Misplaced Pages

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 02:33, 7 November 2010 editEpeefleche (talk | contribs)Pending changes reviewers150,049 edits the lede should reflect what it is notable for, as reflected by RS coverage← Previous edit Revision as of 02:36, 7 November 2010 edit undoEpeefleche (talk | contribs)Pending changes reviewers150,049 edits →Terrorist use: adding relevant material covered extensively in RSsNext edit →
Line 100: Line 100:


PETN has been replaced in many application by ], which is thermally more stable and has longer ].<ref>US Army – Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items, vol.8</ref> PETN can be used in some ] types.<ref>, Arkadiusz Kobiera and Piotr Wolanski, XXI ICTAM, 15–21 August 2004, Warsaw, Poland</ref> Replacement of the central carbon atom with ] produces Si-PETN, which is extremely sensitive.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.wag.caltech.edu/publications/sup/pdf/806.pdf|title=Explanation of the Colossal Detonation Sensitivity of Silicon Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (Si-PETN) Explosive|author=Wei-Guang Liu ''et al.''|journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc.|year=2009|volume=131|page=7490|doi=10.1021/ja809725p}}</ref><ref>. Comporgchem.com (2009-07-20). Retrieved on 2010-02-08.</ref> PETN has been replaced in many application by ], which is thermally more stable and has longer ].<ref>US Army – Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items, vol.8</ref> PETN can be used in some ] types.<ref>, Arkadiusz Kobiera and Piotr Wolanski, XXI ICTAM, 15–21 August 2004, Warsaw, Poland</ref> Replacement of the central carbon atom with ] produces Si-PETN, which is extremely sensitive.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.wag.caltech.edu/publications/sup/pdf/806.pdf|title=Explanation of the Colossal Detonation Sensitivity of Silicon Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (Si-PETN) Explosive|author=Wei-Guang Liu ''et al.''|journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc.|year=2009|volume=131|page=7490|doi=10.1021/ja809725p}}</ref><ref>. Comporgchem.com (2009-07-20). Retrieved on 2010-02-08.</ref>



===Terrorist use=== ===Terrorist use===
Line 105: Line 106:
In 1983 the "Maison de France" house in Berlin was brought to a partial, almost total, collapse by the detonation of {{convert|24|kg|lb}} of PETN by terrorist Johannes Weinrich.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,56218,00.html |title=Article detailing attack on Maison de France in Berlin (German) |publisher=Spiegel.de |date=1999-12-13 |accessdate=2010-11-04}}</ref> In 1983 the "Maison de France" house in Berlin was brought to a partial, almost total, collapse by the detonation of {{convert|24|kg|lb}} of PETN by terrorist Johannes Weinrich.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,56218,00.html |title=Article detailing attack on Maison de France in Berlin (German) |publisher=Spiegel.de |date=1999-12-13 |accessdate=2010-11-04}}</ref>


In December 2001 ] member ], the "Shoe Bomber", used PETN in his unsuccessful attempt to blow up ] from Paris to Miami.<ref name="urlBBC News|AMERICAS|Shoe bomb suspect did not act alone">{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1783237.stm|title = 'Shoe bomb suspect 'did not act alone'|date = 2002-01-25|publisher = BBC News|accessdate = 2009-04-22}}</ref> He had intended to use the solid ] (TATP) as a detonator.<ref name=nyt/> PETN was also used on 28 August 2009 in an attempt by ] to murder the Saudi Arabian Deputy Minister of Interior Prince ] by Saudi ] ]. The target survived and the bomber died in the blast. The PETN was hidden in the bomber's ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://homelandsecuritynewswire.com/saudi-suicide-bomber-hid-ied-his-anal-cavity|title=Saudi suicide bomber hid IED in his anal cavity|date=September 9, 2009|work=Homeland Security Newswire|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/01/cargo-plane-plot-saudi-agent-gave-alert |title=Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert' |publisher=The Guardian |date=November 1, 2010 |accessdate=November 1, 2010}}</ref> On 25 December 2009, PETN was found in the possession of ], the "Christmas Day bomber", a 23-year-old Nigerian with links to al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref> In December 2001 ] member ], the "Shoe Bomber", used PETN in his unsuccessful attempt to blow up ] from Paris to Miami.<ref name="urlBBC News|AMERICAS|Shoe bomb suspect did not act alone">{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1783237.stm|title = 'Shoe bomb suspect 'did not act alone'|date = 2002-01-25|publisher = BBC News|accessdate = 2009-04-22}}</ref> He had intended to use the solid ] (TATP) as a detonator.<ref name=nyt/>

On 28 August 2009 PETN was used in an attempt by ] to murder the Saudi Arabian Deputy Minister of Interior Prince ] by Saudi ] ]. The target survived and the bomber died in the blast. The PETN was hidden in the bomber's ], which security experts described as a novel technique.<ref>{{citation|url=http://homelandsecuritynewswire.com/saudi-suicide-bomber-hid-ied-his-anal-cavity|title=Saudi suicide bomber hid IED in his anal cavity|date=September 9, 2009|work=Homeland Security Newswire}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c2a28a88-e606-11df-9cdd-00144feabdc0.html|author=Andrew England |title= Bomb clues point to Yemeni terrorists |publisher=Financial Times |date=November 1, 2010 |accessdate=November 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/01/cargo-plane-plot-saudi-agent-gave-alert |title=Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert' |publisher=The Guardian |date=November 1, 2010 |accessdate=November 1, 2010}}</ref><ref name="guardian2">{{cite web|author=Chris McGreal |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/oct/31/ibrahim-hassan-al-asiri-bombmaking-suspect |title=Ibrahim Hassan al-Asiri: the prime bombmaking suspect|publisher=The Guardian |date= |accessdate=November 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Chris McGreal and Vikram Dodd |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/oct/31/cargo-bombs-plot-us-saudi-extremist |title=Cargo bombs plot: US hunts Saudi extremist |publisher=The Guardian |date=October 31, 2010 |accessdate=November 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/bomb-investigations-lead-to-alqaeda-in-yemen-20101031-178zt.html?autostart=1 |title=Bomb investigations lead to al-Qaeda in Yemen |publisher=]|date= |accessdate=November 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2010/11/01/world/main7010288.shtml |title=Saudi Bombmaker Key Suspect in Yemen Plot |publisher=CBS News |date= |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref>

On 25 December 2009, PETN was found in the possession of ], the "Christmas Day bomber", a 23-year-old Nigerian with links to al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref>
{{cite web {{cite web
| url = http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,581307,00.html | url = http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,581307,00.html
Line 112: Line 117:
| publisher = FOX News Network | publisher = FOX News Network
| accessdate = 2009-12-29}}</ref> | accessdate = 2009-12-29}}</ref>
Abdulmutallab had tried, unsuccessfully, to detonate approximately 80&nbsp;grams<ref> washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.</ref> (2.8 ounces) of PETN sewn into his underwear by adding liquid from a syringe; however only a small fire resulted.<ref name=nyt/> On 29 October 2010, in the al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula ], two PETN-filled printer cartridges were found at ] and in ] on flights bound for the U.S. on an intelligence tip. Both packages contained sophisticated bombs concealed in computer ]s filled with PETN.<ref name="nytimes4">http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/02/world/02terror.html?src=twrhp</ref><ref name="scientificamerican1">{{cite web|last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=aircraft-cargo-bomb-security |title=Exposing the Weakest Link: As Airline Passenger Security Tightens, Bombers Target Cargo Holds |publisher=Scientific American |date= |accessdate=November 3, 2010}}</ref> According to United States law enforcement officials,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://big.assets.huffingtonpost.com/AbdumutallabCharges.pdf |title=Criminal Complaint |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-11-04}}</ref> he had attempted to blow up ] while approaching Detroit from Amsterdam.<ref name="urlABC News|AMERICAS|Investigators: Northwest Bomb Plot Planned by Al-Qaeda in Yemen">{{cite web|url = http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/northwest-bomb-plot-planned-al-qaeda-yemen/story?id=9426085&page=1|title = 'Investigators: Northwest Bomb Plot Planned by al Qaeda in Yemen'|date = 2009-12-26|publisher = ABC News|accessdate = 2009-12-26}}</ref> Abdulmutallab had tried, unsuccessfully, to detonate approximately 80&nbsp;grams<ref> washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.</ref> (2.8 ounces) of PETN sewn into his underwear by adding liquid from a syringe; however only a small fire resulted.<ref name=nyt/>

On 29 October 2010, in the al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula ], two PETN-filled printer cartridges were found at ] and in ] on flights bound for the U.S. on an intelligence tip. Both packages contained sophisticated bombs concealed in computer ]s filled with PETN.<ref name="nytimes4">http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/02/world/02terror.html?src=twrhp</ref><ref name="scientificamerican1">{{cite web|last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=aircraft-cargo-bomb-security |title=Exposing the Weakest Link: As Airline Passenger Security Tightens, Bombers Target Cargo Holds |publisher=Scientific American |date= |accessdate=November 3, 2010}}</ref> The bomb found in England contained {{g to oz|400}} of PETN (five times the amount needed to level a house), and the one found in Dubai contained {{g to oz|300}} of PETN.<ref name="nytimes4"/> Hans Michels, professor of ] at ], said that just 6 grams (0.2 oz) of PETN—around 50 times less than was used—would be enough to blow a hole in a metal plate twice the thickness of an aircraft's skin.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/Story/118746/World/parcel-bombs-could-rip-50-planes-in-half.html |title=Parcel bombs could rip 50 planes in half |publisher=] |date= |accessdate=November 3, 2010}}</ref>


==Medical use== ==Medical use==

Revision as of 02:36, 7 November 2010

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate
Identifiers
CAS Number
3D model (JSmol)
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.987 Edit this at Wikidata
PubChem CID
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
SMILES
  • C(C(CO(=O))(CO(=O))CO(=O))O(=O)
Properties
Chemical formula C5H8N4O12
Molar mass 316.135 g·mol
Appearance White crystalline solid
Density 1.77 g/cm at 20 °C
Melting point 141.3 °C (286.3 °F; 414.4 K)
Boiling point 180 °C (356 °F; 453 K)
Explosive data
Shock sensitivity Medium
Friction sensitivity Medium
RE factor 1.66
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). checkY verify (what is  ?) Infobox references
Chemical compound

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), also known as PENT, PENTA, TEN, corpent, penthrite (or—rarely and primarily in German—as nitropenta), is the nitrate ester of pentaerythritol, a polyol. Penta refers to the five carbon atoms of the neopentane skeleton.

PETN is most well known as an explosive. It is one of the most powerful high explosives known, with a relative effectiveness factor of 1.66. It is used as a plastic explosive, and was discovered in the bombs used by the 2001 Shoe Bomber, in the 2009 Christmas Day bomb plot, and in the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot.

It is also used as a vasodilator drug to treat certain heart conditions, such as for management of angina..

History

Penthrite was first synthesized in 1891 by Bernhard Tollens and P. Wigand by nitration of pentaerythritol. In 1912, after being patented by the German government, the production of PETN started. PETN was used by the German Army in World War I.

Properties

PETN is practically insoluble in water (0.01 g/100 ml at 50 °C), weakly soluble in common nonpolar solvents like aliphatic hydrocarbons or tetrachloromethane but soluble in some other organic solvents, particularly in acetone (about 15 g/100 g of the solution at 20 °C, 55 g/100 g at 60 °C) and dimethylformamide (40 g/100 g of the solution at 40 °C, 70 g/100 g at 70 °C). PETN forms eutectic mixtures with some liquid or molten aromatic nitro compounds, e.g. trinitrotoluene or tetryl. Due to its highly symmetrical structure PETN is resistant to attack by many chemical reagents; it does not hydrolyze in water at room temperature or in weaker alkaline aqueous solutions. Water at 100° or above causes hydrolysis to dinitrate; presence of 0.1% nitric acid accelerates the reaction. Addition of TNT and other aromatic nitro derivatives lowers thermal stability of PETN.

The stability of PETN is of interest, because of the use of PETN in aging stockpiles of weapons. A review has been published. Neutron radiation degrades PETN, producing carbon dioxide and some pentaerythritol dinitrate and trinitrate. Gamma radiation increases the thermal decomposition sensitivity of PETN, lowers melting point by few degrees Celsius and causes swelling of the samples. Like other nitrate esters, the primary degradation mechanism is the loss of nitrogen dioxide; this reaction is autocatalytic.. Studies were performed on thermal decomposition of PETN.

In the environment PETN undergoes biodegradation. Some bacteria denitrate PETN to trinitrate and then dinitrate, which is then further degraded. PETN has low volatility and low solubility in water, therefore has low bioavailability for most organisms. Its toxicity is relatively low, and its transdermal absorption also seems to be low. It poses a threat for aquatic organisms. It can be degraded to pentaerythritol by iron metal.

Production

PETN's preparation involves the nitration of pentaerythritol with a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acid. The preferred method of nitration is the ICI method, which utilizes concentrated nitric acid (98%+) alone, as mixed acid can create unstable sulfonated by-products.

C(CH2OH)4 + 4 HNO3 → C(CH2ONO2)4 + 4 H2O

PETN is manufactured by numerous manufacturers as a powder, or together with nitrocellulose and plasticizer as thin plasticized sheets (e.g. Primasheet 1000 or Detasheet). Its residues are easily detectable in hair of people handling it. The highest residue retention is on black hair; some residues remain present even after washing.

Explosive use

The most common use of PETN is as an explosive with high brisance. It is more difficult to detonate than primary explosives, so dropping or igniting it will typically not cause an explosion (at atmospheric pressure it is difficult to ignite. and burns relatively slowly), but is more sensitive to shock and friction than other high explosives such as TNT or tetryl. Under certain conditions deflagration to detonation transition can occur.

It is rarely used alone, but primarily used in booster and bursting charges of small caliber ammunition, in upper charges of detonators in some land mines and shells, and as the explosive core of detonation cord. PETN is the least stable of the common military explosives, but can be stored without significant deterioration for longer than nitroglycerin or nitrocellulose. It is also used in exploding bridgewire detonators, either alone or with a subsequent booster charge. In spark detonators, PETN is used to avoid need for primary explosives; the energy needed for a successful direct initiation of PETN by an electric spark ranges between 10–60 mJ.

Its basic explosion characteristics are:

  • Explosion energy: 5810 kJ/kg (1390 kcal/kg)
  • Detonation velocity: 8350 m/s (1.73 g/cm), 7910 m/s (1.62 g/cm), 7420 m/s (1.5 g/cm), 8500 m/s (pressed in a steel tube)
  • Volume of gases produced: 790 dm/kg (other value: 768 dm/kg)
  • Explosion temperature: 4230 °C
  • Oxygen balance: -6.31 atom -g/kg
  • Melting point: 141.3 °C (pure), 140–141 °C (technical)
  • Trauzl lead block test: 523 cm (other values: 500 cm when sealed with sand, or 560 cm when sealed with water)
  • Critical diameter (minimal diameter of a rod that can sustain detonation propagation): 0.9 mm for PETN at 1 g/cm, smaller for higher densities (other value: 1.5 mm)

In mixtures

PETN is used in a number of compositions. It is a major ingredient of the Semtex plastic explosive. It is also used as a component of pentolite, a 50/50 blend with TNT; a shaped charge of 8 ounces (0.23 kg) of pentolite, used in the M9A1 (bazooka) rockets, can penetrate up to 5 inches (130 mm) of armor. The XTX8003 extrudable explosive, used in the W68 and W76 nuclear warheads, is a mixture of 80% PETN and 20% of Sylgard 182, a silicone rubber. It is often phlegmatized by addition of 5–40% of wax, or by polymers (producing polymer-bonded explosives); in this form it is used in some cannon shells up to 30 mm caliber, though unsuitable for higher calibers. It is also used as a component of some gun propellants and solid rocket propellants. Nonphlegmatized PETN is stored and handled with approximately 10% water content. PETN alone cannot be cast as it explosively decomposes slightly above its melting point, but it can be mixed with other explosives to form castable mixtures.

PETN can be initiated by a laser. A pulse with duration of 25 nanoseconds and 0.5–4.2 joules of energy from a Q-switched ruby laser can initiate detonation of a PETN surface coated with a 100 nm thick aluminium layer in less than half microsecond.

PETN has been replaced in many application by RDX, which is thermally more stable and has longer shelf life. PETN can be used in some ram accelerator types. Replacement of the central carbon atom with silicon produces Si-PETN, which is extremely sensitive.


Terrorist use

Main articles: Shoe Bomber, 2009 Christmas Day bomb plot, and 2010 cargo plane bomb plot

In 1983 the "Maison de France" house in Berlin was brought to a partial, almost total, collapse by the detonation of 24 kilograms (53 lb) of PETN by terrorist Johannes Weinrich.

In December 2001 al-Qaeda member Richard Reid, the "Shoe Bomber", used PETN in his unsuccessful attempt to blow up American Airlines Flight 63 from Paris to Miami. He had intended to use the solid triacetone triperoxide (TATP) as a detonator.

On 28 August 2009 PETN was used in an attempt by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula to murder the Saudi Arabian Deputy Minister of Interior Prince Muhammad bin Nayef by Saudi suicide bomber Abdullah Hassan al Asiri. The target survived and the bomber died in the blast. The PETN was hidden in the bomber's rectum, which security experts described as a novel technique.

On 25 December 2009, PETN was found in the possession of Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, the "Christmas Day bomber", a 23-year-old Nigerian with links to al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. According to United States law enforcement officials, he had attempted to blow up Northwest Airlines Flight 253 while approaching Detroit from Amsterdam. Abdulmutallab had tried, unsuccessfully, to detonate approximately 80 grams (2.8 ounces) of PETN sewn into his underwear by adding liquid from a syringe; however only a small fire resulted.

On 29 October 2010, in the al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula 2010 cargo plane bomb plot, two PETN-filled printer cartridges were found at East Midlands Airport and in Dubai on flights bound for the U.S. on an intelligence tip. Both packages contained sophisticated bombs concealed in computer printer cartridges filled with PETN. The bomb found in England contained Template:G to oz of PETN (five times the amount needed to level a house), and the one found in Dubai contained Template:G to oz of PETN. Hans Michels, professor of safety engineering at University College London, said that just 6 grams (0.2 oz) of PETN—around 50 times less than was used—would be enough to blow a hole in a metal plate twice the thickness of an aircraft's skin.

Medical use

Like the related explosive nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate), PETN is also used medically as a vasodilator in the treatment of heart conditions. These drugs work by releasing the signaling gas nitric oxide in the body. The heart medicine Lentonitrat is nearly pure PETN.

Detection

PETN is difficult to detect in terrorist incidents because it has a very low vapor pressure at room temperature, meaning very little of it gets into the air around the bomb, where it can be detected.

Many technologies can be used to detect PETN, a number of which have been implemented in public screening applications, primarily for air travel. PETN is just one of a number of explosive chemicals typically of interest in that area, and it belongs to a family of common nitrate-based explosive chemicals which can often be detected by the same tests.

One technology, detectors that test swabs wiped on passengers and their baggage for traces of explosives, is generally reserved for travelers who are thought to merit additional scrutiny. A second type of machine, whole-body imaging scanners, use radio-frequency electromagnetic waves, low-intensity X-rays or T-rays of terahertz frequency to detect objects under clothing; these devices were of limited availability because of cost, privacy groups' opposition and industry concerns about bottlenecks. This is, however, not an exhaustive list.

Both parcels in the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot were x-rayed without the bombs being spotted. Qatar Airways said the PETN bomb "could not be detected by x-ray screening or trained sniffer dogs". The Bundeskriminalamt received copies of the Dubai x-rays, and an investigator said German staff would not have identified the bomb either.

Monitoring of oral usage of the drug by patients has been performed by determination of plasma levels of several of its hydrolysis products, pentaerythritol dinitrate, pentaerythritol mononitrate and pentaerythritol, in plasma using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

References

  1. ^ "Wildlife Toxicity Assessment for pentaerythritol tetranitrate" (Document). U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine. November 2001Template:Inconsistent citations {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  2. "PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)". Retrieved 2010-03-29.
  3. Jsu, Spencer, S., "Equipment to detect explosives is available," The Washington Post, December 28, 2009, accessed January 9, 2010
  4. "Paperny, Anna Mehler, "Foiled attack on U.S. plane leaves airport chaos in its wake, ''The Globe and Mail'', December 29, 2009, accessed January 9, 2010". Theglobeandmail.com. Retrieved 2010-11-04.
  5. The Big Question: Will body scanners in airports reduce the threat from terrorism? – Big Question, Extras. The Independent. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  6. Analysis: Similar explosive on plane used in Saudi attack – CNN.com. Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  7. Revkin, Andrew C.. (1996-08-30) Crash Simulation Sets T.W.A. Blast In One Small Area. NYTimes.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  8. ^ Greenemeier, Larry. "Exposing the Weakest Link: As Airline Passenger Security Tightens, Bombers Target Cargo Holds". Scientific American. Retrieved November 3, 2010.
  9. Can Med Assoc J. 80: 997–998. 1959. PMC 1831125 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1831125. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  10. Tollens, B.; Wigand, P. (1891). "Ueber den Penta-Erythrit, einen aus Formaldehyd und Acetaldehyd synthetisch hergestellten vierwerthigen Alkohol". Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie. 265: 316. doi:10.1002/jlac.18912650303.
  11. Stettbacher, Alfred (1933). Die Schiess- und Sprengstoffe (2. völlig umgearb. Aufl. ed.). Leipzig: Barth. p. 459.
  12. M. F. Foltz, Aging of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) (PDF), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory {{citation}}: line feed character in |title= at position 25 (help)
  13. Thermal decomposition of PENT and HMX over a wide temperature range by V.N. German et al.
  14. Li Zhuang, Lai Gui and Robert W. Gillham (2008). "Degradation of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) by Granular Iron". Environ. Sci. Technol. 42: 4534. doi:10.1021/es7029703.
  15. "Forensic and environmental detection ... – Google Books". Books.google.com. Retrieved 2010-11-04.
  16. Winslow, Ron. (2009-12-29) A Primer in PETN – WSJ.com. Online.wsj.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  17. Accumulation of explosives in hair. Cat.inist.fr. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  18. ^ Kenneth Chang (2009-12-27). "Explosive on Flight 253 Is Among Most Powerful". The New York TimesTemplate:Inconsistent citations{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  19. "Primacord Technical Information" (PDF). Dyno Nobel. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
  20. PETN (chemical compound) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  21. Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information – Sponsored by OSTI. Osti.gov (2009-11-23). Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  22. Tarzhanov, V. I.; Zinchenko, A. D.; Sdobnov, V. I.; Tokarev, B. B.; Pogrebov, A. I.; Volkova, A. A. (1996). "Laser initiation of PETN". Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves. 32: 454. doi:10.1007/BF01998499.
  23. US Army – Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items, vol.8
  24. Simulation of ram accelerator with PETN layer, Arkadiusz Kobiera and Piotr Wolanski, XXI ICTAM, 15–21 August 2004, Warsaw, Poland
  25. Wei-Guang Liu; et al. (2009). "Explanation of the Colossal Detonation Sensitivity of Silicon Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (Si-PETN) Explosive" (PDF). J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131: 7490. doi:10.1021/ja809725p. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  26. Computational Organic Chemistry » Si-PETN sensitivity explained. Comporgchem.com (2009-07-20). Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  27. "Article detailing attack on Maison de France in Berlin (German)". Spiegel.de. 1999-12-13. Retrieved 2010-11-04.
  28. "'Shoe bomb suspect 'did not act alone'". BBC News. 2002-01-25. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
  29. "Saudi suicide bomber hid IED in his anal cavity", Homeland Security Newswire, September 9, 2009
  30. Andrew England (November 1, 2010). "Bomb clues point to Yemeni terrorists". Financial Times. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
  31. "Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert'". The Guardian. November 1, 2010. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
  32. Chris McGreal. "Ibrahim Hassan al-Asiri: the prime bombmaking suspect". The Guardian. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
  33. Chris McGreal and Vikram Dodd (October 31, 2010). "Cargo bombs plot: US hunts Saudi extremist". The Guardian. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
  34. "Bomb investigations lead to al-Qaeda in Yemen". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
  35. "Saudi Bombmaker Key Suspect in Yemen Plot". CBS News. Retrieved November 2, 2010.
  36. "Al Qaeda Claims Responsibility for Attempted Bombing of U.S. Plane". FOX News Network. 2009-12-28. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
  37. "Criminal Complaint" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-11-04.
  38. "'Investigators: Northwest Bomb Plot Planned by al Qaeda in Yemen'". ABC News. 2009-12-26. Retrieved 2009-12-26.
  39. Explosive in Detroit terror case could have blown hole in airplane, sources say washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  40. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/02/world/02terror.html?src=twrhp
  41. "Parcel bombs could rip 50 planes in half". India Today. Retrieved November 3, 2010.
  42. Russek H. I. (1966). "The therapeutic role of coronary vasodilators: glyceryl trinitrate, isosorbide dinitrate, and pentaerythritol tetranitrate". American Journal of Medical Science. 252 (1): 9–20. doi:10.1097/00000441-196607000-00002. PMID 4957459.
  43. Committee on the Review of Existing and Potential Standoff Explosives Detection Techniques, National Research Council, Existing and Potential Standoff Explosives Detection Techniques, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2004, p. 77
  44. Equipment to detect explosives is available. washingtonpost.com. Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
  45. ^ "Foiled Parcel Plot: World Scrambles to Tighten Air Cargo Security". Der Spiegel. Retrieved November 2, 2010.
  46. "Q&A: Air freight bomb plot". BBC News. October 30, 2010. Retrieved November 3, 2010.
  47. "Passenger jets carried Dubai bomb". Al Jazeera. Retrieved November 1, 2010.
  48. R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 1201–1203.

Further reading

  • Cooper, Paul (1997). Explosives Engineering. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-18636-8.


Vasodilators used in cardiac diseases (C01D)
Nitrovasodilators
Quinolone vasodilators
Others
Categories: