the history of Rome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kings of Rome. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected ] for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the ], would have served first as ] (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as ].<ref name="T. Correy Brennan 2004 pp. 66-88">T. Correy Brennan, "Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic'', Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) , Chapter 2; Potter, pp. 66-88; Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', pp. 121-125. Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, ], was recommended to him by ]. Goldsworthy, ''The Roman Army'', p. 124.</ref>

	Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a ] or ] (depending on the highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own ] or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.<ref name="T. Correy Brennan 2004 pp. 66-88"/>

	Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a ] (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion ('']'') and also served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion was commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).<ref>Mackay, pp. 245-252.</ref>

	During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with ]), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals (]) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.<ref>MacKay, pp. 295-296 and Chapters 23-24.</ref>

	Less is known about the ] than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as ''duumviri navales'' commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The ] required that Rome build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The ] was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels.<ref name="Potter pp. 76-78">This paragraph is based upon Potter, pp. 76-78.</ref>

	As compared with a ], the quinquireme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect ] using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ]. Ships were commanded by a ], a rank equal to a centurion, who were usually not citizens. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.<ref name="Potter pp. 76-78"/>

	Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleets including warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (''classes'') were part of the ''limitanei'' (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.<ref>This discussion is based upon Elton, pp. 97-99 and 100-101.</ref>

	==Culture==
	{{Main\|Culture of ancient Rome}}
	]]]

	Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of ], located on ]. The city had a vast number of ]al structures like the ], the ] and the ]. It had fountains with fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of ], ], ], ] complete with libraries and shops, marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential ] ranged from modest houses to ].

	In the ] of Rome, there were ] ] on the elegant ], from which the word ''palace'' derives. The low ] and middle ] classes lived in the city center, packed into ]s, or ], which were almost like modern ]s. These areas, often built by upper class landlords for the rental incomes collected, were often centred upon ] or ]. These people, provided by a ], and entertained by ], were enrolled as ] of ] among the upper class ]s, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.

	===Cuisine===
	{{Main\|Roman cuisine}}

	The poor ate ], ], ], and ]. Little ] was eaten. Some who had to eat meat complained of it as a hardship. Usually, no ] was eaten and, for ], leftovers were used. For the rich, ] was served before four in the afternoon and lasted from three to four hours. Hands were washed between courses. One ] served twenty-two courses at his dinner parties. If guests were invited to dinner, slaves were sent to bring them on time, as the water clocks did not always agree. Women, having sent their gowns in advance, were already dressed in the home of the hostess. When guests asked for their ]s, they were ready to leave.

	===Language===
	{{Main\|Latin}}

	The native ] of the Romans was ], an ] the ] relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of ]es attached to ]s.<ref> by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. ]. Written 2007-2-15. Retrieved 2007-4-1.</ref> Its ] was based on the ], which was in turn based on the ].<ref> by J. B. Calvert. ]. Written 1999-8-8. Retrieved 2007-4-1.</ref> Although surviving ] consists almost entirely of ], an artificial and highly stylized and polished ] from the 1st century BC, the ] of the Roman Empire was ], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in ] and ], and eventually in pronunciation.<ref>. page 2. Retrieved 2007-4-2.</ref>

	While ] remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, ] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the ], Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 203.</ref> The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into ]s in different locations, gradually shifting into many distinct ].

	===Religion===
	{{Main\|Religion in ancient Rome\|Roman mythology}}

	Archaic ], at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written ]s, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.<ref>Matyszak, 2003. page 24.</ref> Unlike in ], the gods were not personified, but were vaguely defined sacred spirits called '']''. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own '']'', or divine soul. During the ], ] was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the '']'', was the head of the state religion. ]s took care of the cults of various gods, while ]s were trusted with taking the ]s. The ] took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman empire, emperors were held to be gods,{{Citation needed\|date=March 2009}} and the formalized ] became increasingly prominent.

	As contact with the ] increased, the old ] became increasingly associated with ].<ref>Willis, 2000. page 168.</ref> Thus, ] was perceived to be the same deity as ], ] became associated with ], and Neptune with ]. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.<ref>Willis, 2000. page 166.</ref>

	Beginning with Emperor ] in the first century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor ], the ] reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Diocletian's successor, ], with the signing of the ] in 313, and quickly became dominant. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor ].<ref> by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1999-2-2. Retrieved 2007-4-4.</ref>

	===Art, music and literature===
	{{Main\|Roman art\|Latin literature\|Roman music\|Roman sculpture\|Theatre of ancient Rome}}
	<!--Please stick to discussing Roman literature, art, and music in general in this section: few, if any, specific authors, sculptors, etc. should be mentioned. Instead, very brief details about the most major Roman artists and authors should be included in the "Culture of ancient Rome" article, which has multiple distinct sections for art, literature, music, etc.-->
	]''.]]

	Roman ] styles show ] influences, and surviving examples are primarily ]es used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country ]s, though ] includes mentions of paintings on ], ], and other materials.<ref name=Addypaint>Adkins, 1998. pages 350-352.</ref><ref name=MetstuffonRpaint> from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Written 2004-10. Retrieved 2007-4-22.</ref> Several examples of Roman painting have been found at ], and from these ] divide the history of Roman painting into four periods. The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of ] and ], though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters.<ref name=Addypaint/><ref name=MetstuffonRpaint/>

	The second style of Roman painting began during the early 1st century BC, and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of ] (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the ] of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a ] background. The fourth style, which began in the ], depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.<ref name=Addypaint/><ref name=MetstuffonRpaint/>

	Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and ]. During the ] and ] periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in ], usually depicting Roman victories.

	] was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical ] telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce ], ], ], and ].

	] was largely based on ], and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.<ref name=iClassics>{{Dead link\|date=July 2009}}. iClassics. Excerpt from ''A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition'' by Donald Jay Grout and Claude V. Palisca. ] & Company, Inc.: 1960. Retrieved 2007-4-22.</ref> In the ], musical instruments such as the '']'' (a long ]) or the ''cornu'' (similar to a ]) were used to give various commands, while the ''bucina'' (possibly a trumpet or ]) and the ''lituus'' (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 89.</ref> Music was used in the ] between fights and in the '']'', and in these settings is known to have featured the ''cornu'' and the ''hydraulis'' (a type of water organ).<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 349-350.</ref>

	Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with ''tibiae'' (double pipes) at sacrifices, ]s and ]s at ] ], and ] and ] across the spectrum.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 300.</ref> Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Dead link\|date=July 2009}}. iClassics. Excerpt from A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition by Donald Jay Grout and Claude V. Palisca. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.: 1960.</ref> Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the ] or practice of music.<ref name=iClassics/>

	The ], ]s, ]s, and ]s found in ] and ] suggest that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.<ref>Grant, 2005. pages 130-134.</ref>

	===Scholarly studies===
	Interest in studying ancient Rome arose during the ] in ]. ] wrote a work ''Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans''. The first major work was '']'' by ], which encompassed the period from the end of 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid high tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. ] was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote ''The Roman History'', tracing the period until the ]. Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical ] preserved mainly in the noble families.

	During the ] period a work titled ''The History of Romans'' by ] appeared. It highlighted the ] period popular at the time. '']'', '']'' and '']'', all by ], became very important milestones. Later the work ''Greatness and Decline of Rome'' by ] was published. The Russian work ''Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи'' (''The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire'') by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of ], one of the greatest landowners during the end of the Republic.

	===Games and activities===
	The youth of Rome had several forms of play and exercise, such as ], ], ], and ].<ref name=Cassononsports>Casson, 1998. pages 98-108.</ref> In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included ] and ].<ref name=SPQRonline>. SPQR Online. Written 1998. Retrieved 2007-4-22.</ref> The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling ].<ref name=Cassononsports/> ]s, ]s, and ] were extremely popular pastimes.<ref name=Cassononsports/> Women did not take part in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.<ref name=Adkinsonparties>Adkins, 1998. page 350.</ref> ] sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, although recreational dining usually meant patronizing ]s.<ref name=Adkinsonparties/> Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as ].<ref name=SPQRonline/><ref name=Adkinsonparties/>

	A popular form of entertainment was ]ial combats. Gladiators fought either to the death, or to "first blood" with a variety of weapons in different scenarios. These fights achieved their height of popularity under the emperor ], who placed the outcome of the combat firmly in the hands of the emperor with a hand gesture. Contrary to popular representations in film, several experts believe the gesture for death was not "thumbs down". Although no one is certain about what the gestures were, some experts conclude that the emperor signaled "death" by holding a raised fist to the winning combatant and then extending his thumb upwards, while "mercy" was indicated by a raised fist with no extended thumb.<ref>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2007-4-24.</ref> Animal shows were also popular with the Romans, where foreign animals were either displayed for the public or combined with gladiatorial combat. A prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, was thrown into the arena and an animal was released.

	The '']'', another popular site in Rome, was primarily used for ] and ], and when the Circus was flooded, there could be sea battles. It was also used for many other events.<ref>. Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2007-4-19.</ref> The Circus could hold up to 385,000 people;<ref></ref> people all over Rome would visit it. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and one with seven dolphins, lay in the middle of the track of Circus Maximus, and when the racers made a lap, one of each would be removed. This was done to keep the spectators and the racers informed of the race statistics.

	Other than for sports, the Circus Maximus was also an area of ] and ]. Higher authorities, such as the emperor, also attended games in the Circus Maximus, as it was considered rude to avoid attendance. The higher authorities, knights, and many other people who were involved with the race, sat in reserved seats located above everyone else. It was also considered inappropriate for emperors to favour a team. The Circus Maximus was created in 600 BC and hosted the last horse-racing game in 549 AD, after a custom enduring over a millennium.

	==Technology==
	{{Main\|Roman technology}}

	] in ] is a ] built in c. 19 BC. It is a ].]]
	Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats, using many advancements that were lost in the ] and not rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancements were often divided and based on craft. Groups of ] jealously guarded new technologies as ]s.{{Citation needed\|date=March 2009}}

	] and ] constituted a large part of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, ]s, ], ] and ]s. Many monuments, such as the ], ], and ], still remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.

	The Romans were renowned for their ], which is grouped with Greek traditions into "]". Although there were many differences from ], Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new ] of columns, ] and ], and from the ], which was derived from the ] ], Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.

	] (''Via Appia''), a road connecting the city of ] to the southern parts of ], remains usable even today.]]
	In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use ], widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful ] derived from ], and soon supplanted ] as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural schemata. Also in the 1st century BC, ] wrote '']'', possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In late 1st century BC, Rome also began to use ] soon after its invention in ] about 50 BC. ]s took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during ]'s campaigns in Greece.


	Concrete made possible the paved, durable ], many of which were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. It was originally constructed to allow ]s to be rapidly deployed. But these highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained way stations that provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervals along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established a system of horse relays for ]s that allowed a dispatch to travel up to 800 kilometers (500 mi) in 24 hours.

	The Romans constructed numerous ] to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in ]. The city of Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).<ref name=frontinus>Frontinus</ref> Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Sometimes, where valleys deeper than 50 metres (165 ft) had to be crossed, ] were used to convey water across a valley.{{ref\|waterhistory}}

	The Romans also made major advancements in ]. Romans were particularly famous for their public ], called '']'', which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have ]s and ], and a complex ] system, the '']'', was used to drain the local ]es and carry waste into the Tiber river.

	Some historians have speculated that ] pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread ], which contributed to the decline in ] and general decay of Roman society leading up to the ]. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a few taps were in use.<ref>''Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply'' by A.T. Hodge (1992)</ref>

	==Historians==
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*] (1737–1794) - Decline and Fall of Eastern Roman Empire
	*] Greece and Rome<ref>see </ref>
	*] (1924- )- Ancient Greece<ref></ref>
	*] (1932- ) Roman emperors <ref></ref>
	*] (1776–1831) - Rome
	*] (1870–1952) <ref></ref>
	*] (1903–1983) - Rome <ref>see </ref>
	*] (1903–1989) Rome<ref></ref>

	==See also==
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]
	*]

	==Notes==
	{{Reflist\|colwidth=30em}}

	==References==
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Lesley
	\|last = Adkins
	\|coauthors = Roy Adkins
	\|year = 1998
	\|title = Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome
	\|publisher = Oxford University Press
	\|location = Oxford
	\|isbn = 0-19-512332-8
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Lionel
	\|last = Casson
	\|year = 1998
	\|title = Everyday Life in Ancient Rome
	\|publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press
	\|location = Baltimore
	\|isbn = 0-8018-5992-1
	}}
	*{{Cite web
	\|first = Cassius
	\|last = Dio
	\|title = Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61-76 (CE 54-211)
	\|url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10890/10890-h/10890-h.htm
	\|accessdate = 2006-12-17 }}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = William
	\|last = Duiker
	\|coauthors = Jackson Spielvogel
	\|year = 2001
	\|title = World History
	\|edition = Third edition
	\|publisher = Wadsworth
	\|isbn = 0-534-57168-9
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Will
	\|last = Durant
	\|year = 1944
	\|title = The Story of Civilization, Volume III: Caesar and Christ
	\|publisher = Simon and Schuster, Inc.
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Hugh
	\|last = Elton
	\|year = 1996
	\|title = Warfare in Roman Europe AD350-425
	\|publisher = Oxford University Press
	\|location = Oxford
	\|isbn = 0-19-815241-8
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Harriet I.
	\|last = Flower (editor)
	\|year = 2004
	\|title = The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic
	\|publisher = Cambridge University Press
	\|location = Cambridge, U.K.
	\|isbn = 0-521-00390-3
	}}
	*], '']''
	* Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2008). ''Caesar: Life of a Colossus''. Yale University Press
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Adrian Keith
	\|last = Goldsworthy
	\|year = 1996
	\|title = The Roman Army at War 100BC-AD200
	\|publisher = Oxford University Press
	\|location = Oxford
	\|isbn = 0-19-815057-1
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Adrian Keith
	\|last = Goldsworthy
	\|year = 2003
	\|title = The Complete Roman Army
	\|publisher = Thames and Hudson, Ltd.
	\|location = London
	\|isbn = 0-500-05124-0
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Michael
	\|last = Grant
	\|year = 2005
	\|title = Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum
	\|publisher = Phoenix Press
	\|location = London
	\|isbn = 1-89880-045-6
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Richard
	\|last = Haywood
	\|year = 1971
	\|title = The Ancient World
	\|publisher = David McKay Company, Inc.
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = John
	\|last = Keegan
	\|year = 1993
	\|title = A History of Warfare
	\|publisher = Alfred A. Knopf
	\|location = New York
	\|isbn = 0-394-58801-0
	}}
	*]. ''The Rise of Rome, Books 1-5,'' translated from ] by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282296-9.
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Christopher S.
	\|last = Mackay
	\|year = 2004
	\|title = Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History
	\|publisher = Cambridge University Press
	\|location = Cambridge, U.K.
	\|isbn = 0-521-80918-5
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Philip
	\|last = Matyszak
	\|year = 2003
	\|title = Chronicle of the Roman Republic
	\|publisher = Thames & Hudson, Ltd.
	\|location = London
	\|isbn = 0-500-05121-6
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Robert
	\|last = O'Connell
	\|year = 1989
	\|title = Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression
	\|publisher = Oxford University Press
	\|location = Oxford
	\|isbn = 0-19-505359-1
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Chris
	\|last = Scarre
	\|year = 1995
	\|month = September
	\|title = The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome
	\|publisher = Penguin Books
	\|isbn = 0-14-051329-9
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = H. H.
	\|last = Scullard
	\|authorlink = Howard Hayes Scullard
	\|year = 1982
	\|title = From the Gracchi to Nero
	\|others = (5th edition)
	\|publisher = Routledge
	\|isbn = 0-415-02527-3
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Paul
	\|last = Werner
	\|year = 1978
	\|title = Life in Rome in Ancient Times
	\|others = translated by David Macrae
	\|publisher = Editions Minerva S.A.
	\|location = Geneva
	}}
	*{{Cite book
	\|first = Roy
	\|last = Willis
	\|year = 2000
	\|title = World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide
	\|publisher = Ken Fin Books
	\|location = Collingwood, Victoria
	\|isbn = 1-86458-089-5
	}}

	==Further reading==
	* Cowell, Frank Richard. ''Life in Ancient Rome''. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1961 (paperback, ISBN 0-399-50328-5).
	* Gabucci, Ada. ''Rome (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 2)''. Berkekely: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-25265-9).
	*Scheidel, Walter, Ian Morris, and Richard P. Saller, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World'' (2008) 958pp
	* Wyke, Maria. ''Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History''. New York; London: Routledge, 1997 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-90613-X, paperback, ISBN 0-415-91614-8).

	==External links==
	{{Commons category\|Ancient Rome}}
	* resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.
	* OpenCourseWare from the ] providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments and exams.
	*
	*
	*
	* about "All Things Roman"
	* ]]
	*
	*

	{{Ancient Rome topics}}
	{{Roman Constitution}}
	{{Roman religion}}
	{{Ancient Greek and Roman Wars}}

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Revision as of 11:41, 24 September 2010

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