| Revision as of 18:24, 27 March 2006 view sourceScaife (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users1,719 edits Revert to revision 45727819 using popups← Previous edit | Revision as of 20:22, 27 March 2006 view source 216.114.70.194 (talk)No edit summaryNext edit → | ||
| Line 33: | Line 33: | ||
| '''{{Audio|ru-Stalin.ogg|Joseph Stalin}}''' is the form usually used in English for the Russian name of '''Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin''' (Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин), born with the ] name '''Ioseb Jugashvili''' (]: ოისებ ჯუღაშილი, ]: Иосиф Джугашвили); ({{OldStyleDate|18 December|1878|6 December}}{{ref|Register}} – ], ]). | '''{{Audio|ru-Stalin.ogg|Joseph Stalin}}''' is the form usually used in English for the Russian name of '''Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin''' (Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин), born with the ] name '''Ioseb Jugashvili''' (]: ოისებ ჯუღაშილი, ]: Иосиф Джугашвили); ({{OldStyleDate|18 December|1878|6 December}}{{ref|Register}} – ], ]). | ||
| He was a cool guy | |||
| He was the leader of the ] from the mid-1920s to his death in 1953. When he joined the Bolsheviks, he took on the name of "Stalin" (Сталин), which is derived from the Russian word for ]. | |||
| Stalin's rule was characterized by a strong ], an extreme concentration of power, and little concern for the consequences of harsh policies. Stalin attempted to suppress all opposition through a bureaucratic network of terror. Western scholarly estimations of number of dead because of Stalin's iproper policy sometimes vary by 40-50 million with the highest numbers more than 60 million, which includes almost all dead in the USSR during Stalin's rule, with 20 million claimed by some to be "average" number. Some argue that if not for Stalin, then the USSR could have lost the WWII with the Russian people destroyed. Other instead argue that the war was won despite Stalin, who is seen as responsible for enormous initial military defeats. | |||
| ], Stalin's eventual successor, denounced his mass ]s and cult of personality in 1956, initiating the process of "]"{{ref|Khrushchev}} which later became part of the ]. | |||
| Stalin became ] in 1921, and set about building a power base from there. Following the death of ], he prevailed over his rival ] in a power struggle during the 1920s. | |||
| In the 1930s Stalin initiated the ], which reached its peak in 1937. Since many wealthier peasants resisted ], the government under Stalin's leadership often resorted to violent ] against the "]". | |||
| Stalin is generally considered to have molded the features that characterized the Soviet ] from the era of his rule to its collapse in 1991 — though ], ]s and some others say he was actually the last legitimate ] in the Soviet Union's history. | |||
| Stalin's ] were based on ] but are often now considered to represent a separate social system called ]. | |||
| Stalin replaced the ] (NEP) of the 1920s with ] in 1928 and ] at roughly the same time. | |||
| Due largely to these policies, the Soviet Union was transformed from a predominantly ] society to a major world ] ] by the end of the 1930s. A hard-won ] in World War II (the ], ]– ]), made possible in part through the capacity for production that was the outcome of ], laid the groundwork for the formation of the ] and established the USSR as one of the two major ]s, a position it maintained for nearly four decades following Stalin's death in 1953. | |||
| ==Childhood and early years== | |||
| ] | |||
| Stalin was born in ], ], to ]. His mother, ], was born a ]. Their other three children died young; "Soso" (the Georgian ] for Joseph), was effectively the only child. Vissarion was a former serf who, when freed, became a cobbler. He opened his own shop, but quickly went ], forcing him to work in a shoe factory in ] (Archer 11). | |||
| Rarely seeing his family and drinking heavily, Vissarion often beat his wife and small son. One of Stalin's friends from childhood wrote, "Those undeserved and fearful beatings made the boy as hard and heartless as his father." The same friend also wrote that he never saw him cry (Hoober 15). | |||
| Another of his childhood friends, Iremashvili, felt that the beatings by Stalin's father gave him a hatred of authority. He also said that anyone with power over others reminded Stalin of his father's cruelty. | |||
| One of the people for whom Ekaterina did laundry and housecleaning was a Gori Jew, David Papismedov. Papismedov gave Joseph, who would help out his mother, money and books to read, and encouraged him. Decades later, Papismedov came to the ] to learn what had become of little Soso. Stalin surprised his colleagues by not only receiving the elderly man, but happily chatting with him in public places. | |||
| In 1888, Stalin's father left to live in ], leaving the family without support. Rumors said he died in a drunken bar fight; however, others said they had seen him in Georgia as late as 1931. At the age of eight, Soso began his education at the Gori Church School. | |||
| When attending school in Gori, Soso was among a very diverse group of students. Stalin and most of his classmates were Georgian and spoke mostly Georgian. However, at school they were forced to use Russian. | |||
| Even when speaking in Russian, their Russian teachers mocked Stalin and his classmates because of their Georgian ]. His peers were mostly the sons of affluent priests, officials, and merchants. | |||
| Although Stalin later sought to hide his Georgian ], during his childhood he was fascinated by Georgian ]. The stories he read told of Georgian mountaineers who valiantly fought for Georgian ]. Stalin's favorite hero of these stories was a legendary mountain ranger named Koba, which became his first alias as a ]. He graduated first in his class and at age 14 he was awarded a scholarship to the '''Tiflis Theological Seminary''', a ] institution which he attended from 1894 and onward. | |||
| In addition to the small ] from the scholarship he was also paid for singing in the choir. Although his mother wanted him to be a priest (even after he had become leader of the Soviet Union), he attended seminary not because of any religious vocation, but because it was one of the few educational opportunities available as the ] of Russia was wary of establishing a university in Georgia. | |||
| ] | |||
| Stalin's involvement with the ] movement (or, to be more exact, the branch of it that later became the ] movement) began at the seminary. During these school years, Stalin joined a Georgian Social-Democratic organization, and began propagating ]. | |||
| Stalin was expelled from the seminary in 1899 for these actions. He worked for a decade with the political underground in the ], experiencing repeated arrests and exile to ] between 1902 and 1917. | |||
| He adhered to ]'s doctrine of a strong centralist party of professional revolutionaries. It was during this time, after the ], that he led "fighting squads" in bank robberies to raise funds for the ]. His practical experience made him useful in Lenin's ] party, gaining him a place on its Central Committee in January 1912. | |||
| Some historians have suggested that, during this period, Stalin was actually a ]ist spy, who was working to ] the ], but there are no reliable documents to substantiate this. In 1913 he adopted the name Stalin, which is derived form the Russian word for "steel". | |||
| His only significant contribution to the development of the Marxist theory at this time was a treatise, written while he was briefly in exile in Vienna, ''Marxism and the national question''. It presents an ] Marxist position on this important debate. This treatise may have contributed to his appointment as ] for Nationalities Affairs after the revolution (see Lenin's article ''On the right of nations to self-determination'' ]) for comparison. | |||
| ==Marriages and family== | |||
| ] | |||
| Stalin's first wife ] died in 1907, only three years after their marriage. At her funeral, Stalin said that any warm feelings he had had for people died with her, for only she could mend his heart. They had a son together, ], with whom Stalin did not get along in later years. | |||
| His son tried to kill himself, unsuccessfully, resulting in serious injuries. Yakov served in the Red Army and was captured by the Germans. They offered to exchange him for a German General, but Stalin turned the offer down, allegedly saying "A lieutenant is not worth a General"; others credit him with allegedly saying "I have no son", to this offer, and Yakov is said to have died running into an electric fence in the camp where he was being held. | |||
| This, however, is the "official report", and to this day, his cause of death is not known. Nonetheless, there are many who believe his death was a suicide. Since many families of the Soviet Union had sons in German camps, Stalin could not have exchanged his son without losing public support. He may have sacrificed his son as a demonstration that he was one with the people. | |||
| ] | |||
| His second wife was ], who died in 1932; she may have committed suicide by shooting herself after a quarrel with Stalin, leaving a suicide note which according to their daughter was "partly personal, partly political" {{ref|Koba}}. | |||
| Officially, she died of an illness, but some rumours claimed that Stalin himself killed her. With her, he had two children: a son, ], and a daughter, ]. | |||
| Vassili rose through the ranks of the Soviet ], but died an alcoholic death in 1962. He distinguished himself in World War II as a capable airman. Svetlana emigrated to the ] in 1967. | |||
| Stalin's mother died in 1937; he did not attend the funeral but instead sent a wreath. | |||
| In March 2001, Russian Independent Television NTV discovered a previously unknown grandson living in ]. Yuri Davydov told NTV that his father had told him of his lineage, but, because the campaign against Stalin's cult of personality was in full swing at the time, he was told to keep quiet. | |||
| Soviet ] writer, ], had mentioned a son being born to Stalin and his ] wife, Lida, in 1918 during Stalin's exile in northern ]. | |||
| ==Rise to power== | |||
| {{see also|Stalin in the Russian Civil War}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1912 Stalin was co-opted to the Bolshevik Central Committee at the ]. In 1917 Stalin was editor of '']'', the official Communist newspaper, while Lenin and much of the Bolshevik leadership were in exile. | |||
| Following the ], Stalin and the editorial board took a position in favor of supporting ]'s ] and, it is alleged, went to the extent of declining to publish Lenin's articles arguing for the provisional government to be overthrown. When Lenin returned from exile, he wrote the ] which put forward his position. | |||
| In April 1917, Stalin was elected to the Central Committee with the third highest vote total in the party and was subsequently elected to the ] of the Central Committee (May 1917); he held this position for the remainder of his life. | |||
| According to many accounts, Stalin only played a minor role in the ] of ].Other writers such as ] stressed that each man in the Central Committee had a job he was assigned to do. | |||
| The following summary of Trotsky's Role in 1917 was given by Stalin in Pravda, November 6th 1918: | |||
| "All practical work in connection with the organisation of the uprising was done under the immediate direction of Comrade Trotsky, the President of the Petrograd Soviet. It can be stated with certainty that the Party is indebted primarily and principally to Comrade Trotsky for the rapid going over of the garrison to the side of the Soviet and the efficient manner in which the work of the Military Revolutionary Committee was organised." | |||
| (Although this passage was quoted in Stalin's book "The October Revolution" issued in 1934, it was expunged in Stalin's Works released in 1949). | |||
| Later, in 1924, Stalin himself created a myth around a so-called "Party Centre" which "directed" all practical work pertaining to the uprising, consisting of himself, Sverdlov, Dzherzhinsky, Uritsky, and Bubnov. | |||
| However, no evidence was ever shown for the activity of this "centre", which was anyway, subordinate to the Military Revolutionary Council, headed by Trotsky. | |||
| During the ] and ], Stalin was a ] in the ] at various ]. Stalin's first government position was as ] of Nationalities Affairs (1917–1923). | |||
| Also, he was People's Commissar of the ]<!-- WPI and "state control" is a neglected USSR topic in the wikipedia --> (1919–1922), a member of the ] of the republic (1920–23) and a member of the ] (from 1917). | |||
| ===Campaign against the ] and ]=== | |||
| In April 1922, Stalin was made ] of the Central Committee of the ], a post (he attempted to decline, although this was refused) that he subsequently built up into the most powerful in the country. | |||
| This position was an unwanted one within the party (Stalin was sometimes referred to as "Comrade Card-Index" by fellow party members) but actually had potential as a power base. The position had great influence on those who joined the party. This allowed him to fill the party with his allies. | |||
| Stalin's accumulation of personal power increasingly alarmed the dying ], and in ] he famously called for the removal of the "rude" Stalin, also stating that Stalin's views were too extreme and violent. | |||
| However, this document was suppressed by members of the ], many of whom were also criticised by the Bolshevik leader in the testament. | |||
| After ]'s ] in January 1924, Stalin, ] and ] together governed the party, placing themselves ] between ] (on the left wing of the party) and ] (on the right). | |||
| During this period, Stalin abandoned the traditional Bolshevik emphasis on international revolution in favor of a policy of building "]", in contrast to Trotsky's theory of ]. | |||
| In the struggle for leadership one thing was certain, whoever ended up ruling the party had to be considered very loyal to Lenin. Stalin fostered a cult of personality around Lenin, and emphasized his own close relationship with the dead leader. Stalin organized Lenin's funeral and made a speech professing undying loyalty to Lenin, in almost religious terms (see]). | |||
| He undermined Trotsky, who was sick at the time, by misleading him about the date of the funeral. Therefore despite the fact that Trotsky was Lenin’s associate throughout the early days of the Soviet regime, he lost ground to Stalin. Stalin made great play of the fact that Trotsky had joined the Bolsheviks just before the revolution, and publicized Trotsky's pre-revolutionary disagreements with Lenin. | |||
| Stalin also undermined Zinoviev and Kamenev by emphasising their vote against the insurrection in 1917. Stalin had another advantage in that was that he was considered to be a man of the people because he came from a poor background. | |||
| Another event that helped Stalin's rise was the fact that Trotsky came out against publication of ] in which he pointed out the strengths and weaknesses of Stalin and Trotsky and the other main players, and suggested that he be succeeded by a small group of people. | |||
| An important feature of Stalin’s rise to power is the way that he manipulated his opponents and played them off against each other. Stalin formed a "troika" of himself, Zinoviev and Kamenev against Trotsky. When Trotsky had been eliminated Stalin then joined Bukharin and Rykov against Zinoviev and Kamenev. Zinoviev and Kamenev then turned to Lenin's widow, ]; they formed the United Opposition in July 1926. | |||
| In 1927 during the 15th Party Congress Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the party and Kamenev lost his seat on the Central Committee. Stalin soon turned against the "Right Opposition", represented by his erstwhile allies, Bukharin and Rykov. | |||
| A key role in Stalin's success was in the power that his position as Secretary General gave him of being able to place people he trusted in key positions. | |||
| Another aspect that helped Stalin come to power was the fact that the people were tired from the world war and the civil war and that Stalin's policy of concentrating in building "Socialism in One Country" was seen as a respite from war. | |||
| Stalin took great advantage of the ban on factionalism which meant that no group could openly go against the policies of the leader of the party because that meant creation of an opposition. | |||
| Stalin's rise to power was helped by the fact that his adversaries, particularly Trotsky, underestimated Stalin's political skills, and his ability to form key strategic alliances. | |||
| By 1928 (the first year of the ]s) Stalin was supreme among the leadership, and the following year Trotsky was exiled because of his opposition. Having also outmaneuvered Bukharin's ] and now advocating collectivization and industrialization, Stalin can be said to have exercised control over the party and the country. | |||
| However, as the popularity of other leaders such as ] and the so-called ] were to demonstrate, Stalin did not achieve absolute power until the ] of 1936 – 1938. | |||
| ==Stalin and changes in Soviet society== | |||
| ===Industrialization=== | |||
| ''Main article: ]''. | |||
| The ] and ] had a devastating effect on the country's economy. Industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. A recovery followed under the ], which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism. | |||
| Under Stalin's direction, this was replaced by a system of centrally ordained '''Five-Year Plans''' in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture. | |||
| With no seed capital, little ], and virtually no modern infrastucture, Stalin's government financed industrialization by both restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens, to ensure that capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the peasantry. | |||
| In 1933, worker's real earnings sank to about one-tenth of the 1926 level. There was also use of the unpaid labor of both common and political prisoners in ] and the frequent "mobilization" of communists and ] members for various construction projects. The Soviet Union also made use of foreign experts, e.g. British engineer Stephen Adams, to instruct their workers and improve their manufacturing processes. | |||
| In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialization from a very low economic base. While there is general agreement among historians that the Soviet Union achieved significant levels of economic growth under Stalin, the precise rate of this growth is disputed. | |||
| Official Soviet estimates placed it at 13.9%, Russian and Western estimates gave lower figures of 5.8% and even 2.9%. Indeed, one estimate is that Soviet growth temporarily was much higher after Stalin's death (see ],]). | |||
| ===Collectivization=== | |||
| ''Main article: ]'' | |||
| :''See also: ]'' | |||
| ] | |||
| Stalin's regime moved to force ] of agriculture. This was in order to increase agricultural output from large-scale mechanized farms, to bring the peasantry under more direct political control, to make tax collection more efficient. | |||
| Collectivization meant drastic social changes, on a scale not seen since the abolition of serfdom in 1861, and ] from control of the land and its produce. Collectivization also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced violent reaction among the peasantry. | |||
| In the first years of collectivization, it was estimated that industrial and agricultural production would rise by 200% and 50%{{ref|histWorld}}, respectively; however, agricultural production actually dropped. | |||
| Stalin blamed this unexpected drop on ] (rich peasants), who resisted collectivization. Therefore those defined as "kulaks", "kulak helpers", and later "ex-kulaks" were to be shot, placed into ] ]s, or deported to remote areas of the country, depending on the charge. | |||
| The two-stage progress of collectivization — interrupted for a year by Stalin's famous editorial, "Dizzy with success" (see]) '']'', ], ]), and '''Reply to Collective Farm Comrades''' (see]) ('']'', ], ]) — is a prime example of his capacity for tactical retreats. | |||
| Many historians agree that ''the disruption caused by collectivization was largely responsible for major ]s''.{{fact}} (Chairman ] of China would trigger a similar famine in 1959 to 1961 with his ].). | |||
| During the ] in ] and the ] region not only "kulaks" were killed. The controversial '']'' and other sources document that all grains were taken from areas that did not meet targets, including the next year's seed grain. | |||
| It also claims that peasants were forced to remain in the starving areas, sales of train tickets were stopped, and the ] set up barriers to prevent people from leaving the starving areas<!--p. 164-->. | |||
| The Soviet Union exported grain while millions of Soviet citizens were starving to death<!--p. 167-->. In Ukraine today the 1932-1933 famine is often described as "the ]" (Ukrainian: Голодомор), or the "Ukrainian Genocide". | |||
| However, famine also affected various other parts of the USSR. The death toll of the famine is estimated between five and ten million people. The worst crop failure of late tsarist Russia, in 1892, caused 375,000 to 400,000 deaths. | |||
| Soviet authorities, and other historians argued that tough measures and the rapid collectivization of agriculture were necessary in order to achieve an equally rapid industrialization of the Soviet Union and ultimately win World War II. | |||
| This is disputed by other historians such as ], who claim that the Soviet Union industrialized '''in spite of''', rather than '''thanks to''', its collectivized agriculture. | |||
| ===Science=== | |||
| ''Main article: ].'' | |||
| Science in the ] was under strict ideological control, along with art and literature. On the positive side, there was significant progress in "ideologically safe" domains, owing to the free ] system and state-financed research. | |||
| However, in several cases the consequences of ideological pressure were dramatic--the most notable examples being the "]s" ] and ]. | |||
| In the late 1940s there were also attempts to suppress ] and ], as well as ], on grounds of "]". | |||
| However, the chief Soviet physicists made it clear that without using these theories, they would be unable to create a ]. | |||
| ] was the only area of Soviet academic thought to which Stalin personally and directly contributed. At the beginning of Stalin's rule, the dominant figure in Soviet linguistics was ], who argued that language is a class construction and that language structure is determined by the economic structure of society. | |||
| Stalin, who had previously written about language policy as People's Commissar for Nationalities, felt he grasped enough of the underlying issues to coherently oppose this simplistic Marxist formalism, ending Marr's ideological dominance over Soviet linguistics. Stalin's principal work discussing linguistics is a small essay, '''Marxism and Linguistic Questions''' {{ref|StalinLinguistics}}. | |||
| Although no great theoretical contributions or insights came from it, neither were there any apparent errors in Stalin's understanding of linguistics; his influence arguably relieved Soviet linguistics from the sort of ideologically driven theory that dominated genetics. | |||
| Scientific research was hindered by the fact that many scientists were sent to ]s (including ], later a ] winner, who spent a year in prison in 1938–1939) or executed (e.g. ], shot in 1937). They were persecuted for their ] views, not for their research. | |||
| Nevertheless, much progress was made under Stalin in some areas of science and technology. It laid the ground for the famous achievements of Soviet science in the 1950s, such as the development of the ]-1 computer in 1953 and the launching of ] in 1957. | |||
| Indeed, many politicians in the ] began to fear, after the "]," that their country had been eclipsed by the Soviet Union in science and in public education. | |||
| ===Social services=== | |||
| Stalin's government placed heavy emphasis on the provision of free medical services. Campaigns were carried out against ], ], and ]; the number of doctors was increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and death and ] rates steadily declined. | |||
| Education in primary schools continued to be free and was expanded, with many more Soviet citizens learning to read and write, and higher education also expanded. Stalin was the only ruler in the history of Russia and Soviet Union who established fees for secondary education in public schools. | |||
| With the industrialization and heavy human losses due to the ] and repressions the generation that survived under Stalin saw a major expansion in job opportunities, especially for women. | |||
| ===Culture and religion=== | |||
| It was during Stalin's reign that the official and long-lived style of ] was established for painting, sculpture, music, drama and literature. | |||
| Previously fashionable "revolutionary" ], ], and ] experimentation were discouraged or denounced as "]". | |||
| Careers were made and broken, some more than once. Famous figures were not only repressed, but often persecuted, tortured and executed, both "revolutionaries" (among them ], ]) and "non-conformists" (for example, ]). | |||
| A minority, both representing the "Soviet man" (]) and remnants of the older pre-revolutionary Russia (]), thrived. A number of former ] returned to the Soviet Union, among them ] in 1925, ] in 1936, and ] in 1943. | |||
| It is of note that ] was subjected to several cycles of suppression and rehabilitation, but was never herself arrested, although her first husband, poet ], had been shot in 1921, and her son, historian ], spent two decades in a ]. | |||
| The degree of Stalin's personal involvement in general and specific developments has been assessed variously. His name, however, was constantly invoked during his reign in discussions of culture as in just about everything else; and in several famous cases, his opinion was final. | |||
| Stalin's occasional beneficence showed itself in strange ways. For example, ] was driven to poverty and despair; yet, after a personal appeal to Stalin, he was allowed to continue working. | |||
| His play, '''The Days of the Turbines''', with its sympathetic treatment of an anti-Bolshevik family caught up in the Civil War, was finally staged, apparently also on Stalin's intervention, and began a decades-long uninterrupted run at the Moscow Arts Theater. | |||
| Bulgakov was relatively fortunate - in the vast majority of cases, appeals had little effect and the slightest displeasure caused to others or guilt by any association was tantamount to a harsh sentence, if not death. | |||
| Some insights into Stalin's political and ] thinking might perhaps be gleaned by reading his favorite novel, '']'', by the Polish ] ], a historical novel on mechanisms of political power. | |||
| Similarities have been pointed out between this novel and ]'s film, '']'', produced under Stalin's tutelage. | |||
| In ], a ] (basically, updated ] on a very large scale, exemplified by the seven skyscrapers of Moscow) replaced the ] of the 1920s. | |||
| An amusing anecdote has it that the Moskva Hotel in Moscow was built with mismatched side wings because Stalin had mistakenly signed off on both of the two proposals submitted, and the architects had been too afraid to clarify the matter. (This was actually just a joke: the hotel had been built by two independent teams of architects that had different visions of how the hotel should look.) | |||
| Stalin's role in the fortunes of the ] is complex. Continuous persecution in the 1930s resulted in its near-extinction: by 1939, active parishes numbered in the low hundreds (down from 54,000 in 1917), many churches had been levelled, and tens of thousands of priests, monks and nuns were persecuted. During ], however, the Church was allowed a revival, as a patriotic organization: thousands of parishes were reactivated, until a further round of suppression in ]'s time. | |||
| The Russian Orthodox Church Synod's recognition of the Soviet government and of Stalin personally led to a schism with the ] that remains not fully healed to the present day. | |||
| Just days before Stalin's death, certain religious sects ]. | |||
| Stalin's rule had a largely disruptive effect on the numerous indigenous cultures that made up the Soviet Union. The politics of the ] and forced development of '''Cultures National by Form, Socialist by their substance''' was arguably beneficial to later generations of indigenous cultures in allowing them to integrate more easily into Russian society. | |||
| However, the unification of the cultures evident from the second half of the Stalin citation, was very harmful. The political repressions and purges had even more devastating repercussions on the indigenous cultures than on the urban ones, since the cultural elite of the indigenous culture was often not very numerous. | |||
| The traditional lives of many peoples in the Siberian, Central Asian and Caucasian provinces was upset and large populations were displaced and scattered in order to prevent nationalist uprisings. | |||
| Many religions popular in the ethnic regions of the Soviet Union including the Roman Catholic Church, ]s, Baptists, Islam, Buddhism, Judaism, etc. underwent the same or worse ordeals as the Orthodox churches in other parts: thousands of monks were persecuted, and hundreds of churches, synagogues, mosques, temples, sacred monuments, monasteries and so on were razed. | |||
| ===Purges and deportations=== | |||
| ====The purges==== | |||
| ''Main article: ]'' | |||
| {| border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="2" style="float; margin: 5px; width:30%; border: solid 1px #bbb;" align="right" | |||
| |] | |||
| |] | |||
| |] | |||
| |- | |||
| | colspan="3" align="left" style="background:#f0f0f0;" |<small>'''Left:''' ] January 1940 letter to Stalin, asking permission to execute 346 "]" who conducted "counter-revolutionary, right-Trotskyite plotting and spying activities."<br/>'''Middle:''' Stalin's handwriting: "за" (affirmative).<br/>'''Right:''' | |||
| The Politburo's decision is signed by Secretary Stalin.</small> | |||
| |} | |||
| Stalin, as head of the ], consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s that started with a ] of his political and ideological opponents (real or merely suspected), culminating not only in the extermination of the majority of the original ] ], and of over half of the largely pliant delegates of the 17th Party Congress in January 1934, but also of huge swathes of the population. | |||
| Measures ranged from imprisonment in ] ]s to execution after ]s or summary trial by ]s. | |||
| The Purges commenced after the assassination of Sergei M. Kirov. This led Stalin to begin his tightening of control over the country by dramatically increasing vigilance, arrests, Soviet propaganda, and accusations of other members of the Party. | |||
| Another possible reason that is alleged for the Great Purge was that a plan by nazi general ] and his SD to convince ] that the leadership of the Red Army were planning a coup in the Soviet Union was successful. | |||
| They used faked documents about the communication between top leaders of Red Army and Nazists, which were found by the secret services and sent to Stalin. However, there is evidence, that this was a double bluff by Stalin. John Toland, in his biography of ] alludes to the theory that evidence for a Red Army coup was planted for the SD to find, this was in turn fed back to Stalin and used as an excuse to initiate the purge. | |||
| Several trials known as the ] were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country. There were four key trials during this period: the Trial of the Sixteen (August 1936); Trial of the Seventeen (January 1937); the trial of ] generals, including Marshal ] (June 1937); and finally the ] (including ]) in March 1938. | |||
| Most notably in the case of the brilliant Tukhachevsky, Stalin murdered his best officers, to say nothing of the prominent political figures executed during the Purge Trials. The loss of men like Tukhachevsky cost the Soviet Union dearly in the German invasion of ], ], and its aftermath. | |||
| Trotsky's August 1940 assassination in ], where he had lived in exile since 1936, eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership. Only three members of the "]s" (Lenin's ]) now remained — Stalin himself, "the all-Union Chieftain" (всесоюзный староста) ], and ] ]. | |||
| The repression of so many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led ] to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from that of Lenin. In contrast, ] is among those who allege that Stalin drew inspiration from Lenin's regime with the presence of labour camps and the executions of political opponents that occurred during the Russian Civil War. | |||
| {| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2" style="float; margin: 5px; width:20%; border: solid 1px #bbb;" align="left" | |||
| | ] | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| |- | |||
| | colspan="1" align="left" style="background:#f0f0f0;" |<small>Nikolai Yezhov, the young man strolling with Stalin to his left, was shot in 1940. He was edited out from a photo by Soviet censors. Such retouching was a common occurrence during Stalin's reign.</small> | |||
| |} | |||
| No segment of society was left untouched during the purges. ] of the legal code, listing prohibited "anti-Soviet activities", was applied in the broadest manner. Initially, the execution lists for the ] were confirmed by the Politburo. | |||
| Over time the procedure was greatly simplified and delegated down the line of command. People would inform on others arbitrarily, to attempt to redeem themselves, or to gain small retributions. The flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand someone an "]", starting the cycle of public persecution and abuse, often proceeding to interrogation, torture and deportation, if not death. | |||
| ], the widow of the poet ] and one of the key memoirists of the Purges, recalls being shouted at by Akhmatova, also a famous Russian poet: "Don't you understand? They are arresting people for ''nothing'' now?" The Russian word <!-- WARNING: intentionally ambiguous link -->] gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a ]. | |||
| Towards the end of the purge, the Politburo relieved NKVD head ], from his position for overzealousness. He was subsequently executed. Some historians such as Amy Knight and Robert Conquest postulate that Stalin had Yezhov and his predecessor, ], removed in order to deflect blame from himself. | |||
| In parallel with the purges, efforts were done to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people killed by ] were removed from the texts and photographs as if they never existed. Gradually, the history of revolution was transformed to a story about just two key characters: ] and ]. | |||
| ====Deportations==== | |||
| ''Main article: ]'' | |||
| <!-- Please add factual material to the main article, and keep only summary here. --> | |||
| Shortly before, during and immediately after ], Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. | |||
| Over 1.5 million people were deported to ] and the Central Asian republics. Separatism, resistance to Soviet rule and collaboration with the invading Germans were cited as the official reasons for the deportations. | |||
| The following ethnic groups were deported completely or partially: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]s, ], ], ], ], ], ]ns, ]ns, ]ns, ] people. Large numbers of ], regardless of their nationality, were resettled to ] and ]. | |||
| In February 1956, ] condemned the deportations as a violation of ] principles, and reversed most of them, although it was not until as late as 1991 that the Tatars, ]s and Volga Germans were allowed to return ''en masse'' to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the peoples of the Soviet Union. The memory of the deportations played a major part in the separatist movements in the Baltic States, ] and ], even today. | |||
| ====Death toll==== | |||
| It is generally agreed by conventional historians that if war, famines, prison and ] mortality, and ] (deportations and political purges) are taken into account, the number of deaths that occurred under Stalin is in the millions. | |||
| '''How many''' millions died under Stalin is greatly disputed. The 1926 census shows the population of the Soviet Union at 147 million and in 1937 another census found a population of between 162 and 163 million. This was 14 million less than the projected population value and was suppressed as a "]'s census" with the census takers severely punished. | |||
| A census was taken again in 1939, but its published figure of 170 million has been generally attributed directly to the decision of Stalin{{ref|Cunningham}} (see also ]). Even still, the 1939 census displayed a 3.2 million to 5.5 million excess deaths which leaves the reports of a 1937 census subject to skepticism. | |||
| Note that the figure of 14 million does not have to imply 14 million additional deaths, since as many as 3 million may be births that never took place due to reduced fertility and choice. Note also that these figures ignore the death toll from the early and late years of Stalin's regime. | |||
| Since "the margin of error" with regard to the number of Stalin's victims is virtually impossible to narrow down to a universally accepted figure, various historians have come up with extremely varying (]) estimates of the number of victims, from under 10 million to over 50 million deaths. | |||
| ==World War II== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| After declining Franco-British missions to Moscow in hopes that the USSR would enter a treaty of Polish defense with them, Stalin began to negotiate a non-aggression pact with Hitler's Germany. In his ] on ], ], Stalin prepared his comrades for the great turn in Soviet policy, the ] with ]. | |||
| Officially a non-aggression treaty only, it had a 'secret' annex according to which ] was divided into the two powers' respective spheres of influence. The exact motivations behind this pact are disputed, but it appears that neither side expected it to last very long. | |||
| On ], ], the German invasion of ] started ]. According to the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , Eastern Poland where the majority of inhabitants were Ukrainian and Belarussian, was in the Soviet ]. | |||
| Hence, Stalin decided to intervene and on ] the ] entered eastern Poland. Subsequently, western Ukraine and Belarus were unified with the Ukraine and Belarus SSRs. | |||
| According to the secret annex of the pact, the USSR was promised an eastern part of ], primarily populated with Ukrainians and Belorussians in case of its desolution, as long as ], ], ] and ] were recognized as parts of Soviet sphere of influence. | |||
| In November, 1939, Stalin sent troops over the Finnish border provoking war. The ] between the Soviet Union and Finland proved to be more difficult than Stalin and the Red Army was prepared for, and the Soviets sustained high casualties. The Soviets prevailed in March, 1940, but their underdeveloped army had been revealed to the rest of the world, including Germany. | |||
| On ], 1940, Stalin signed an order of execution of more than 25,700 Polish "nationalist, educators and counterrevolutionary" activists in the parts of the Ukraine and Belarus republics that had been annexed from Poland. This event has become known as the ]; over 20,000 were Polish officers. | |||
| In June 1941, ] broke the pact and invaded the ] in ]. Although expecting war with Germany, Stalin may not have expected an invasion to come so soon — and the Soviet Union was largely still unprepared for this invasion. | |||
| Until the last moment, Stalin had sought to avoid any obvious defensive preparation which might provoke German attack, in the hope of buying time to modernize and strengthen his military forces. Even after the attack commenced, Stalin appeared unwilling to accept the fact and, according to some historians, was too stunned to react appropriately for a number of days. | |||
| A controversial theory put forward by ] asserts that Stalin had been preparing an invasion of Germany while neglecting preparations for defensive warfare, which left Soviet forces vulnerable despite their heavy concentration near the border. | |||
| In the diary of ] ], it is also mentioned that the ] fully expected a Soviet attack against German forces in Poland no later than 1942. Such speculations are difficult to substantiate, however, as information on the Soviet Army from 1939 to 1941 remains classified, but it is known that the Soviets had advanced and detailed warnings of the German invasion through their extensive foreign intelligence agents, such as ]. | |||
| The Nazis initially made huge advances, capturing and killing millions of Soviet troops. Hitler's experts had expected eight weeks of war, and early indications evidenced their prescience. | |||
| In response on ], ], Stalin addressed the Soviet Union for only the second time during his three-decade rule (the first time was earlier that year on ]). | |||
| He claimed that although 350,000 troops had been killed by German attacks, the Germans had lost 4.5 million soldiers (an inflated figure) and that Soviet victory was near. The Soviet Red Army did put up fierce resistance, but during the war's early stages was largely ineffective against the better-equipped and trained German forces, until the invaders were halted and then driven back in December 1941 in front of ]. Stalin then worked with independent-minded Soviet Marshal ] to orchestrate the decisive German defeat at the ]. | |||
| ] ], ] ] and Stalin at the ].]] | |||
| Stalin met in several ] with Churchill and/or Roosevelt in Moscow, ], ], and ] to plan ] (Truman taking the place of the deceased Roosevelt).<BR> | |||
| In these conferences, his first appearances on the world stage, Stalin proved to be a formidable negotiator. ], the British Foreign Secretary noted:<BR> | |||
| "Marshal Stalin as a negotiator was the toughest proposition of all. Indeed, after something like thirty years' experience of international conferences of one kind and another, if I had to pick a team for going into a conference room, Stalin would be my first choice. Of course the man was ruthless and of course he knew his purpose. He never wasted a word. He never stormed, he was seldom even irritated." {{ref|Eden}} | |||
| His shortcomings as strategist are frequently noted regarding massive Soviet loss of life and early Soviet defeats. (In his autobiography Khrushchev claimed that Stalin tried to conduct tactical decisions using a world globe.) | |||
| Yet Stalin did rapidly move Soviet industrial production east of the ] river, far from ]-reach, to sustain the ]'s war machine with astonishing success. Additionally, Stalin was well aware that other European armies had utterly disintegrated when faced with Nazi military efficacy and responded effectively by subjecting his army to galvanizing terror and unrevolutionary, nationalist appeals to patriotism. | |||
| According to Stalin's ] of ], ], any commander or comissar of regiment, batallion or army, who allowed retreatment without permission from above was subject to military tribunal. | |||
| Other act by ] stated that the families of those who surrendered were subject to administrative penalty. The surrendered Soviet soldiers were declared traitors, however most of those who survived the brutality of German captivity were mobilized again as they were freed. Between 5% and 10% of them were sent to ]s. | |||
| ]'', ], ]. ''Time'' had previously named Stalin ] for the year 1939.]] | |||
| In the war's opening stages, the retreating Red Army also sought to deny resources to the enemy through a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them. | |||
| Unfortunately, this, along with abuse by German troops, caused inconceivable starvation and suffering among the civilian population that were left behind. | |||
| The Soviet Union bore the brunt of civilian and military losses in World War II. At least 8,668,400 ] personnel and 20 million civilians died. The Nazis considered Slavs to be "sub-human", and many people believe the Nazis killed Slavs as an ethnically targeted ]. | |||
| This concept of Slavic inferiority was also the reason why Hitler did not accept into his army many Soviet citizens who wanted to fight the regime until 1944, when the war was lost for Germany. | |||
| In the Soviet Union, World War II left a huge deficit of men of the wartime fighting-age generation. To this day the war is remembered very vividly in Russia, ], and other parts of the former Soviet Union as the ], and ], '''Victory Day''', is one of Russia's biggest national holidays. | |||
| After the war millions of German and other ] died in the Gulags. Returning Soviet soldiers who had surrendered were viewed with suspicion and many were killed (see]). | |||
| ==Post-war era== | |||
| ] on the tribune of ]]] | |||
| Domestically, Stalin was presented as a great wartime leader who had led the Soviets to victory against the Nazis. By the end of the 1940s, Russian nationalism increased. For instance, some inventions and scientific discoveries were reclaimed by ethnic Russian researchers. | |||
| Examples include the ], reclaimed by father and son ]s; the ], by ] and ]; the ], by ]; and the airplane, by ]. Stalin's internal repressive policies continued (including in newly acquired territories), but never reached the extremes of the 1930s. | |||
| Internationally, Stalin viewed Soviet consolidation of power as a necessary step to protect the USSR by surrounding it with countries with friendly governments, to act as a ''cordon sanitaire'' (buffer) against possible invaders (while the West sought a similar buffer against communism). | |||
| He had hoped that American withdrawal and ] would lead to increased communist influence, especially in Europe. Each side might view the other's defensive actions as destabilizing provocations and these ]s frayed relations between the Soviet Union and its former World War II western allies and led to a prolonged period of tension and distrust between East and West known as the ]. (See also ].) | |||
| The ] ended ] occupying much of the territory that had been formerly held by the Axis countries: | |||
| In ], the Red Army had overrun ] in the last month of the war and then also occupied ] above the ], with either the West's invitation or agreement. ]'s ], though receptive to minimal Soviet support, defeated the pro-Western and heavily American-assisted ] in the ]. | |||
| The Communists controlled mainland China while the Nationalists held a ] on the island of ] (a.k.a. ]). The Soviet Union soon after recognized Mao's communist ], which it regarded as a new ally. | |||
| Diplomatic relations reached a high point with the signing of the 1950 ]. Both communist states provided military support to a new communist state in ], which invaded U.S.-allied ] in 1950 to start the ]. | |||
| ] after the ]'s 1949 victory over the ] in the ]]]. | |||
| In ], there were ]s in Germany and Austria. Hungary and Poland were under practical military occupation. From 1946-1948 communist governments were imposed in ], ], ], ] and ] and home-grown communist dictatorships rose to power in ] and ]. | |||
| These nations became known as the "Communist Bloc". Britain and the United States supported the anti-communists in the ] and suspected the Soviets of supporting the Greek communists although Stalin ended his support while Yugolsavia's ] (]) continued his support of the Greek communists. ] remained an ally of the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia broke with the USSR in 1948. ], ] and ] were under the strong influence of local communist parties, which were at the very least friendly towards Moscow. | |||
| Both ]s viewed ] as key. In retaliation to the Western formation of ], the Soviets blockaded ], which was under British, French, and U.S. occupation, to force these powers into surrendering their occupation zones in the city. | |||
| However, the ] failed due to the massive aerial resupply campaign carried out by the Western powers known as the ]. In 1949, Stalin conceded defeat and ended the blockade. After ] was formed by the union of the three Western occupation zones, the Soviets declared ] a separate country in 1949, ruled by the communists. | |||
| In Stalin's last year of life, one of his last major foreign policy initiatives was the ] ] for ] and ] from ], but Britain, France, and the United States controversially rejected the offer. | |||
| ==Stalin as theorist== | |||
| Stalin made few contributions to Communist (or, more specifically, Marxist-Leninist) theory, but the contributions he did make were accepted and upheld by all Soviet political scientists during his rule. | |||
| Among Stalin's contributions were his "Marxism and the National Question", a work praised by Lenin; his "Trotskyism or Leninism", which was a factor in the "liquidation of Trotskyism as an ideological trend" within the CPSU(B). | |||
| Stalin's Collected Works (in 13 volumes) were released in 1949. A subsequent 16 volume American Edition appeared, in which one volume consisted of the book "History of the CPSU(B) Short Course", although when released in 1938 this book was credited to a commission of the Central Committee. | |||
| In 1936, Stalin announced that the society of the Soviet Union consisted of two non-antagonistic classes: workers and ] peasantry. These corresponded to the two different forms of property over the ] that existed in the Soviet Union: state property (for the workers) and collective property (for the peasantry). In addition to these, Stalin distinguished the stratum of ]. The concept of '''non-antagonistic classes''' was entirely new to Leninist theory. | |||
| Stalin and his supporters, in his own time and since, have highlighted the notion that socialism can be built and consolidated in just one country, even one as underdeveloped as Russia was during the 1920s, and indeed that this might be the only means in which it could be built in a hostile environment. {{ref|Stalin-Voprosy}} | |||
| ==Death== | |||
| ] | |||
| On ], ], after an all-night dinner with interior minister ] and future premiers ], ] and ], Stalin collapsed in his room, having probably suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body. | |||
| Although his guards thought it odd that he did not rise at his usual time the next day they were under orders not to disturb him and he was not discovered until that evening. He died four days later, on ], ], at the age of 74, and was buried on ]. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a ]. His body was preserved in ] until ], ]. | |||
| As part of the process of ], his body was removed from the Mausoleum and buried next to the Kremlin walls. | |||
| It has been suggested that Stalin was assassinated. The ex-Communist exile Avtorkhanov argued this point as early as 1975. The political memoirs of ], published in 1993, claimed strong evidence that Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin: "I took him out." | |||
| ] recorded in his memoirs that Beria had, immediately after the stroke, gone about "spewing hatred against him and mocking him", and then, when Stalin showed signs of consciousness, dropped to his knees and kissed his hand. When Stalin fell unconscious again, Beria immediately stood and spat. | |||
| In 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested ], a powerful rat poison that inhibits coagulation of the blood and so predisposes to hemorrhagic stroke (cerebral hemorrhage). Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible weapon of murder. The facts of Stalin's death, however, will probably never be known with certainty. | |||
| His demise arrived at a convenient time for Beria and others, who feared to be swept away in still another purge. It is believed that Stalin felt Beria's power was too great and threatened his own. Whether or not Beria or another usurper was directly responsible for his death, it is true that the ] did not summon medical attention for him for more than a day after he was found. | |||
| ==Cult of personality== | |||
| ] by ], 1949.]] | |||
| Stalin allowed a cult of personality to be created in the Soviet Union around both himself and Lenin. The ]ing of the Soviet founder in ] was performed over the objection of Lenin's widow, ]. Stalin became the focus of massive adoration and even worship. | |||
| Numerous towns, villages and cities were renamed after the Soviet leader (see ]) and the ] and ] were named in his honor. He accepted grandiloquent titles (e.g. "Coryphaeus of Science", "Father of Nations", "Brilliant Genius of Humanity", "Great Architect of Communism", "Gardener of Human Happiness", et al), and helped rewrite Soviet history to provide himself a more significant role in the revolution, meanwhile (according to ]), insisting that he be remembered for "the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly great people." | |||
| ] criticized the cult of personality built around Stalin as being against the values of socialism and Bolshevism by exalting the individual above the party and class and making criticism of Stalin unacceptable. The personality cult reached new levels during the ] with Stalin's name even being included in the new Soviet ]. | |||
| Stalin became the focus of a body of literature including poetry as well as music, paintings and film. Artists and writers vied with each other in egregious sycophancy, crediting Stalin with almost god-like qualities, and suggesting he single-handledly won the Second World War. | |||
| ] | |||
| It is debatable as to how much Stalin relished the cult surrounding him. The Finnish communist ] records a sarcastic toast proposed by Stalin at a New Year Party in 1935: | |||
| "Comrades! I want to propose a toast to our patriarch, life and sun, liberator of nations, architect of socialism (he rattled off all the appellations applied to him in those days), Josef Vissarionovich Stalin, and I hope this is the first and last speech made to that genius this evening."<BR> | |||
| (A. Tuominen: '''The Bells of the Kremlin'''; p. 162). | |||
| <!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: ] --> | |||
| In recent years, Stalin's cult has resurged. Millions of Russians, exasperated with the downfall of the economy and instability after the breakup of the Soviet Union, want Stalin back. A recent poll revealed that over thirty-five percent of Russians would vote for Stalin if he were still alive. (see]). | |||
| ==Policies and accomplishments== | |||
| ] in Lithuanian forests stores removed monuments, silently remembering about the past]] | |||
| Supporters argue that under Stalin's rule the Soviet Union was transformed from an agricultural nation to a global superpower. The USSR's industrialisation was successful in that the country was able to defend against and eventually defeat the Axis invasion in ], though at an enormous cost of human lives. | |||
| However, historian ] and other Westerners claim that the USSR was bound for industrialisation which was not necessarily enhanced by Bolshevik influence. It has also been argued that Stalin was partially responsible for the initial military disasters and enormous human causalities during WWII, because Stalin eliminated many of the military officers during the purges, especially the most senior ones, and rejected the massive information warning of the German attack (see]). | |||
| While Stalin's social and economic policies laid the foundations for the USSR's emergence as a superpower, the harshness with which he conducted Soviet affairs was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, notably the denunciation of Stalinism by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956. In his "Secret Speech", '']'', delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality and his regime for "violation of Leninist norms of legality". | |||
| However, his immediate successors continued to follow the basic principles of Stalin's rule - the political monopoly of the Communist Party presiding over a command economy and a security service able to suppress dissent. The large-scale purges were never repeated, but the political repression continued. | |||
| ==Other names== | |||
| His first name is also ] as '''Josif'''. His original surname, ჯუღაშვილი ('''Jughashvili'''), is also transliterated as ''Jugashvili''. The ] transliteration is Джугашвили, which is in turn transliterated into English as '''Dzhugashvili''' and '''Djugashvili'''; – შვილი – '''shvili''' is a Georgian suffix meaning "child" or "son". | |||
| There are several etymologies of the ჯუღა (''jugha'') root. In one version, it is the ]n for "rubbish"; the name '''Jugayev''' is common among Ossetians, and before the revolution the names in ] were traditionally written with the Georgian suffix, especially among Christianized Ossetians. In a second version, the name derives from the village of Jugaani in ], eastern Georgia. | |||
| An article in the newspaper '']'' in 1988 claimed that the word derives from the Old Georgian for "steel" which might be the reason for his adoption of the name '''Stalin'''. Сталин ('''Stalin''') is derived from combining the Russian сталь ('''stal'''), "]", with the possessive suffix –ин (''–in''), a formula used by many other Bolsheviks, including ] and ]. | |||
| It has been said that, originally, "Stalin " was a conspiratorial ] which stuck with him. | |||
| Also like other Bolsheviks, he became commonly known by one of his revolutionary ], of which ''Stalin'' was only the most prominent. He was also known as '']'' (after a ] folk ], a ]-like brigand); and he is reported to have used at least a ] other names for the purpose of ] ]s, but for obvious reasons most of them remain unknown. | |||
| Directly following World War II, as the Soviets were negotiating with the Allies over many matters, Stalin often sent directions to Molotov as '''Druzhkov'''. Among his other nicknames and aliases were '''Ivanovich''', '''Soso''' or '''Sosso''' (mainly his boyhood name), '''David''', '''Nizharadze''' or '''Nijeradze''', and '''Chizhikov'''. | |||
| <!-- Provide sources supporting this theory then uncomment | |||
| There are a number of rumors about Stalin's ancestry, none of which are confirmed. One of the rumors is that he was the son of his godfather, a wealthy Georgian noble Egnatashvili, whose family were hereditary clerics. Several facts support this case: Stalin's mother worked for Egnatashvili; he attended seminary; it was a prestigious seminary, which was not possible for a child from a poor family; and he kept in contact with Egnatashvili throughout his life, including the war period. On the other hand, it would not have been unusual for a godfather to help his godson out. | |||
| --> | |||
| In addition, Stalin was nicknamed ''Uncle Joe'' by the Western media. When told of this nickname by ], he almost walked out of the '']''. | |||
| ==Stalin in arts== | |||
| * ]: '''Symphony No. 2: The Death of Stalin''' tells of the astonishing events surrounding the death and funeral of ] leader ]. The piece was commissioned by Nottingham Youth Orchestra and was premiered by them, conducted by Derek Williams, at the Royal Concert Hall, Nottingham, in March 2003 - the 50th anniversary of his death. | |||
| * ] movie.] | |||
| * | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| <div style="font-size: 80%"> | |||
| # {{note|Register}} Although there is much inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's year and date of birth, Joseph Dzhugashvili is listed in the records of the Uspensky church in ], ] as born on ] (]: ]) ]. This birth date is maintained in his School Leaving Certificate, his extensive tzarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from ], ] which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-revolution documents. Stalin himself listed ], ] in a ''curriculum vitae'' as late as 1920, in his own handwriting. However after his coming to power in 1922 the date was changed to ], ] (], ]), and that was the day his birthday was celebrated in the ]. Russian playwriter and historian Edward Radzinski argues in his book '''Stalin''', that he changed the year to 1879, to have a nation-wide birthday celeberation of his 50th birthday. He could not do it in 1928 because his rule was not absolute enough (see ]). | |||
| #{{note|histWorld}} From ] | |||
| # {{note|Khrushchev}} Excerpts from ]'s speech '']'' can be read online ('''Internet Modern History Sourcebook''') at ].<br/> | |||
| # {{note|Koba}} page 133, ''Koba the Dread'', ISBN 0786868767; page 354, '''Stalin: The Man and His Era''' (ISBN 0807070017), in a footnote he quotes the press announcement as speaking of her "sudden death"; he also cites pages 103 – 105 of his daughter's book, '''Twenty Letters to a Friend''', the Russian edition, New York, 1967 | |||
| # {{note|RobertConquest}} ], '''The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine Chapter 16: "The Death Roll''' (]), University of Alberta Press, 1986. | |||
| # {{note|Eden}} ] - '''Memoirs: The Reckoning''' (1965) | |||
| # {{note|StalinLinguistics}} ] Concerning Marxism in Linguistics, J.V. Stalin, '']'', (], ]), available online as (]) '''Marxism and Problems of Linguistics''' including other articles and letters published (also in Pravda) soon after ], ] and ], ]. | |||
| # {{note|Cunningham}} (]) '''Revisionists vs. Anti Soviets''', Hugo S. Cunningham, 1999 & 2001, retrieved ], ] from ]. | |||
| # {{note|Stalin-Voprosy}} Stalin, "Voprosy leninizma", 2nd ed., Moscow, p. 589 "Istoricheskij materializm", ed. by F. B. Konstantinov, Moscow 1951, p. 402; P. Calvert, "The Concept of Class", New York 1982, pp. 144 – 145. | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| <div style="font-size: 80%"> | |||
| * 3. James Mace, '''The Man-Made Famine of 1933 in Soviet Ukraine''' in '''Famine in Ukraine 1932-1933''', pp. 1-14, Edmonton, Alberta, 1986. | |||
| *Alan Bullock, '''Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives''', HarperCollins, 1991 (ISBN 0679729941). | |||
| *], '''The Great Terror: A Reassessment''', Oxford University Press, 1991 (ISBN 0195071328). | |||
| *], '''The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine''', Oxford University Press, 1987 (ISBN 0195051807). | |||
| *], '''Stalin: A Political Biography''', Oxford University Press, 1966 (ISBN 0195002733). | |||
| *Walter Laqueur, '''Stalin''', Ediciones B, 2003 (ISBN 8466613161). | |||
| *Roy A. and Zhores A. Medvedev, (]) '''The Unknown Stalin''', ], 2003 (ISBN 1860647685). | |||
| *Donald Rayfield, '''Stalin and His Hangmen : The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him''', Random House, 2004 (ISBN 0375506322). | |||
| *Simon Sebag Montefiore, '''Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar''', Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1400042305). | |||
| *], '''Stalin: A Biography''', Belknap Press, 2005 (ISBN 0674016971). | |||
| *], '''Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879 – 1929''', Norton, 1973 (ISBN 039305487X). | |||
| *], '''Stalin in Power - The Revolution from Above - 1928 – 1941''', Norton, 1990 (ISBN 039302881X). | |||
| *Adam B. Ulam, '''Stalin: The Man and His Era''', Beacon Press, 1987 (ISBN 080707005X). | |||
| * ]) Chapter 1 of '''Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives''' by Edvard Radzinsky | |||
| *R.J. Rummel, '''Death By Government''' | |||
| *Joseph Wilikins, ''The Red Dictator'', Bloomsbury, 2000 | |||
| (ISBN 0545245001). | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] (Stalin's second wife) | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] (], Stalin's daughter) | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{commons|Joseph Stalin}} | |||
| * | |||
| *] gives a detailed study of events behind Stalin's possible death by poisoning] | |||
| * by ], ] website | |||
| * PLP website | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * "Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform, Part One" and "Part Two" by Grover Furr. | |||
| * '''Stalinka: The Digital Library of Staliniana'''. | |||
| * A site showing the worst 10 regimes of the 20th Century. | |||
| *{{ru icon}} '''Demographic catastrophes of the 20th century''', a chapter from '''Demographic Modernization in Russia 1900-2000''', ed. A. G. Vishnevsky, 2006 (ISBN 5-98379-042-0) - estimations of the human cost of the Stalin's rule. | |||
| {{start box}} | |||
| {{succession box | before = Post Created<br>''previous party leader ] | title = ] | years = 1922 – 1953 | after = ]}} | |||
| {{succession box | before= ] | after = ] | title = ] | |||
| |years = 1941 – 1953}} | |||
| {{end box}} | |||
| {{Persondata | |||
| |NAME=Stalin, Jossif Wissarionowitsch | |||
| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Josef Stalin, Иосиф Сталин (]), Jossif Wissarionowitsch Dschugaschwili, იოსებ ჯუღაშვილი (] birthname) | |||
| |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Dictator of the ] (1927-1953) | |||
| |DATE OF BIRTH=], ] | |||
| |PLACE OF BIRTH=], ] | |||
| |DATE OF DEATH=] ] | |||
| |PLACE OF DEATH=], ] | |||
| }} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Link FA|he}} | |||
| {{Link FA|no}} | |||
| {{Link FA|ro}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 20:22, 27 March 2006
| File:Stalin1.jpg | |
| Office | General Secretary / Soviet Premier |
| Term of office: | 1924-1953 |
| Predecessor: | Vyacheslav Molotov as premier, none as General Secretary |
| Successor: | Georgy Malenkov as premier, Nikita Khruschev as General Secretary |
| Date of birth: | 18 December, 1878 |
| Place of birth: | Gori, Georgia |
| Date of death: | 5 March, 1953 |
| Place of death: | Moscow, USSR |
| Political party: | Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
Joseph Stalin is the form usually used in English for the Russian name of Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin (Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин), born with the Georgian name Ioseb Jugashvili (Georgian: ოისებ ჯუღაშილი, Russian: Иосиф Джугашвили); (18 December [O.S. 6 December] 1878 – 5 March, 1953).
He was a cool guy