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| :''This is one of several related articles about cannabis. ] deals with the biology of the genus Cannabis. ] is about marijuana, hashish and related drugs. ] is about cultivation and non-drug uses. See also ].'' | |||
| ]'' plant]] | |||
| The '''cannabis''' plant can be dried or otherwise processed to yield products containing large concentrations of ]s that have ] and ] effects when consumed, usually by smoking or eating. ] (also called '''marijuana''', or '''pot''' in slang) has been used for medical and psychoactive effects for thousands of years. Throughout the ] there was a massive upswing in the use of cannabis as a psychoactive substance, mostly for ] but to some extent for ]. The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became ] in many parts of the world during the early ], and remains that way today. | |||
| ]'' plant.'']] | |||
| ==History== | |||
| Cannabis has been known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound from very early in history, and has been used continuously throughout the world, typically without ] until the mid-20th century, when, mainly under the leadership of newspaper baron ] and the ], prohibition became increasingly global.<!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), need sections--> | |||
| ===Ancient history=== | |||
| '''Cannabis''' was known across the ancient world, including ancient Israel. The Hebrew Bible mentions cannabis in Exodus 30:23, in a list of 'spices' (בְּשָׂמִים ''Beśāmîm'') that are processed into an aromatic holy oil to anoint the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). | |||
| In Biblical Hebrew, the term for cannabis is ''qěnēh bośem'' and literally means 'reed of balm' to refer to the aromatic resin that the cannabis plant exudes. Ultimately the English term ''cannabis'' derives from the Hebrew term ''qěnēh bośem''. Hebrew קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם ''' ''qěnēh bośem'' ''' abbreviated into קַנַּבּוֹס ''' ''qannabbôs'' ''' which entered Greek as κανναβις ''' ''kannabis'' ''' and then Latin as ''' ''cannabis'' '''. The abbreviated form ''qannabbos'' is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew. | |||
| English versions of the Hebrew Bible tend to mistranslate the Hebrew term ''qěnēh bosem'' as ']' because of the Greek ]. The Septuagint misunderstood the Hebrew term to mean some unidentified 'reed of balm' and thus misconstrued it as a reference to the 'balmy' (scented) calamus reed, or καλαμος ''kalamos'' in Greek. Calamus was known in Greek mythology and was processed into an aphrodisiac. Even so, the Hebrew term originally refers to cannabis. | |||
| Cannabis was also known to the ]ns, as well as to the ]/]ns (ancestors of present day Eastern-Europeans), whose ] (the ''kapnobatai'' - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") used to burn cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of ], which is believed to have originated in ], has also been linked to the effects of cannabis smoke. | |||
| The most famous users of cannabis though were the ancient ]s. It was called 'ganjika' in ] ('ganja' in modern Indian languages). According to legend, ], the destructive aspect of the Hindu trinity, told his disciples to use the hemp plant in all ways possible. The ancient drug ], mentioned in the ]s as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes identified with cannabis. However it has also been identified with a number of plants and a mushroom ]. | |||
| === Recent history === | |||
| Under the name ''cannabis'' ] medical practitioners helped to introduce the herb's drug potential (usually as a ]) to modern English-speaking consciousness. It was famously used to treat ]'s menstrual pains, and was available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs such as ] took over. | |||
| The name ''marijuana'' (] ''marihuana'', ''mariguana'') is associated almost exclusively with the herb’s drug potential. The term marijuana is now well known in English as a name for drug material due largely to the efforts of US drug prohibitionists during the ] and ], who deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal. (''see ]'') | |||
| Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the ] music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. ] became one of its most prominent and life-long devotees. Cannabis use was also a prominent part of ] counterculture. | |||
| Today in America, there are 11 states that provide some legal protection for patients who use marijuana with the consent or recommendation of a doctor. Most recently, Rhode Island became the 11th state to pass medical marijuana legislation. Tolerance for the drug appears to be growing in non-medical respects as well. For example, currently in the state of Oregon possession of less than one ] of marijuana for personal use by an adult is considered a violation, not a crime, and is punishable by a simple fine. Various individual cities through the United States (such as ]) have similar legislation. None of these protections, however, will protect a user from federal prosecution. | |||
| On ], ], the city of ], ] passed in a 53%-46% vote to legalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana for adults over 21 {{ref|USAToday}}. | |||
| On ], ], a broad coalition of ] in ], ], unveiled a pilot program to allow farmers to legally grow marijuana. As it stands currently, designated ] can sell cannabis, but must be supplied by underground ]s. {{ref|AP}} | |||
| On ], ], the Herald News Online reported that the Joint Mental Health and Substance Abuse Committee of the ] voted 6-1 in favor of a bill that would decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana. Rather than face criminal charges, offenders would face a civil fine of $250. {{ref|HN}} | |||
| == Wild cannabis== | |||
| Cannabis still grows wild in many places around the world, the most prominent species being ''Cannabis sativa'' which found growing wild in places such as ], ], parts of ], ], ],], ], and ]. Wild ''Cannabis indica'' is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as ], and in ] The wild ''C. sativa'' has a lot of genetic variation from place to place. For example the wild ''C. sativa'' in warm places can reach heights up to 20 ft (6 meters) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as a 1 ft (30 centimeters) in height. Almost every single flower bract bears a seed. The wild ''C. sativa'' has long, thin and airy buds and mostly, a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild ''C. indica'' for the most part remains compact and bushy with thick buds, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild ''C. indica''. | |||
| In many areas the wild population of cannabis is threatened due to government eradication and urbanization. | |||
| ==New breeding and cultivation techniques== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{main_article|]}} | |||
| Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the diversity and potency of ] over the last 20 years, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances—the ] of breeding, ], ], ], ], ]—have been in part a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky, and so efficient indoor cultivation more common. These same advances have also resulted in the cannabis being smoked currently no longer having seeds in them as was the case 20 years ago. | |||
| The increases in potency—and ramifications thereof—have been exaggerated by many opponents of cannabis use both in and out of government. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that <!--don't change this, it is intentionally-->pot<!--like in the ads to which I refer--> today is significantly stronger and thus more dangerous than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past. In a general pattern of proposing reverses in ], the UK government is considering scheduling stronger cannabis (''skunk'', in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance. | |||
| == Immediate effects of human consumption == | |||
| The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as '']''. Smoking the same marijuana either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the '']'' species tends to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while '']'' tends to produce more of the physical effects. | |||
| === Cognitive, behavioral, or perceptual === | |||
| Cannabis has a broad spectrum of possible cognitive, behavioral, or perceptual effects, the occurrence of which vary from user to user. Some of these are the intended effect desired by users, some may be considered desirable depending on the situation, and others are generally considered undesirable. Users of cannabis report that these kinds of effects are more often produced by the '']'' species of ''Cannabis''. | |||
| === Physical or sensory === | |||
| Cannabis also has effects that are predominantly physical or sensory, widely believed to be more common with the '']'' species. | |||
| ====List of effects==== | |||
| * ] properties | |||
| * Modulation of ] and ] | |||
| * Impairment of short-term memory | |||
| * Enhancement of many other drug effects (including those of ], ], ], ], ], but does not increase effects of stronger hallucinogens) | |||
| * ] or visual ] at high doses in some users | |||
| * ], ] and ] | |||
| * Increased ] (often referred to as "the munchies"), an effect of stimulation of the ] system, which affects ], ], and ]. | |||
| * Increased ] | |||
| * Increased awareness of ] | |||
| * Increased awareness of ]s and ]s | |||
| * Increased appreciation of ] | |||
| * Increased mental activity, like ] | |||
| * Induced sense of ] | |||
| * Initial ] followed by ] and lassitude ('burnt out') | |||
| * ] or ] states of mind | |||
| * Gain or loss of some ] | |||
| * Mild ], feelings of general well-being | |||
| * Relaxation or ] reduction | |||
| * Mild ] (Increased heart rate) | |||
| * Mild, temporary ] (sometimes referred to as ''cottonmouth'', ''pasties'', or ''the drys'' (NZ)) | |||
| * Mild, temporary ] (sometimes referred to as ''blood-shot eyes,'' ''dry eyes'' or ''red eye''(UK)) | |||
| * Mild ] and ] | |||
| ====List of therapeutic effects ==== | |||
| * Pain relief (especially ]s, ]s, and eye pain due to lowered ]). | |||
| * Increased ], food subjectively tastes better. | |||
| * Reduced ], (especially from chemotherapy), though may cause or exacerbate nausea for some. | |||
| * Dilation of ] (air sacs) in ], resulting in deeper respiration. | |||
| * Increase in productive coughs | |||
| * Dilation of ]s (]), resulting in: | |||
| ** Increased blood flow and heart rate | |||
| ** Reddening of the conjunctivae (red eye) | |||
| * Lower intra-] pressure (beneficial to ] patients). | |||
| * Lower ] while standing. Higher blood pressure while sitting (note that this can lead to instances of ] a.k.a. head rush). | |||
| * Induces drowsiness (beneficial to sufferers of ] and ]). | |||
| * Relaxation | |||
| * Reduced ] | |||
| * Mild ] (e.g. per ] users, more "]-Vibrations") | |||
| === Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity === | |||
| Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in ''Cannabis'', the main active ingredient is ] (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, '''THC'''). THC can degrade to CBL and CBN (other ]), which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different marijuana products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality of the "high" will vary. | |||
| THC has an effect on the modulation of the ] which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit ]. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human ], but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild ] to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population. | |||
| A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods did not conclusively increase THC's effects{{ref|PBB}}. | |||
| === Lethal dose === | |||
| It is generally considered to be impossible to achieve a lethal overdose by smoking cannabis. According to the ], 12th edition, the ], the lethal dose for 50% of rats tested by inhalation, is 42 ] per ] of body weight. That is equivalent of a 75 kg (165 lb) man ingesting all of the ] in 21 one-gram cigarettes of maximum-potency (15% THC) cannabis buds at once, assuming no THC was lost through burning or exhalation. For oral consumption, the LD<sub>50</sub> for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with ] administration — an unheard of method of use — may such a level be even theoretically possible. | |||
| There has only ever been one recorded verdict of fatal overdose due to cannabis. In ], ] of ], ] was found dead. The coroner's report stated "Death due to probable cannabis toxicity". It had been reported that Maisey smoked about six joints a day. Mr. Maisey's blood contained 130 ]s per ] (ng/ml) of the THC metabolite THC-COOH. | |||
| The validity of the finding did not stand up well under review. As reported on ] in the '']'', the Federal Health Ministry of ] asked Dr. Rudolf Brenneisen, a professor at the department for clinical research at the ], to review the data of this case. Dr. Brenneisen said that the data of the toxicological analysis and collected by autopsy were "scanty and not conclusive" and that the conclusion "death by cannabis intoxication" was "not legitimate". Additionally, Dr. Franjo Grotenhermen of the Nova-Institute in ] said: "A concentration of 130 ng/ml THC-COOH in blood is a moderate concentration, which may be observed some hours after the use of one or two joints. Heavy regular use of cannabis easily results in THC-COOH concentrations of above 500 ng/ml. Many people use much more cannabis than Mr. Maisey did, without any negative consequences." | |||
| == Health issues and the effects of cannabis == | |||
| ''Main article: ]'' | |||
| There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption. The findings of earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as ], as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using only cannabis were combined in the same sample with subjects using other drugs as well, researchers could not reach a conclusion as to whether their findings were caused by cannabis, other drugs or the interaction between them. | |||
| === Tolerance, withdrawal and dreams=== | |||
| Although use may become habitual, the extent of ] to cannabis is unknown (], 2004). Many animal and human studies conducted since the ] have revealed cannabis withdrawal symptoms in some people after abstinence from heavy use which is usually characterized by a period of anxiousness, ], more vivid and memorable dreams, (''] rebound''), irritability, and diminished appetite after cessation of use. Because cannabis is a ], unlike typical ] or ] drugs, these persistent effects are typically not as severe as those normally associated with physical dependence. | |||
| THC molecules break down quickly after ingestion, although some components can be detected for a period of up to a month after use, and up to 6 weeks or more in heavy users. Although these components are not proven to have any ongoing physical or mental effects in themselves—THC undergoes ], working its way out of the body slowly over many days, thus reducing the potential to cause withdrawal symptoms. {{ref|Markel}} | |||
| === Long-term effects on the mind and brain === | |||
| <!-- this section needs to be synched with "Health issues and the effects of cannabis", which is more up to date --> | |||
| There is a growing body of medical evidence which shows positive correlations between cannabis use and ], ], or ]. A landmark study, in 1987, of 50,000 Swedish Army conscripts, found that those who admitted at age 18 to having taken cannabis on more than 50 occasions, were six times more likely to develop schizophrenia in the following 15 years. Some believe that cannabis may trigger latent conditions or be part of a complex coordination of causes, referred to as the ] in ]. On the other hand, many people with pronounced psychological disorders, including schizophrenia, depression, bi-polar and obsessive-compulsive disorder, often ] their illness with cannabis in place of potent main-stream drugs like ]. | |||
| One concern with research alleging a link between cannabis use and psychotic illness has been that, while a ] may be drawn, it is not possible to establish ] or causation - in other words, to establish that people who are mentally ill and have used cannabis are ill ''because'' they have used cannabis. Often, given that research is often conducated by organizations with a nonscientific ] against cannabis use, studies that show correlation between cannabis use and mental illness (or other health problems) are often incorrectly claimed to show causality as well. Recent research has attempted to address this concern by studying large groups free of mental illness, to examine the proportion of individuals that already use cannabis who go on to develop mental illnesses{{ref|UKCIA1}}. | |||
| Evidence for causality was provided by a 2005 study{{ref|UKCIA2}} showing the existence of a genetic predisposition to cannabis related symptoms of psychosis, by showing correlation between presence of the ], adolescent cannabis use and symptoms of psychotic illness (though for none of these traits separately). The study demonstrates that early adolescent cannabis use is a greater predictor for symptoms of adult psychosis among carriers of the gene.<!-- | |||
| {{ref|Times}}Newspapers usually get study results wrong, and this Times story got the maths wrong: one-in-four NOT at risk of psychosis. 25% of NZ Northern European study population carried the gene, of those who smoked cannabis heavily in adolescence 10% had incidence of later adult psychosis. This was three (3) people in the {{ref|UKCIA2}} study. I've cut the one-in-four claim and link. | |||
| --> The study attempted to control for prior mental illness and other alternative explanations, thereby establishing causality. However, the small sample size, symptom screening prior to likely age of symptom onset, and the cohort nature of the study, all call the result into question. This theory is still hotly disputed {{ref|Alternet}}, and further research is ongoing. | |||
| Some claim that extended use of cannabis may help the user reach a higher level of mental consciousness and clarity, expanding the mind and helping individuals become more aware, insightful and intelligent. These claims seem contradictory to the common view of the long-term effects of marijuana use. Some of this contradiction is sure to be indicative of differing interpretations of a common effect; consider the inherent subjectivity of identifying addiction, abuse, and ambition, for example. | |||
| === Long-term physical effects of smoking === | |||
| The combustion of any organic material creates irritants and carcinogens, and cannabis is no different. The long-term effects of smoking any substance depends on frequency of use, duration of inhalation, and composition of the smoke. This leads many to assume that the effects of cannabis can be directly compared to other well-known smoking materials such as tobacco. However, direct, volume-for-volume comparisons of the two are probably ] because the chemical composition and methods of usage are not the same. Studies on the subject are inconclusive and have not isolated all the possible factors exacerbating or ameliorating the effects of cannabis user. Here are some of these factors: | |||
| ====Possibly exacerbating factors:==== | |||
| *Studies have pointed out that cannabis produces more tar and burns at a higher temperature than ]. | |||
| *Many cannabis smokers inhale the smoke more deeply and hold it in their lungs for a longer period of time. | |||
| ====Possibly mitigating factors==== | |||
| * Generally, even a chronic cannabis user does not inhale a daily volume of smoke equal to a significant portion of that of a tobacco smoker. | |||
| * Cannabis smoke does not tend to penetrate to the smaller, peripheral passageways of the lungs, concentrating rather on the larger, central passageways. | |||
| * Industrialized cultivation and preparation of tobacco introduces a variety of ] and ] additives and ]s such as ], ], ]-226, and ]-210. This problem does not pertain to cannabis, the vast majority of which is grown in ]. | |||
| * There is evidence to suggest that cannabinoids present in cannabis may actually serve to protect against cancer. {{ref|NIH}} | |||
| Some studies have claimed a positive correlation between cannabis use and lung cancer, however, it is possible that this may be due to correlation between cannabis and tobacco use. More study would be needed to separate tobacco use and other factors in order to better understand the potential long-term physiological effects of cannabis use itself. Some recent reports suggest that when the data is properly analyzed, the correlation may in fact be negative.{{ref|Counterpunch}} | |||
| == Medicinal use== | |||
| {{main_article|]}} | |||
| Medically, cannabis is most often used as an appetite stimulant and pain reliever for certain terminal illnesses such as ] and ]. It is also used to relieve ] and certain neurological illnesses such as ], ] and ]. The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but it is sometimes recommended informally by physicians. A synthetic version of the major active chemical in cannabis, THC, is readily available in the form of a pill as the prescription drug ]. THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages.{{ref|Nature}} A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of ] in Canada as the prescription drug ] - this drug may now be legally imported into the UK on prescription. Eleven states in the US allow marijuana consumption for medical purposes; however, ] ruled marijuana illegal for any purpose. | |||
| In the case United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative, 00-151, the Supreme Court ruled against marijuana. The Supreme Court ruled 8-0 that there is no exception in federal law for people to use marijuana to ease their pain from cancer, AIDS or other illnesses. | |||
| See section ''History'' for information on historic and other medical use. | |||
| == Spiritual use == | |||
| {{main_article|]}} | |||
| Cannabis has a long history of ] use, especially in ], where it has been used by wandering spiritual ]s for centuries. The most famous ] group to use cannabis in a spiritual context is the ], though it is by no means the only group (e.g. ]). Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used by ancient Jews, early Christians and Muslims of the Sufi order. ] was used by the ], a warrior ] sect. | |||
| Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion, though it is banned in many parts of the world. | |||
| == Preparations for human consumption == | |||
| ] | |||
| ] (A), a cannabis ] (B), a small amount of crushed cannabis (C), and a book of cigarette ] (D).]] | |||
| <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: ] --> | |||
| ] bowl or ].]] | |||
| ]s, 3/8 oz of marijuana, baggies, grinder, rolling papers. In the middle are two British pound coins for size comparison.]] | |||
| ] | |||
| Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms: | |||
| * ''Marijuana'' or ''buds'', the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants. | |||
| ** ''Sinsemilla'' or ''sensemillia'', flowering tops which are free of ]s as a result of being grown in a ]-free environment. Since no plant energy can go into seed formation, this version is higher in psychoactive components. | |||
| * '']'' or ''kif'', a powder containing the resin glands (glandular ]s, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"). It is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves. | |||
| * '']'', a concentrated resin made from pressing ''kif'' into blocks. | |||
| * ''Charas'', produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces. | |||
| * '']'', prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink. | |||
| * '']'', resulting from ] or ] of THC-rich parts of the plant. | |||
| * Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called ''shake, bush'' or ''leaf''. | |||
| There are also three species of Cannabis. These include ''Cannabis sativa'', ''Cannabis indica'', and ''Cannabis ruderalis'', the latter containing much less THC and generally not used as a psychoactive. They differ in their appearance and the highs they produce. There have also been claims to a fourth species of cannabis, which has been nicknamed "Cannabis rasta". It is not yet a formally accepted species and similar to "Cannabis sativa" with regards to psychoactivity. | |||
| === Smoking === | |||
| The most common method of cannabis consumption is by smoking a ''hit'' through one of several classes of devices: | |||
| # By rolling it up, either manually or with a ], into a cigarette, often called a '']'' or ''joint'', with thin '']'', or into a cigar, often called a ], with wrapper either obtained by removing the tobacco from the inside of a standard cigar or purchased as a "blunt wrap". In such preparation, ] or other smokable material are sometimes combined (mulled) into a single roll. Users may also purchase flavored papers or blunt wraps which both mask the scent of the cannabis and provide for a tastier smoke. | |||
| # Another obscure method of smoking a rolled ''joint'' is by using a device called: ''Oat Willie's "Power Hitter"'', marketed by "Oat Willie's Head Shop" in Austin, TX (USA) during the late 1970's. The Power Hitter was a deep blue, plastic, one-quart bottle, with a black nozzle at the lid end with a stainless steel tube flared to hold a standard sized joint. The joint was placed in the tube, lit, and then screwed into the bottle. The finger was placed over a carburetor hole and squeezed to release a 'shotgun' blast of smoke for inhalation at a velocity adjusted by the rate one squeezed. Releasing the finger refilled the bottle with air for the next toke. | |||
| # By using a ], often called a ''bowl'', usually made of ], wood, or sometimes metal (nonreactive, such as brass, to avoid inhalation of undesirable metal vapours). Blown-glass pipes are usually intricately and colorfully designed, with colors becoming more vivid after repeated use. Such pipes usually have a ''rush'', ''choke'', or ''carb'', short for ''carburetor'' or ''shotgun'' hole which is covered by a finger for suction when beginning smoking, which is released to finish inhalation, thus clearing the pipe of smoke without advancing the burning any further. Tobacco pipes, pipes home-made by the user, and others, are also sometimes used. Some users prefer a vertically held ceramic or glass pipe, known as a ''chillum'', coming from India. | |||
| # In a water-pipe, or '']'', by which the smoke is filtered through water into a chamber. The design originated in Vietnam, bong likely being a corruption of the Thai word "baung", and was brought back to the states by American soldiers returning from the war. It should be noted that smoking from a bong loaded with cold water, ice, or snow will greatly cool the smoke and reduce adverse effects of the heat. Bong use is common and enables smoking techniques that are not possible with a simple ]. Other designs include '']s'', a term which covers several variations, including ''waterfall bongs'' and ''bucket bongs''. The bucket bong (or bucky as it is commonly referred to in New Zealand) usually consists of the user placing the marijuana in a cone made from a socket set (13 mm) atop a plastic bottle with either a few small holes (2 cm diameter) in the bottom of the bottle, or a complete cut along the bottom of the bottle. The bottle is then lowered into a bucket of water so that only the cone is above the water level. From here, the user lights the cone and proceeds to pull the bottle upwards until the bottle is full with smoke from the marijuana. The cone is then removed by unscrewing the bottle cap, and the user then proceeds to place his/her mouth over the bottle, exhaling all air beforehand, then inhaling as they lower the bottle into the water. This method is especially efficient when marijuana supplies are scarce. | |||
| # In a homemade bong (''U.S.'' ''Steamroller''), which is generally a 500 ml carbonated drinks bottle, although any bottle, even glass, can be used. A bong pipe is inserted into a small hole, usually burnt or somehow put near the bottom of the bottle, but leaving enough room to allow for approx. 75 ml of water. No rush is required so there is only '''ONE''' hole on a shottie, other than the mouth piece. | |||
| # In a shottie, one smoker takes a ''hit'' of a blunt or joint, and then turns it backwards in their mouth, ember in. A second smoker places his or her mouth in front of the end of the smoking device, and the first smoker exhales through the blunt, blowing both his or her smoke as well as that produced from the blunt itself into the second smoker's mouth. Other types of ''shotties'' have developed over the years, including types such as the ''boat shottie,'' ''Lincoln shottie,'' ''nose shottie,'' ''ghost shottie'' or ''whale shottie,'' which use the hands or the nose to direct the smoke in different ways. | |||
| # By smoking it with a One-hitter (also referred to as a hitter or bat), a small metal device that looks similiar to a cigarette. This is usually used in conjunction with a ]. Marijuana buds are broken up and the stems and seeds are removed, then it is deposited into a compartment in the dugout. The hitter or "bat" is held in another spring loaded compartment. You pack a small amount or marijuana into the hitter and light then inhale. The bat will need to be lit for every individual hit and, if used properly, there is usually little or no burnoff at the one hitter's tip. This is often used by marijuana users who smoke in public because the hitter resembles a ]. | |||
| # By hot-knifing or ''doing blades'', in which the tips of two knives are heated to a very high temperature, often by inserting them into the heating elements of a stove. The marijuana is then pressed between the heated knife-tips, rapidly combusting it. The smoke is often funneled into the mouth of the smoker through the use of a plastic bottle-top, empty pen, or other hollow tube or funnel. In New Zealand, this is also known as 'spots', and most famously undertaken at 'Da Phlat'. A modified method of "]", uses knife blades heated to a much lower temperature, hot enough to vaporise (see Vaporising below) the active ingredients, leaving the organic material scorched, rather than burned, thus removing potential harmful consequenses of the smoke itself. | |||
| # By using a ''condenser'' or "nader", the user uses one of two very close methods, both of which involve a plastic bottle. The most common method is to burn a hole in the cap of the bottle and punch through with the socket to be used,(sometimes mesh netting is placed on the back of the socket, to prevent marijuana from dropping through) and then burning or cutting two more holes, one near the bottom (for inhalation) and one near the top (used as a carburetor) in the neck of the bottle. The second method is to burn one hole and punch through with the socket in the center of the bottle, and put one hole for inhalation near the bottom of the bottle. The cap serves as a "carb" and when the condenser is full of smoke, the inhalation hole is covered and the cap removed, and now the inhalation hole is used as a carb while the cap hole is used for inhalation, providing a larger hole to "rip" (inhaling and thus clearing all the smoke in a bottle by removing whatever is covering the carb). Condensers are often used as a last resort, or when the user does not wish to smell like marijuana (odor is generally not present when a condenser is used outside, since the vast majority of the smoke is the smoke that is exhaled). | |||
| === Oral consumption === | |||
| Cannabis may be orally consumed by blending it with alcohol or fats. With this method, some claim that more cannabis must be used. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be more physical rather than mental. A strong dose of oral cannabis is considered to give a stronger experience than smoked cannabis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, delta-9 THC, is converted to the more psychoactive delta-11 THC in the liver. It takes some experience for one to regulate the dose. Common preparations involve blending with butter (to create ]) that is used in preparing brownies, fudge, cookies or ]s or "space cakes." Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India. | |||
| As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect (possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' more strongly — although some do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach makes them feel sick). Still, time to effect onset is usually more than an hour, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate. | |||
| Cannabis could also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and little water soluble (few grams/litre), but enough to make a tea effective. | |||
| The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Contrary to popular belief, marijuana seeds capable of growing are illegal under U.S. law. Federal law only makes an exception in the case of sterilized seeds, incapable of growing, and the mature stalks of the plant.{{ref|DEA}} | |||
| See ] external links below. | |||
| === Vaporization === | |||
| Usually with a '']'', cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365 °F (185 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many toxic chemicals that are byproducts of combustion. Combustion also breaks down more of the cannabinoids present in cannabis, although the concentrations of the various cannabinoids may be different from those in smoked cannabis. Some users claim to experience subtly different effects when using cannabis in this way. In addition, users note an improved ability to distinguish subtle characteristics of flavor and aroma, in absence of lighter gas fumes or burnt matter. | |||
| == Legality == | |||
| {{main_article|]}} | |||
| Since the twentieth century, most countries have laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis (and, naturally, these laws impact adversely on the herb's cultivation for non-recreational purposes) but there are many regions where certain circumstances of cannabis handling are legal or licensed and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also ''decriminalized'' possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by ] and/or a ], rather than ]. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who ] and sell the drug on the ]. However this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the 'legal amount' of marijuana, since buying or growing marijuana is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. However, simple possession can carry long jail terms in some countries, particularly in ], and the sale of cannabis can lead to life in prison or execution. | |||
| ], Canada organized by the ] and ] on April 20, 2005]] | |||
| === Prohibition and criminalization in the US === | |||
| Until ], consumption and sale of cannabis was legal in most American states. In some areas it could be openly purchased in bulk from grocers or in cigarette form at newsstands, though an increasing number of states had begun to outlaw it. In that year, federal law made possession or transfer of cannabis (without the purchase of a by-then-incriminating tax stamp) illegal throughout the United States. This was contrary to the advice of the ] at the time. Legal opinions of the time held that the federal government could not outlaw it entirely. The tax was $100 per pound of hemp, even for clothes or rope. The expense, extremely high for that time, was such that people stopped openly buying and making it. | |||
| The decision of the U.S. Congress was based in part on testimony derived from articles in the newspapers owned by ], who was heavily interested in ]. Some analysts theorize DuPont wanted to boost declining post-war textile sales, and wished to eliminate ] fiber as competition. Many argue that this seems unlikely given DuPont's lack of concern with the legal status of cotton, wool, and linen; although it should be noted that hemp's textile potential had not yet been largely exploited, while textile factories already had made large investments in equipment to handle cotton, wool, and linen. Others argue that DuPont wanted to eliminate cannabis because its high natural ] content made it a viable alternative to the company's developing innovation: modern ]. Still, others could argue that hemp could never truly compete with the high strength and elasticity of synthetics, such as ]. Furthermore, hemp would have been an easy target due to its intoxicating effect, while no rational justification could have been made for outlawing cotton, wool, or linen. | |||
| ] and ].]] | |||
| During this period, ], then-Commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, alleged that the drug could provoke criminal behavior in previously solid citizens. Anslinger, originally against a federal law, switched his position in response to pressure from Southern and Western states seeking to outlaw the substance in connection with immigrant populations. With the aid of Hearst and other media, the Bureau of Narcotics demonized the subject in pop culture. Anslinger was a prohibitionist and believed anti-marijuana laws would help encourage a revival of alcohol's prohibition. Anslinger also popularized the word ''marihuana'' for the plant, using a ] derived word (believed to be derived from an archaic ] term for inebriation, "Maria Joana") in order to associate the plant with increasing numbers of Mexican immigrants, creating a negative stereotype which persists to this day. | |||
| Anslinger was successful in outlawing machine-gun sales with a trick of law that made it impossible to complete a transaction without a stamp issued by the government. Even though the government had no intentions of issuing said stamps, the Supreme Court upheld the restriction on machine gun sales. (Today these stamps are routinely issued however to qualified buyers under the rules set forth in the ].) Congress then applied the same theory to marijuana. Following passage of The 1937 federal marijuana tax act, the mayor of New York City commissioned a study that determined all of Anslinger's claims to be false. Despite the testimony of the American Medical Associations director, Congress passed the bill to curb the perceived violent spread of the drug. In fact, the legal spread of amphetamines by prescription from doctors was at this time clearly a larger problem. | |||
| Anslinger's law was struck down by the ] in 1969. In a case brought by ], the Court held that the law's requirement that a would-be possessor of cannabis register with the local bureau of the ], thereby placing his name and address on a file available to local law enforcment, violated the ] privilege against self-incrimination, given the fact that at the time all 50 states had state laws on the books outlawing cannabis outright. In 1970, the ] made possession of cannabis (classified as ''Schedule I'') illegal again on a federal level, without the Fifth Amendment issues that scuttled the 1937 act, and without apparent concern for the issues which required the ] to effect the ]. Several petitions to ] under the CSA have been filed, since the Act permits the executive branch to do so, which would effectively legalize it at the federal level. | |||
| == References == | |||
| # {{note|USAToday}} {{citenews|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-03-pot_x.htm|title=|org=USA Today|date=]}} | |||
| # {{note|AP}}{{Web reference|URL=http://www.twincities.com/mld/twincities/news/breaking_news/13313479.htm|title=Dutch Politicians Seek Marijuana Rules|date=February 25|year=2006}} | |||
| # {{note|HN}}{{Web reference|URL=http://www.heraldnews.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=16135095|title=Marijuana fight nears|date=February 17|year=2006}} | |||
| # {{note|PBB}} {{cite journal|author=Block RI, Farinpour R & Braverman K.|title=Acute effects of marijuana on cognition: relationships to chronic effects and smoking techniques|journal=Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour|year=1992|volume=43(3)|pages=907 – 917}} | |||
| # {{note|Markel}} {{citenewsauthor|url=http:///|surname=Markel|given=Howard|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away.|org=New York Times|date=]}} WK14 | |||
| # {{note|UKCIA1}} {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213}} | |||
| # {{note|UKCIA2}} {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf|Author=|title=Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction|author=Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig|year=2005|journal=Biol Psychiatry|volume=25|pages=1117 – 1127}} | |||
| # {{note|Times}} {{citenewsauthor|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html|title=One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis|given=Mark|surname=Henderson|org=The Times|date=]}} | |||
| # {{note|Alternet}} Bruce Mirken and Mitch Earleywine: {{citenews|url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=]|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|org=AlterNet}} | |||
| # {{note|NIH}} {{cite journal|url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc|title=Antitumor Effects of THC|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=108(10)|year=October 2000|pages=Correspondence|author=James Huff and Po Chan | id=PMID 11097557}} | |||
| # {{note|Counterpunch}} {{citenewsauthor|url=http://www.counterpunch.org/gardner07022005.html|org=Counterpunch|title=Study: Smoking Marijuana Does Not Cause Lung Cancer|given=Fred|surname=Gardner|date=]}} | |||
| # {{note|Nature}} {{citenews|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050404/full/050404-7.html|org=Nature (magazine)|title=Cannabis compound benefits blood vessels|date=]}} | |||
| # {{note|DEA}} {{Web reference | url=http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm|title=Controlled Substances Act|work=21 USCS § 801|publisher=United States Drug Enforcement Agency|date=November 4|year=2005}} | |||
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| {{Cannabis resources}} | |||
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| == External links == | |||
| {{commons|Cannabis sativa}} | |||
| * Forums and Information for growing medical marijuana. | |||
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| *, website for 2006 initiative in Nevada to regulate and tax marijuana. | |||
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