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| {{Islam}} | {{Islam}} | ||
| '''Muhammad''' (c. ]–]) (]: {{Ar|محمد}}) ({{Audio|Ar-muhammad.ogg|listen}}), also ] '''Mohammad''', '''Mohammed''', '''Muhammed''', and sometimes '''Mahomet''' (following the ]), is believed by Muslims to be ]'s final ] sent to guide all of mankind with the message of ]. He is referred to as "'''The Prophet'''" (Arabic: {{Ar|النبي}}) within the faith. Non-Muslims generally consider him to be the founder of Islam. | '''Muhammad''' (God bless his name) (c. ]–]) (]: {{Ar|محمد}}) ({{Audio|Ar-muhammad.ogg|listen}}), also ] '''Mohammad''' (God bless his name), '''Mohammed''' (God bless his name), '''Muhammed'''(God bless his name), and sometimes '''Mahomet''' (God bless his name) (following the ]), is believed by Muslims to be ]'s final ] sent to guide all of mankind with the message of ]. He is referred to as "'''The Prophet'''" (Arabic: {{Ar|النبي}}) within the faith. Non-Muslims generally consider him to be the founder of Islam. | ||
| According to traditional ] biographers, he was born c. ] in ] (Makkah) and died on ] ] in ] (Madinah). Both Mecca and Medina are cities in the ] region of present day ]. The name ''Muhammad'' means "the praised one" in ]. | According to traditional ] biographers, he was born c. ] in ] (Makkah) and died on ] ] in ] (Madinah). Both Mecca and Medina are cities in the ] region of present day ]. The name ''Muhammad'' (God bless his name) means "the praised one" in ]. | ||
| ==Summary== | ==Summary== | ||
| ] as a form of devotion]] | ] as a form of devotion]] | ||
| Born Muhammad ibn Abdullah, he is said to have initially been a merchant who traveled widely. | Born Muhammad (God bless his name) ibn Abdullah, he is said to have initially been a merchant who traveled widely. | ||
| Muhammad often retreated to the mountains outside Mecca, for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in ], at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called ], he was visited by the ] ] who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the ]. Gabriel told him that God (] in ]) had chosen him as the last prophet to mankind. He eventually expanded his mission as a ], publicly preaching a strict ] and warning against a ] where all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject ] and ], two other monotheistic faiths known to the ]s; rather he said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect their teachings. Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Muslims believe that this was in part due to his followers' holding Muhammad's authority above that of their leaders. Eventually, persecution followed and in ], he was forced to flee from Mecca (the ]) and settled in ''Yathrib'' (now known as ]) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community. War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad and his followers were eventually victorious. The military organization that was created by this struggle was then set to conquering the other tribes of ]. By the time of Muhammad's death, he had unified Arabia, spread ] throughout the Arabian Peninsula, and launched expeditions to the north, towards ] and ]. | Muhammad (God bless his name) often retreated to the mountains outside Mecca, for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in ], at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called ], he was visited by the ] ] who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the ]. Gabriel told him that God (] in ]) had chosen him as the last prophet to mankind. He eventually expanded his mission as a ], publicly preaching a strict ] and warning against a ] where all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject ] and ], two other monotheistic faiths known to the ]s; rather he said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect their teachings. Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Muslims believe that this was in part due to his followers' holding Muhammad's (God bless his name) authority above that of their leaders. Eventually, persecution followed and in ], he was forced to flee from Mecca (the ]) and settled in ''Yathrib'' (now known as ]) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community. War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad (God bless his name) and his followers were eventually victorious. The military organization that was created by this struggle was then set to conquering the other tribes of ]. By the time of Muhammad's (God bless his name) death, he had unified Arabia, spread ] throughout the Arabian Peninsula, and launched expeditions to the north, towards ] and ]. | ||
| Under Muhammad's immediate ], the ]ic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, ], ], ], ], and ]. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and ] activity spread Islam over much of the globe. | Under Muhammad's (God bless his name) immediate ], the ]ic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, ], ], ], ], and ]. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and ] activity spread Islam over much of the globe. | ||
| ==Sources== | ==Sources== | ||
| The main sources for biographies of Muhammad are found in Islamic documments such as the '']'', the '']'' biographies, and the '']'' collections. While the Qur'an is not a biography of Muhammad, it does provide information about his life. The earliest surviving biographies are the ''Life of the Apostle of God'', by ] (d. ]), edited by ] (d. ]); and ]'s (d. ]) biography of Muhammad. Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's death. The third source, the hadith collections, like the Qur'an, are not a biography ''per se''. In both the ] and ] belief, they are the accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad. | The main sources for biographies of Muhammad (God bless his name) are found in Islamic documments such as the '']'', the '']'' biographies, and the '']'' collections. While the Qur'an is not a biography of Muhammad (God bless his name), it does provide information about his life. The earliest surviving biographies are the ''Life of the Apostle of God'', by ] (d. ]), edited by ] (d. ]); and ]'s (d. ]) biography of Muhammad (God bless his name). Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's (God bless his name) death. The third source, the hadith collections, like the Qur'an, are not a biography ''per se''. In both the ] and ] belief, they are the accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad (God bless his name). | ||
| Some skeptical scholars (], Cook, ], and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of these sources, especially the ''hadith'' collections. They argue that by the time the oral traditions were being collected, the Muslim community had grown and also fractured into rival ]s and different schools of thought and each sect and school had its own, sometimes conflicting, traditions of what Muhammad and his companions had done and said. Traditions multiplied, and Muslim scholars made a strenuous effort to weed out what they felt were spurious stories. Traditionalists rely on their efforts while the skeptics feel that the question must be revisited. | Some skeptical scholars (], Cook, ], and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of these sources, especially the ''hadith'' collections. They argue that by the time the oral traditions were being collected, the Muslim community had grown and also fractured into rival ]s and different schools of thought and each sect and school had its own, sometimes conflicting, traditions of what Muhammad (God bless his name) and his companions had done and said. Traditions multiplied, and Muslim scholars made a strenuous effort to weed out what they felt were spurious stories. Traditionalists rely on their efforts while the skeptics feel that the question must be revisited. | ||
| Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike agree that there are some inauthentic traditions concerning the life of Muhammad in the hadith collections. Thus most of these traditions are acknowledged by Muslim clerical authorities to be ''weak'' and only a few hadith collections are considered reliable. A very small minority called the "Qur'an Alone Muslims" consider all hadith as unreliable. | Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike agree that there are some inauthentic traditions concerning the life of Muhammad (God bless his name) in the hadith collections. Thus most of these traditions are acknowledged by Muslim clerical authorities to be ''weak'' and only a few hadith collections are considered reliable. A very small minority called the "Qur'an Alone Muslims" consider all hadith as unreliable. | ||
| However, the ] of the biographical material about Muhammad presented in the summary above is not generally contested. Traditionalists, both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's life. | However, the ] of the biographical material about Muhammad (God bless his name) presented in the summary above is not generally contested. Traditionalists, both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's (God bless his name) life. | ||
| ==His life according to Sira== | ==His life according to Sira== | ||
| ===Genealogy=== | ===Genealogy=== | ||
| According to tradition, Muhammad traced his ] back as far as ], whom the northern ]s believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (]), son of Ibrahim (]) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's genealogy up to Adnan is as follows: | According to tradition, Muhammad (God bless his name) traced his ] back as far as ], whom the northern ]s believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (]), son of Ibrahim (]) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's (God bless his name) genealogy up to Adnan is as follows: | ||
| Muhammad ibn ] ibn ] (Shaiba) ibn ] (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (]) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn ] ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn ]. (''ibn'' means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.) | Muhammad (God bless his name) ibn ] ibn ] (Shaiba) ibn ] (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (]) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn ] ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn ]. (''ibn'' means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.) | ||
| He was also called ''Abul-Qaasim'' by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son. | He was also called ''Abul-Qaasim'' by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son. | ||
| ===Childhood=== | ===Childhood=== | ||
| Muhammad was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of ]. Some calculate his birthdate as ], ] (] Muslims believe it to be ]), and some as ]; tradition places it in the ]. Muhammad's father, ], had died before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather ], of the ] ] of the ] ]. Tradition says that as an infant, he was placed with a ] wetnurse, ], as ] life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother ], and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. Muhammad now came under the care of his uncle ], the new leader of the ] clan of the Quraysh tribe, the most powerful in Mecca. | Muhammad (God bless his name) was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of ]. Some calculate his birthdate as ], ] (] Muslims believe it to be ]), and some as ]; tradition places it in the ]. Muhammad's (God bless his name) father, ], had died before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather ], of the ] ] of the ] ]. Tradition says that as an infant, he was placed with a ] wetnurse, ], as ] life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. At the age of six, Muhammad (God bless his name) lost his mother ], and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. Muhammad (God bless his name) now came under the care of his uncle ], the new leader of the ] clan of the Quraysh tribe, the most powerful in Mecca. | ||
| Muslims differ as to whether or not Muhammad was brought up as a ], a monotheist, and whether or not he ever engaged in the polytheist worship. See ] for further information. | Muslims differ as to whether or not Muhammad (God bless his name) was brought up as a ], a monotheist, and whether or not he ever engaged in the polytheist worship. See ] for further information. | ||
| Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the ]) that housed many different idols. Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to ]. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways. | Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the ]) that housed many different idols. Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad (God bless his name) began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to ]. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways. | ||
| ===Middle years=== | ===Middle years=== | ||
| Muhammad became a ] and one of his employers was ]h, a widow then forty years old. The young twenty-five-year old Muhammad had impressed Khadijah and she proposed to him in the year ]. By ] custom before Islam, minors did not inherit, so Muhammad had received no ] from either his father or his grandfather. | Muhammad (God bless his name) became a ] and one of his employers was ]h, a widow then forty years old. The young twenty-five-year old Muhammad (God bless his name) had impressed Khadijah and she proposed to him in the year ]. By ] custom before Islam, minors did not inherit, so Muhammad (God bless his name) had received no ] from either his father or his grandfather. | ||
| ] records that Khadijah bore Muhammad five children, one son and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad received his first ]. His son ''Qasim'' died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be ], ], ], and ]. | ] records that Khadijah bore Muhammad (God bless his name) five children, one son and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad (God bless his name) received his first ]. His son ''Qasim'' died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be ] (God bless his name), ], ] (God bless his name), and ]. | ||
| The ] say that Muhammad had only the one daughter, Fatimah, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister. | The ] say that Muhammad (God bless his name) had only the one daughter, Fatimah, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister. | ||
| <!-- BEGIN TIMELINE --> | <!-- BEGIN TIMELINE --> | ||
| {| align="right" width="45%" style="border:1px solid #ddd; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align:right;" | {| align="right" width="45%" style="border:1px solid #ddd; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align:right;" | ||
| !colspan="2" align="center"|<big>Timeline of Muhammad</big> | !colspan="2" align="center"|<big>Timeline of Muhammad</big> (God bless his name) | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| |colspan="2" align="center"|<small>Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad | |colspan="2" align="center"|<small>Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad (God bless his name) | ||
| |- | |- | ||
| |align="right">|''c''. ] | |align="right">|''c''. ] | ||
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| ===The first revelations=== | ===The first revelations=== | ||
| Muhammad had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (]) near Mecca in ] and thought. Muslims believe that around the year ], while meditating, Muhammad had a vision of the Angel ]. | Muhammad (God bless his name) had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (]) near Mecca in ] and thought. Muslims believe that around the year ], while meditating, Muhammad (God bless his name) had a vision of the Angel ]. | ||
| His wife ] and her Christian cousin ] were the first to believe Muhammad was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin ], and ], whom Sunnis assert to have been Muhammad's closest friend. | His wife ] and her Christian cousin ] were the first to believe Muhammad (God bless his name) was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin ], and ], whom Sunnis assert to have been Muhammad's (God bless his name) closest friend. | ||
| Until his death, Muhammad reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received ''surat'' '']'', whose words provided comfort and reassurance. | Until his death, Muhammad (God bless his name) reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received ''surat'' '']'', whose words provided comfort and reassurance. | ||
| Around ], Muhammad began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Some, however, believed and joined his small group. | Around ], Muhammad (God bless his name) began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Some, however, believed and joined his small group. | ||
| ===Rejection=== | ===Rejection=== | ||
| As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, a sacred house of idols and the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s denunciation of ] was especially offensive to his own tribe, the ], as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Furthermore, Muhammad and his followers, bypassing the rulers, forged a relationship with the Christian nation of Ethiopia, a nation traditionally considered an enemy of Mecca. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to ] (present day Ethiopia)and founded a small colony there under the refuge of the Ethiopian King. | As the ranks of Muhammad's (God bless his name) followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, a sacred house of idols and the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad (God bless his name) preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s (God bless his name) denunciation of ] was especially offensive to his own tribe, the ], as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Furthermore, Muhammad (God bless his name) and his followers, bypassing the rulers, forged a relationship with the Christian nation of Ethiopia, a nation traditionally considered an enemy of Mecca. Muhammad (God bless his name) and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to ] (present day Ethiopia)and founded a small colony there under the refuge of the Ethiopian King. | ||
| Several ''suras'' and parts of ''suras'' are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example '']'', '']'', parts of '']'' and '']'', '']'', and '']''. | Several ''suras'' and parts of ''suras'' are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example '']'', '']'', parts of '']'' and '']'', '']'', and '']''. | ||
| In ], both Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as ''"the year of sorrows."'' Muhammad's own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured hunger and persecution. | In ], both Muhammad's (God bless his name) wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as ''"the year of sorrows."'' Muhammad's (God bless his name) own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured hunger and persecution. | ||
| ===Isra and Miraj=== | ===Isra and Miraj=== | ||
| Some time in ], Muhammad told his followers that he had experienced the '']'', a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night. In the first part of the journey, the ''Isra'', he is said to have travelled from ] to ]. In the second part, the ''Miraj'', Muhammad is said to have toured ] and ], and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. | Some time in ], Muhammad (God bless his name) told his followers that he had experienced the '']'', a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night. In the first part of the journey, the ''Isra'', he is said to have travelled from ] to ]. In the second part, the ''Miraj'', Muhammad (God bless his name) is said to have toured ] and ], and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. | ||
| Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the ] known as the ] is built over the site from which Muhammad ascended to Heaven. | Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the ] known as the ] is built over the site from which Muhammad (God bless his name) ascended to Heaven. | ||
| ===Hijra=== | ===Hijra=== | ||
| By ], life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad. Muhammad then resolved to emigrate to ], then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural ] where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of ], a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This '']'' or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the ]. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra). | By ], life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad (God bless his name). Muhammad (God bless his name) then resolved to emigrate to ], then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural ] where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad (God bless his name) demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of ], a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This '']'' or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the ]. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra). | ||
| Muhammad came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of ] and ]. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Muhammad had hoped that they would recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so. Some academic historians attribute the change of ], the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former ] to the ] in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. | Muhammad (God bless his name) came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of ] and ]. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Muhammad (God bless his name) had hoped that they would recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so. Some academic historians attribute the change of ], the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former ] to the ] in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's (God bless his name) abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers. | ||
| Non-Muslim settlements within Muslim territories were taxed rather than expelled. Muhammad drafted a document now known as the '']'' (c. ]-]), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the ] and other "]" could exist within the new ]. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects and that tradition was one reason for the stability of the later Muslim ] or '']''. In this, the Islamic empire was more tolerant than another great power of the area, the ] empire, which was actively hostile to any religions or sects other than the state-sponsored version of ]. | Non-Muslim settlements within Muslim territories were taxed rather than expelled. Muhammad (God bless his name) drafted a document now known as the '']'' (c. ]-]), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the ] and other "]" could exist within the new ]. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects and that tradition was one reason for the stability of the later Muslim ] or '']''. In this, the Islamic empire was more tolerant than another great power of the area, the ] empire, which was actively hostile to any religions or sects other than the state-sponsored version of ]. | ||
| ===War=== | ===War=== | ||
| Relations between ] and ] rapidly worsened (see ''surat'' '']''). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes. | Relations between ] and ] rapidly worsened (see ''surat'' '']''). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad (God bless his name) signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes. | ||
| Muhammad turned to raiding ]s bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding (al-ghazw) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by Meccan's confiscation of all their property left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims. Secular scholars add this was also a matter of survival for the Muslims. They owned no land in Medina and if they did not raid, they would have to live on ] and whatever wage labor they could find, both of which were in short supply in the small oasis. | Muhammad (God bless his name) turned to raiding ]s bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding (al-ghazw) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by Meccan's confiscation of all their property left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims. Secular scholars add this was also a matter of survival for the Muslims. They owned no land in Medina and if they did not raid, they would have to live on ] and whatever wage labor they could find, both of which were in short supply in the small oasis. | ||
| In March of ], Muhammad led some 300 warriors in a ] on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On ], ] near a place called ], the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than 3 times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement. | In March of ], Muhammad (God bless his name) led some 300 warriors in a ] on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On ], ] near a place called ], the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than 3 times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement. | ||
| ===Rule consolidated=== | ===Rule consolidated=== | ||
| To the Muslims, the ] appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad's prophethood, and he and all the Muslims rejoiced greatly. Following this victory, after clashes, and the breaking of a treaty that risked the security of the city state, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the ]. Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted, and Muhammad became ruler of the city. | To the Muslims, the ] appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad (God bless his name)'s prophethood, and he and all the Muslims rejoiced greatly. Following this victory, after clashes, and the breaking of a treaty that risked the security of the city state, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the ]. Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted, and Muhammad (God bless his name) became ruler of the city. | ||
| After Khadija's death, Muhammad married again, to ], the daughter of his friend ] (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad's death). In Medina, he married ], daughter of ] (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). | After Khadija's death, Muhammad (God bless his name) married again, to ], the daughter of his friend ] (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad (God bless his name)'s death). In Medina, he married ], daughter of ] (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor). | ||
| Muhammad's daughter ] married ], Muhammad's cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married ]. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus all four of the first four ] were linked to Muhammad by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the '']'', or ''Rightly Guided''. (See ] for more information on the controversy on who the first caliph should have been). | Muhammad (God bless his name)'s daughter ] married ], Muhammad (God bless his name)'s cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married ]. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad (God bless his name) and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus all four of the first four ] were linked to Muhammad (God bless his name) by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the '']'', or ''Rightly Guided''. (See ] for more information on the controversy on who the first caliph should have been). | ||
| ===Continued warfare=== | ===Continued warfare=== | ||
| In ] the ]n general ] marched on ] with 3,000 men. The ensuing ] took place on ], ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina. | In ] the ]n general ] marched on ] with 3,000 men. The ensuing ] took place on ], ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina. | ||
| In April ] Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the ]. | In April ] Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad (God bless his name) had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the ]. | ||
| Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the ]. As soon as the battle was over, the Muslims turned upon the Banu Qurayza. After the Banu Qurayza were defeated, all the adult men were ] by the order of ], an arbiter chosen by the Banu Qurayza. The remaining women and children were taken as captives and were not harmed. Muslims believe that this was necessary, however, some critics of Islam believed it was unjust. The matter is discussed at greater length in the article on the ]. | Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the ]. As soon as the battle was over, the Muslims turned upon the Banu Qurayza. After the Banu Qurayza were defeated, all the adult men were ] by the order of ], an arbiter chosen by the Banu Qurayza. The remaining women and children were taken as captives and were not harmed. Muslims believe that this was necessary, however, some critics of Islam believed it was unjust. The matter is discussed at greater length in the article on the ]. | ||
| Line 250: | Line 250: | ||
| ===The conquest of Mecca=== | ===The conquest of Mecca=== | ||
| By ], the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad decided to return to ], this time as a ]. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of ]. While Muhammad would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year. | By ], the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad (God bless his name) decided to return to ], this time as a ]. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of ]. While Muhammad (God bless his name) would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year. | ||
| The agreement lasted only two years, however, as the Meccans broke the treaty in ]. As a result, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. The Meccans submitted without a fight, and thus, there was no bloodshed. Muhammad promised a general amnesty to all the Meccans, regardless of religion, and ensured that no harm will be done to them. As a result of this most Meccans converted to ], and Muhammad destroyed the idols in the ]. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine. | The agreement lasted only two years, however, as the Meccans broke the treaty in ]. As a result, Muhammad (God bless his name) marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. The Meccans submitted without a fight, and thus, there was no bloodshed. Muhammad (God bless his name) promised a general amnesty to all the Meccans, regardless of religion, and ensured that no harm will be done to them. As a result of this most Meccans converted to ], and Muhammad (God bless his name) destroyed the idols in the ]. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine. | ||
| ===Unification of Arabia=== | ===Unification of Arabia=== | ||
| The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at ] effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad's authority. This authority was not enforced by any formal governments, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam. | The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at ] effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad (God bless his name)'s authority. This authority was not enforced by any formal governments, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam. | ||
| ===Muhammad as a warrior=== | ===Muhammad (God bless his name) as a warrior=== | ||
| {{main| Muhammad as a warrior}} | {{main| Muhammad (God bless his name) as a warrior}} | ||
| For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years. | For most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad (God bless his name) was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years. | ||
| Much criticism has been leveled at Muhammad for engaging in caravan raids and taking part in battles. Critics say that his wars went well beyond self-defense. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare. | Much criticism has been leveled at Muhammad (God bless his name) for engaging in caravan raids and taking part in battles. Critics say that his wars went well beyond self-defense. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare. | ||
| ===Family life=== | ===Family life=== | ||
| {{main_article|]}} | {{main_article|]}} | ||
| From ] to ], Muhammad had only one wife, ]. After her death he married ], then ]. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of ] is much disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, a concubine, or a wife.) | From ] to ], Muhammad (God bless his name) had only one wife, ]. After her death he married ], then ]. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of ] is much disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, a concubine, or a wife.) | ||
| Khadija was Muhammad's first wife and the mother of the only child to survive him, his daughter ]. He married his other wives after the death of Khadija. Some of these women were recent widows of warriors in battle. Others were daughters of his close allies or tribal leaders. One of the later unions resulted in a son, but the child died when he was ten months old. | Khadija was Muhammad (God bless his name)'s first wife and the mother of the only child to survive him, his daughter ]. He married his other wives after the death of Khadija. Some of these women were recent widows of warriors in battle. Others were daughters of his close allies or tribal leaders. One of the later unions resulted in a son, but the child died when he was ten months old. | ||
| ===Companions=== | ===Companions=== | ||
| {{main articles|] and ]}} | {{main articles|] and ]}} | ||
| The term '''companions''' refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad. Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are responsible for the transmission of '']'', as each ''hadith'' must have as its first transmitter a companion. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here. | The term '''companions''' refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad (God bless his name). Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad (God bless his name) speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are responsible for the transmission of '']'', as each ''hadith'' must have as its first transmitter a companion. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here. | ||
| List in alphabetic order: | List in alphabetic order: | ||
| Line 303: | Line 303: | ||
| ===Death=== | ===Death=== | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| After a short illness, Muhammad died around noon on Monday ] ], in the city of Medina at the age of sixty-three. | After a short illness, Muhammad (God bless his name) died around noon on Monday ] ], in the city of Medina at the age of sixty-three. | ||
| According to ], Muhammad had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at ]. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or '']''. The majority of the ] sect dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad. However it happened, Abu Bakr became the new leader, and the split between Ali and Abu Bakr precipitated the split between Shi'a and Sunni. Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the ]. | According to ], Muhammad (God bless his name) had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at ]. Shi'a believe that Muhammad (God bless his name)'s companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or '']''. The majority of the ] sect dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad (God bless his name). However it happened, Abu Bakr became the new leader, and the split between Ali and Abu Bakr precipitated the split between Shi'a and Sunni. Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the ]. | ||
| With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the ] under the caliphs. | With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the ] under the caliphs. | ||
| ===Descendants=== | ===Descendants=== | ||
| ] in ]. The mosque contains the tombs of Muhammad and the first two ]s, ] and ].]] | ] in ]. The mosque contains the tombs of Muhammad (God bless his name) and the first two ]s, ] and ].]] | ||
| Muhammad was survived by his daughter ] and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter ], who had borne a daughter, ] or Umama, who survived him as well.) | Muhammad (God bless his name) was survived by his daughter ] and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter ], who had borne a daughter, ] or Umama, who survived him as well.) | ||
| In ], it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad's descendants. | In ], it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad (God bless his name)'s descendants. | ||
| Descendants of Muhammad are known by many names, such as '']s'', '']s'' سيد, and '']s'' شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the ] dynasty of ], the ]s, the current royal families of ] and ], and the ] ]s of the ] branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others. | Descendants of Muhammad (God bless his name) are known by many names, such as '']s'', '']s'' سيد, and '']s'' شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the ] dynasty of ], the ]s, the current royal families of ] and ], and the ] ]s of the ] branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others. | ||
| ==Historical significance== | ==Historical significance== | ||
| Before his death in ], Muhammad had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia. A few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia, and conquered ], ], ], ], ], ], and much of ]. By ], Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the ]. The rest of North Africa had come under Muslim rule, as well as the entire ] and much of ] (including ], in the ]). | Before his death in ], Muhammad (God bless his name) had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia. A few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia, and conquered ], ], ], ], ], ], and much of ]. By ], Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the ]. The rest of North Africa had come under Muslim rule, as well as the entire ] and much of ] (including ], in the ]). | ||
| Under the ], in the ], Islam was spread to the mainly ] principalities east of the Indus by conquering armies in what is now northern ]. Even later, Islam expanded into much of ] and ]. Islam is now the faith of well over a billion people all over the globe, and is the second largest religion of the present day. | Under the ], in the ], Islam was spread to the mainly ] principalities east of the Indus by conquering armies in what is now northern ]. Even later, Islam expanded into much of ] and ]. Islam is now the faith of well over a billion people all over the globe, and is the second largest religion of the present day. | ||
| ==Muslim veneration of Muhammad== | ==Muslim veneration of Muhammad (God bless his name)== | ||
| <div style="float:right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;"> | <div style="float:right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;"> | ||
| <gallery> | <gallery> | ||
| Image:Muhammad callig.gif|The name "Muhammad" written in Arabic ]. Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad or arts depicting humans or animals; much Islamic art is decorative calligraphy or ] (abstract pattern). | Image:Muhammad (God bless his name) callig.gif|The name "Muhammad (God bless his name)" written in Arabic ]. Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad (God bless his name) or arts depicting humans or animals; much Islamic art is decorative calligraphy or ] (abstract pattern). | ||
| Image:Miraj2.jpg|A 16th century ] miniature painting celebrating Muhammad's ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the ]. Muhammad's face is veiled. | Image:Miraj2.jpg|A 16th century ] miniature painting celebrating Muhammad (God bless his name)'s ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the ]. Muhammad (God bless his name)'s face is veiled. | ||
| </gallery> | </gallery> | ||
| </div> | </div> | ||
| {{main|Islam and veneration for Muhammad}} | {{main|Islam and veneration for Muhammad (God bless his name)}} | ||
| ⚫ | All Muslims feel a great love and veneration for Muhammad, and express this feeling in many ways. | ||
| ⚫ | * When speaking or writing, Muhammad's name is preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, '']'', or ''Peace be upon him and his descendants'' by Shias; in English often abbreviated as ''"(pbuh)"'' and ''"pbuh&hd"'', or just simply as "p". | ||
| ⚫ | * Concerts of Muslim and especially ] devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (see ], '']''). | ||
| ⚫ | * Some Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad ('']'') with elaborate festivities. Others do not, believing that such festivities are modern ]. | ||
| ⚫ | * Criticism of Muhammad is often equated with ], which is punishable by death in some Muslim states. | ||
| ⚫ | * Muhammad is often refered to with titles of praise. | ||
| ⚫ | * Muhammad's relics, such as his grave, his sword, his clothing, even strands of his hair, are revered by some. | ||
| ⚫ | * Even non-iconic representations of Muhammad are traditionally discouraged. From the ], however, ] and ] art frequently represented Muhammad in miniatures, albeit with his face either veiled, or emanating radiance (see e.g. ]). Modern caricatures of Muhammad have caused great controversy and criticism (see ] for an example). | ||
| ⚫ | * Beyond the stories accepted as ]ical by Islamic scholars of '']'', or oral traditions, there are many ] praising Muhammad and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life. | ||
| ⚫ | All Muslims feel a great love and veneration for Muhammad (God bless his name), and express this feeling in many ways. | ||
| ⚫ | * When speaking or writing, Muhammad (God bless his name)'s name is preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, '']'', or ''Peace be upon him and his descendants'' by Shias; in English often abbreviated as ''"(pbuh)"'' and ''"pbuh&hd"'', or just simply as "p". | ||
| ⚫ | * Concerts of Muslim and especially ] devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (God bless his name) (see ], '']''). | ||
| ⚫ | * Some Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (God bless his name) ('']'') with elaborate festivities. Others do not, believing that such festivities are modern ]. | ||
| ⚫ | * Criticism of Muhammad (God bless his name) is often equated with ], which is punishable by death in some Muslim states. | ||
| ⚫ | * Muhammad (God bless his name) is often refered to with titles of praise. | ||
| ⚫ | * Muhammad (God bless his name)'s relics, such as his grave, his sword, his clothing, even strands of his hair, are revered by some. | ||
| ⚫ | * Even non-iconic representations of Muhammad (God bless his name) are traditionally discouraged. From the ], however, ] and ] art frequently represented Muhammad (God bless his name) in miniatures, albeit with his face either veiled, or emanating radiance (see e.g. ]). Modern caricatures of Muhammad (God bless his name) have caused great controversy and criticism (see ] for an example). | ||
| ⚫ | * Beyond the stories accepted as ]ical by Islamic scholars of '']'', or oral traditions, there are many ] praising Muhammad (God bless his name) and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life. | ||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| {{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
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Muhammad (God bless his name) (c. 570–632) (Arabic: Template:Ar) (listen), also transliterated Mohammad (God bless his name), Mohammed (God bless his name), Muhammed(God bless his name), and sometimes Mahomet (God bless his name) (following the Turkish), is believed by Muslims to be God's final prophet sent to guide all of mankind with the message of Islam. He is referred to as "The Prophet" (Arabic: Template:Ar) within the faith. Non-Muslims generally consider him to be the founder of Islam.
According to traditional Muslim biographers, he was born c. 570 in Mecca (Makkah) and died on June 8 632 in Medina (Madinah). Both Mecca and Medina are cities in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia. The name Muhammad (God bless his name) means "the praised one" in Arabic.
Summary
Born Muhammad (God bless his name) ibn Abdullah, he is said to have initially been a merchant who traveled widely.
Muhammad (God bless his name) often retreated to the mountains outside Mecca, for prayer and contemplation. Muslims believe that in 610, at about the age of forty, while praying in one of these mountain caves called Hira, he was visited by the Angel Gabriel who commanded him to memorize and recite the verses sent by God. These verses were later collected as part of the Qur'an. Gabriel told him that God (Allah in Arabic) had chosen him as the last prophet to mankind. He eventually expanded his mission as a prophet, publicly preaching a strict monotheism and warning against a Day of Judgement where all humans shall be held responsible for their deeds. He did not completely reject Judaism and Christianity, two other monotheistic faiths known to the Arabs; rather he said that he had been sent by God in order to complete and perfect their teachings. Many in Mecca resented his preaching and persecuted him and his followers. Muslims believe that this was in part due to his followers' holding Muhammad's (God bless his name) authority above that of their leaders. Eventually, persecution followed and in 622, he was forced to flee from Mecca (the Hijra) and settled in Yathrib (now known as Medina) with his followers, where he was the leader of the first avowedly Muslim community. War between factions in Mecca and Medina followed, in which Muhammad (God bless his name) and his followers were eventually victorious. The military organization that was created by this struggle was then set to conquering the other tribes of Arabia. By the time of Muhammad's (God bless his name) death, he had unified Arabia, spread Islam throughout the Arabian Peninsula, and launched expeditions to the north, towards Syria and Palestine.
Under Muhammad's (God bless his name) immediate successors, the Islamic empire expanded into Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa, and Iberia. Later conquests, commercial contact between Muslims and non-Muslims, and missionary activity spread Islam over much of the globe.
Sources
The main sources for biographies of Muhammad (God bless his name) are found in Islamic documments such as the Qur'an, the Sira biographies, and the Hadith collections. While the Qur'an is not a biography of Muhammad (God bless his name), it does provide information about his life. The earliest surviving biographies are the Life of the Apostle of God, by Ibn Ishaq (d. 768), edited by Ibn Hisham (d. 833); and al-Waqidi's (d. 822) biography of Muhammad (God bless his name). Ibn Ishaq wrote his biography some 120 to 130 years after Muhammad's (God bless his name) death. The third source, the hadith collections, like the Qur'an, are not a biography per se. In both the Sunni and Shia belief, they are the accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad (God bless his name).
Some skeptical scholars (Wansbrough, Cook, Crone, and others) have raised doubts about the reliability of these sources, especially the hadith collections. They argue that by the time the oral traditions were being collected, the Muslim community had grown and also fractured into rival sects and different schools of thought and each sect and school had its own, sometimes conflicting, traditions of what Muhammad (God bless his name) and his companions had done and said. Traditions multiplied, and Muslim scholars made a strenuous effort to weed out what they felt were spurious stories. Traditionalists rely on their efforts while the skeptics feel that the question must be revisited.
Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike agree that there are some inauthentic traditions concerning the life of Muhammad (God bless his name) in the hadith collections. Thus most of these traditions are acknowledged by Muslim clerical authorities to be weak and only a few hadith collections are considered reliable. A very small minority called the "Qur'an Alone Muslims" consider all hadith as unreliable.
However, the historicity of the biographical material about Muhammad (God bless his name) presented in the summary above is not generally contested. Traditionalists, both Muslim and non-Muslim, paint a much more detailed picture of Muhammad's (God bless his name) life.
His life according to Sira
Genealogy
According to tradition, Muhammad (God bless his name) traced his genealogy back as far as Adnan, whom the northern Arabs believed to be their common ancestor. Adnan in turn is said to be a descendant of Ismaeel (Ishmael), son of Ibrahim (Abraham) though the exact genealogy is disputed. Muhammad's (God bless his name) genealogy up to Adnan is as follows:
Muhammad (God bless his name) ibn Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Shaiba) ibn Hashim (Amr) ibn Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) ibn Qusai (Zaid) ibn Kilab ibn Murra ibn Ka`b ibn Lu'ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fahr (Quraish) ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr (Qais) ibn Kinana ibn Khuzaimah ibn Mudrikah (Amir) ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma`ad ibn Adnan. (ibn means "son of" in Arabic; alternate names of people with two names are given in parentheses.)
He was also called Abul-Qaasim by some meaning "father of Qaasim", after his short-lived first son.
Childhood
Muhammad (God bless his name) was born into a well-to-do family settled in the northern Arabian town of Mecca. Some calculate his birthdate as April 20, 570 (Shia Muslims believe it to be April 26), and some as 571; tradition places it in the Year of the Elephant. Muhammad's (God bless his name) father, Abdullah, had died before he was born and the young boy was brought up by his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe. Tradition says that as an infant, he was placed with a Bedouin wetnurse, Halima, as desert life was believed to be safer and healthier for children. At the age of six, Muhammad (God bless his name) lost his mother Amina, and at the age of eight his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. Muhammad (God bless his name) now came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, the most powerful in Mecca.
Muslims differ as to whether or not Muhammad (God bless his name) was brought up as a hanif, a monotheist, and whether or not he ever engaged in the polytheist worship. See Hanif for further information.
Mecca was a thriving commercial centre, due in great part to a stone temple (now called the Kaaba) that housed many different idols. Merchants from different tribes would visit Mecca during the pilgrimage season, when all inter-tribal warfare was forbidden and they could trade in safety. While still in his teens, Muhammad (God bless his name) began accompanying his uncle on trading journeys to Syria. He thus became well-travelled and knowledgeable as to foreign ways.
Middle years
Muhammad (God bless his name) became a merchant and one of his employers was Khadijah, a widow then forty years old. The young twenty-five-year old Muhammad (God bless his name) had impressed Khadijah and she proposed to him in the year 595. By Arab custom before Islam, minors did not inherit, so Muhammad (God bless his name) had received no inheritance from either his father or his grandfather.
Ibn Ishaq records that Khadijah bore Muhammad (God bless his name) five children, one son and four daughters. All of Khadija's children were born before Muhammad (God bless his name) received his first revelation. His son Qasim died at the age of two. The four daughters are said to be Zainab (God bless his name), Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum (God bless his name), and Fatimah.
The Shi'a say that Muhammad (God bless his name) had only the one daughter, Fatimah, and that the other daughters were either children of Khadijah by her previous marriage, or children of her sister.
| Timeline of Muhammad (God bless his name) | |
|---|---|
| Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad (God bless his name) | |
| c. 569 | Death of his father, `Abd Allah |
| c. 570 | Possible date of birth, April 20: Mecca |
| 570 | End of ancient South Arabian high culture |
| 570 | Unsuccessful Abyssinian attack on Mecca |
| 576 | Mother dies |
| 578 | Grandfather dies |
| c. 583 | Takes trading journeys to Syria |
| c. 595 | Meets and marries Khadijah |
| 610 | First reports of Qur'anic revelation: Mecca |
| c. 610 | Appears as Prophet of Islam: Mecca |
| c. 613 | Begins spreading message of Islam publicly: Mecca |
| c. 614 | Begins to gather following: Mecca |
| c. 615 | Emigration of Muslims to Abyssinia |
| 616 | Banu Hashim clan boycott begins |
| c. 618 | Medinan Civil War: Medina |
| 619 | Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
| c. 620 | Isra and Miraj |
| c. 620 | Tribes convert to Islam: Medina |
| 622 | Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) |
| 622 | Takes leadership of Medina (Yathrib) |
| c. 622 | Preaches against Ka'aba pantheon: Mecca |
| 622 | Meccans attack Muhammad unsuccessfully |
| c. 622 | Confederation of Muslims and other clans |
| c. 623 | Constitution of Medina |
| 624 | Battle of Badr Muslims defeat Meccans |
| 625 | Battle of Uhud |
| c. 625 | Expulsion of Banu Nadir tribe |
| 626 | Attack on Dumat al-Jandal: Syria |
| c. 627 | Opponents' siege fails: Medina |
| 627 | Battle of the Trench |
| 627 | Destruction of the Banu Qurayza tribe |
| c. 627 | Bani Kalb subjugation: Dumat al-Jandal |
| c. 627 | Unites Islam: Medina |
| 628 | Treaty of Hudaybiyya |
| c. 628 | Gains access to Mecca shrine Kaba |
| 628 | Conquest of the Khaybar oasis |
| 629 | First hajj pilgrimage |
| 629 | Attack on Byzantine empire fails: Mu'ta |
| 630 | Attacks and bloodlessly captures Mecca |
| c. 630 | Battle of Hunayn |
| c. 630 | Siege of al-Ta'if |
| 630 | Establishes theocracy: Mecca |
| c. 631 | Subjugates Arabian peninsula tribes |
| c. 632 | Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk |
| 632 | Farewell hajj pilgrimage |
| 632 | Dies (June 8): Medina |
| c. 632 | Tribal rebellions in Arabia |
| c. 632 | Abu Bakr (Caliph) reestablishes the Caliphate |
The first revelations
Muhammad (God bless his name) had a reflective turn of mind and routinely spent nights in a cave (Hira) near Mecca in meditation and thought. Muslims believe that around the year 610, while meditating, Muhammad (God bless his name) had a vision of the Angel Gabriel.
His wife Khadijah and her Christian cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal were the first to believe Muhammad (God bless his name) was a prophet. She was soon followed by his ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Abu Bakr, whom Sunnis assert to have been Muhammad's (God bless his name) closest friend.
Until his death, Muhammad (God bless his name) reportedly received frequent revelations, although there was a relatively long gap after the first revelation. This silence worried him, until he received surat ad-Dhuha, whose words provided comfort and reassurance.
Around 613, Muhammad (God bless his name) began to spread his message amongst the people. Most of those who heard his message ignored it. A few mocked him. Some, however, believed and joined his small group.
Rejection
As the ranks of Muhammad's (God bless his name) followers swelled, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city. Their wealth, after all, rested on the Kaaba, a sacred house of idols and the focal point of Meccan religious life. If they threw out their idols, as Muhammad (God bless his name) preached, there would be no more pilgrims, no more trade, and no more wealth. Muhammad’s (God bless his name) denunciation of polytheism was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba. Furthermore, Muhammad (God bless his name) and his followers, bypassing the rulers, forged a relationship with the Christian nation of Ethiopia, a nation traditionally considered an enemy of Mecca. Muhammad (God bless his name) and his followers were persecuted. Some of them fled to Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia)and founded a small colony there under the refuge of the Ethiopian King.
Several suras and parts of suras are said to date from this time, and reflect its circumstances: see for example al-Masadd, al-Humaza, parts of Maryam and al-Anbiya, al-Kafirun, and Abasa.
In 619, both Muhammad's (God bless his name) wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib died; it was known as "the year of sorrows." Muhammad's (God bless his name) own clan withdrew their protection of him. Muslims patiently endured hunger and persecution.
Isra and Miraj
Some time in 620, Muhammad (God bless his name) told his followers that he had experienced the Isra and Miraj, a miraculous journey said to have been accomplished in one night. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca to Jerusalem. In the second part, the Miraj, Muhammad (God bless his name) is said to have toured Heaven and Hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
Muslims believe that the Jerusalem mosque on the Temple Mount known as the Masjid al-Aqsa is built over the site from which Muhammad (God bless his name) ascended to Heaven.
Hijra
By 622, life in the small Muslim community of Mecca was becoming not only difficult, but dangerous. Muslim traditions say that there were several attempts to assassinate Muhammad (God bless his name). Muhammad (God bless his name) then resolved to emigrate to Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis where there were a number of Muslim converts. By breaking the link with his own tribe, Muhammad (God bless his name) demonstrated that tribal and family loyalties were insignificant compared to the bonds of Islam, a revolutionary idea in the tribal society of Arabia. This Hijra or emigration (traditionally translated into English as "flight") marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix AH (After Hijra).
Muhammad (God bless his name) came to Medina as a mediator, invited to resolve the feud between the Arab factions of Aws and Khazraj. He ultimately did so by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims. However, Medina was also home to a number of Jewish tribes (whether they were ethnically as well as religiously Jewish is an open question, as is the depth of their "Jewishness"). Muhammad (God bless his name) had hoped that they would recognize him as a prophet, but they did not do so. Some academic historians attribute the change of qibla, the Muslim direction of prayer, from the site of the former Temple in Jerusalem to the Kaaba in Mecca, which occurred during this period, to Muhammad's (God bless his name) abandonment of hope of recruiting Jews as allies or followers.
Non-Muslim settlements within Muslim territories were taxed rather than expelled. Muhammad (God bless his name) drafted a document now known as the Constitution of Medina (c. 622-623), which laid out the terms on which the different factions, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book" could exist within the new Islamic State. This system would come to typify Muslim relations with their non-believing subjects and that tradition was one reason for the stability of the later Muslim caliphate or Khilafah. In this, the Islamic empire was more tolerant than another great power of the area, the Byzantine empire, which was actively hostile to any religions or sects other than the state-sponsored version of Orthodox Christianity.
War
Relations between Mecca and Medina rapidly worsened (see surat al-Baqara). Meccans confiscated all the property that the Muslims had left in Mecca. In Medina, Muhammad (God bless his name) signed treaties of alliance and mutual help with neighboring tribes.
Muhammad (God bless his name) turned to raiding caravans bound for Mecca. Caravan raiding (al-ghazw) was an old Arabian tradition; Muslims justified the raids by Meccan's confiscation of all their property left at Mecca and the state of war deemed to exist between the Meccans and the Muslims. Secular scholars add this was also a matter of survival for the Muslims. They owned no land in Medina and if they did not raid, they would have to live on charity and whatever wage labor they could find, both of which were in short supply in the small oasis.
In March of 624, Muhammad (God bless his name) led some 300 warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Meccans successfully defended the caravan and then decided to teach the Medinans a lesson. They sent a small army against Medina. On March 15, 624 near a place called Badr, the Meccans and the Muslims clashed. Though outnumbered more than 3 times (1000 to 300) in the battle, the Muslims met with success, killing at least forty-five Meccans and taking seventy prisoners for ransom; only fourteen Muslims died. This marked the real beginning of Muslim military achievement.
Rule consolidated
To the Muslims, the victory in Badr appeared as a divine authentication of Muhammad (God bless his name)'s prophethood, and he and all the Muslims rejoiced greatly. Following this victory, after clashes, and the breaking of a treaty that risked the security of the city state, the victors expelled a local Jewish clan, the Banu Qainuqa. Virtually all the remaining Medinans converted, and Muhammad (God bless his name) became ruler of the city.
After Khadija's death, Muhammad (God bless his name) married again, to Aisha, the daughter of his friend Abu Bakr (who would later emerge as the first leader of the Muslims after Muhammad (God bless his name)'s death). In Medina, he married Hafsah, daughter of Umar (who would eventually become Abu Bakr's successor).
Muhammad (God bless his name)'s daughter Fatima married Ali, Muhammad (God bless his name)'s cousin. According to the Sunni, another daughter, Umm Kulthum, married Uthman. Each of these men, in later years, would emerge as successors to Muhammad (God bless his name) and political leaders of the Muslims. Thus all four of the first four caliphs were linked to Muhammad (God bless his name) by marriage. Sunni Muslims regard these caliphs as the Rashidun, or Rightly Guided. (See Succession to Muhammad (God bless his name) for more information on the controversy on who the first caliph should have been).
Continued warfare
In 625 the Meccan general Abu Sufyan marched on Medina with 3,000 men. The ensuing Battle of Uhud took place on March 23, ending in a stalemate. The Meccans claimed victory, but they had lost too many men to pursue the Muslims into Medina.
In April 627 Abu Sufyan led another strong force against Medina. But Muhammad (God bless his name) had dug a trench around Medina and successfully defended the city in the Battle of the Trench.
Many of the Muslims believed that Abu Sufyan had been aided by sympathizers among the Medinans, the Jewish tribe of the Banu Qurayza. As soon as the battle was over, the Muslims turned upon the Banu Qurayza. After the Banu Qurayza were defeated, all the adult men were beheaded by the order of Saad ibn Muadh, an arbiter chosen by the Banu Qurayza. The remaining women and children were taken as captives and were not harmed. Muslims believe that this was necessary, however, some critics of Islam believed it was unjust. The matter is discussed at greater length in the article on the Banu Qurayza.
Following the Muslim's victory at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims were able, through conversion and conquest, to extend their rule to many of the neighboring cities and tribes.
The conquest of Mecca
By 628, the Muslim position was strong enough that Muhammad (God bless his name) decided to return to Mecca, this time as a pilgrim. In March of that year, he set out for Mecca, followed by 1,600 men. After some negotiation, a treaty was signed at the border town of al-Hudaybiyah. While Muhammad (God bless his name) would not be allowed to finish his pilgrimage that year, hostilities would cease and the Muslims would have permission to make a pilgrimage to Mecca in the following year.
The agreement lasted only two years, however, as the Meccans broke the treaty in 630. As a result, Muhammad (God bless his name) marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than 10,000 men. The Meccans submitted without a fight, and thus, there was no bloodshed. Muhammad (God bless his name) promised a general amnesty to all the Meccans, regardless of religion, and ensured that no harm will be done to them. As a result of this most Meccans converted to Islam, and Muhammad (God bless his name) destroyed the idols in the Kaaba. Henceforth the pilgrimage would be a Muslim pilgrimage and the shrine a Muslim shrine.
Unification of Arabia
The capitulation of Mecca and the defeat of an alliance of enemy tribes at Hunayn effectively brought the greater part of the Arabian peninsula under Muhammad (God bless his name)'s authority. This authority was not enforced by any formal governments, however, as he chose instead to rule through personal relationships and tribal treaties. The Muslims were clearly the dominant force in Arabia, and most of the remaining tribes and states hastened to convert to Islam.
Muhammad (God bless his name) as a warrior
Main article: Muhammad (God bless his name) as a warriorFor most of the sixty-three years of his life, Muhammad (God bless his name) was a merchant, then a prophet. He took up the sword late in his life. He was a warrior for ten years.
Much criticism has been leveled at Muhammad (God bless his name) for engaging in caravan raids and taking part in battles. Critics say that his wars went well beyond self-defense. Muslim commentators, however, argue that he fought only to defend his community against the Meccans, and that he insisted on humane rules of warfare.
Family life
Main article: ]From 595 to 619, Muhammad (God bless his name) had only one wife, Khadijah. After her death he married Aisha, then Hafsa. Later he was to marry more wives, for a total of eleven (nine or ten living at the time of his death). (The status of Maria al-Qibtiyya is much disputed; she may have been a slave, a freed slave, a concubine, or a wife.)
Khadija was Muhammad (God bless his name)'s first wife and the mother of the only child to survive him, his daughter Fatima. He married his other wives after the death of Khadija. Some of these women were recent widows of warriors in battle. Others were daughters of his close allies or tribal leaders. One of the later unions resulted in a son, but the child died when he was ten months old.
Companions
Main article: ]The term companions refers to anyone who met three criteria. First, he must have been a contemporary of Muhammad (God bless his name). Second, he must have seen or heard Muhammad (God bless his name) speak on at least one occasion. Third, he must have converted to Islam. Companions are responsible for the transmission of hadith, as each hadith must have as its first transmitter a companion. There were many other companions in addition to the ones listed here.
List in alphabetic order:
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Death
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After a short illness, Muhammad (God bless his name) died around noon on Monday 8 June 632, in the city of Medina at the age of sixty-three.
According to Shi'a Islam, Muhammad (God bless his name) had appointed his son-in-law Ali as his successor, in a public sermon at Ghadir Khumm. Shi'a believe that Muhammad (God bless his name)'s companions Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to oust Ali and make Abu Bakr the leader or caliph. The majority of the Sunni sect dispute this, and say that the leaders of the community conferred and freely chose Abu Bakr, who was pre-eminent among the followers of Muhammad (God bless his name). However it happened, Abu Bakr became the new leader, and the split between Ali and Abu Bakr precipitated the split between Shi'a and Sunni. Abu Bakr spent much of his short reign suppressing rebellious tribes in the Ridda Wars.
With unity restored in Arabia, the Muslims looked outward and commenced the conquests that would eventually unite the Middle East under the caliphs.
Descendants
Muhammad (God bless his name) was survived by his daughter Fatima and her children. (Some say that he had a daughter Zainab, who had borne a daughter, Amma or Umama, who survived him as well.)
In Shi'a Islam, it is believed that Fatima's husband Ali and his descendants are the rightful leaders of the faithful. The Sunni do not accept this view, but they still honor Muhammad (God bless his name)'s descendants.
Descendants of Muhammad (God bless his name) are known by many names, such as sayyids, syeds سيد, and sharifs شريف (plural: ِأشراف Ashraaf). Many rulers and notables in Muslim countries, past and present, claim such descent, with various degrees of credibility, such as the Fatimid dynasty of North Africa, the Idrisis, the current royal families of Jordan and Morocco, and the Agha Khan Imams of the Ismaili branch of Islam. In various Muslim countries, there are societies that authenticate claims of descent; some societies are more credible than others.
Historical significance
Before his death in 632, Muhammad (God bless his name) had established Islam as a social and political force and had unified most of Arabia. A few decades after his death, his successors had united all of Arabia, and conquered Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Armenia, and much of North Africa. By 750, Islam had emerged as the spiritual counterpart to the two great monotheistic belief systems, Judaism and Christianity, and as the geopolitical successor to the Roman Empire. The rest of North Africa had come under Muslim rule, as well as the entire Iberian Peninsula and much of Central Asia (including Sind, in the Indus Valley).
Under the Ghaznavids, in the tenth century, Islam was spread to the mainly Hindu principalities east of the Indus by conquering armies in what is now northern India. Even later, Islam expanded into much of Africa and Southeast Asia. Islam is now the faith of well over a billion people all over the globe, and is the second largest religion of the present day.
Muslim veneration of Muhammad (God bless his name)
- The name "Muhammad (God bless his name)" written in Arabic calligraphy. Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad (God bless his name) or arts depicting humans or animals; much Islamic art is decorative calligraphy or arabesque (abstract pattern). The name "Muhammad (God bless his name)" written in Arabic calligraphy. Many Muslims believe that Islam prohibits depicting the prophet Muhammad (God bless his name) or arts depicting humans or animals; much Islamic art is decorative calligraphy or arabesque (abstract pattern).
- A 16th century Persian miniature painting celebrating Muhammad (God bless his name)'s ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the Miraj. Muhammad (God bless his name)'s face is veiled. A 16th century Persian miniature painting celebrating Muhammad (God bless his name)'s ascent into the Heavens, a journey known as the Miraj. Muhammad (God bless his name)'s face is veiled.
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All Muslims feel a great love and veneration for Muhammad (God bless his name), and express this feeling in many ways.
- When speaking or writing, Muhammad (God bless his name)'s name is preceded by the title "Prophet" and is followed by the phrase, Peace be upon him, or Peace be upon him and his descendants by Shias; in English often abbreviated as "(pbuh)" and "pbuh&hd", or just simply as "p".
- Concerts of Muslim and especially Sufi devotional music include songs praising Muhammad (God bless his name) (see Muslim music, Qawwali).
- Some Muslims celebrate the birthday of Muhammad (God bless his name) (Mawlid) with elaborate festivities. Others do not, believing that such festivities are modern innovations.
- Criticism of Muhammad (God bless his name) is often equated with blasphemy, which is punishable by death in some Muslim states.
- Muhammad (God bless his name) is often refered to with titles of praise.
- Muhammad (God bless his name)'s relics, such as his grave, his sword, his clothing, even strands of his hair, are revered by some.
- Even non-iconic representations of Muhammad (God bless his name) are traditionally discouraged. From the 16th century, however, Persian and Ottoman art frequently represented Muhammad (God bless his name) in miniatures, albeit with his face either veiled, or emanating radiance (see e.g. Siyer-i Nebi). Modern caricatures of Muhammad (God bless his name) have caused great controversy and criticism (see Jyllands-Posten Muhammad (God bless his name) cartoons for an example).
- Beyond the stories accepted as canonical by Islamic scholars of hadith, or oral traditions, there are many folktales praising Muhammad (God bless his name) and recounting miraculous stories of his birth, upbringing and life.
See also
References
- . ISBN 0062508865.
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External links
- Non-sectarian biography
- Public Broadcasting System program on Muhammad
- Encarta Encyclopedia
- 1911 Encyclopedia article of Muhammad
- Muslim biographies
- Biography by Harun Yahya
- Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)- Memoirs of the Noble Prophet
- About Muhammad
- Critical perspectives
- Other