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| NOBODY EXPECTS THE SPANISH INQUISITION!!! | |||
| {{Redirect|The Holy Office|the 1974 Mexican film|The Holy Office (film)}} | |||
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| {{Infobox Legislature Historic | |||
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| | name =Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Spain | |||
| | native_name = Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición | |||
| | transcription_name = Spanish Inquisition | |||
| | image =Seal for the Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition (Spain).png | |||
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| | caption =Seal for the Tribunal in Spain. | |||
| | type = ] under the election of the ], for upholding religious orthodoxy in their realm | |||
| | houses = | |||
| | entity_type = | |||
| | entity = | |||
| | year = 27 September 1480 | |||
| | before = | |||
| | after = | |||
| | year2 = 15 July 1834 | |||
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| | members =Consisted of a ], who headed the ''Council of the Supreme and General Inquisition'', made up of six members. Under it were up to twenty one tribunals in the empire | |||
| | committees = | |||
| | house1 = | |||
| | house2 = | |||
| | house3 = | |||
| | voting_system1 = Grand Inquisitor and Suprema designated by the crown | |||
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| | last_election1 = | |||
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| | location = ] | |||
| | see_also = ] | |||
| | website = | |||
| | notes = | |||
| }} | |||
| The '''Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition''' ({{lang-es|Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición|links=no}}), commonly known as the '''Spanish Inquisition''' (''Inquisición española''), was a ] established in 1480 by ] ] and ]. It was intended to maintain ] orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the ] which was under Papal control. The Inquisition was originally intended in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of those who converted from Judaism and Islam. This regulation of the faith of the newly converted was intensified after the royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1501 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert or leave. | |||
| Various motives have been proposed for the monarchs' decision to fund the Inquisition such as increasing political authority, weakening opposition, suppressing '']'', profiting from confiscation of the property of convicted heretics, reducing social tensions and protecting the kingdom from the danger of a ]. | |||
| The body was under the direct control of the ]. It was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of ], though it had ceased effective operation sometime earlier after a long decline. | |||
| {{TOC limit|limit=3}} | |||
| ==Previous Inquisitions== | |||
| The ] was created through ], '']'', issued at the end of the 12th century by ] as a way to combat the ] in southern France. There were a huge number of ]s of the ] in various European kingdoms during the Middle Ages. In the ], a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of ''Excommunicamus'' of Pope ], in 1232, during the era of the ] heresy. Its principal representative was ]. With time, its importance was diluted, and, by the middle of the 15th century, it was almost forgotten although still there according to the law. | |||
| There was never a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition in ]. Members of the ] were charged with surveillance of the faithful and punishment of transgressors. During the Middle Ages, in Castile, little attention was paid to heresy by the Catholic ruling class. Jews and Muslims were tolerated and generally allowed to follow their traditional laws and customs in domestic matters. However, by law, they were considered inferior to Catholics and were subject to discriminatory legislation. | |||
| The Spanish Inquisition can be seen as an answer to the multi-religious nature of Spanish society following the ] of the ] from the Muslim ]. For almost 600 years, much of the Iberian Peninsula was dominated by the Moors following their invasion of the peninsula in 711 until the early 13th century. Following the Christian victory at the Battle of ] (1212), and the fall of Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248), Christian rule was re-established for most of the peninsula. Only the small region of Granada remained under Muslim rule which also ended with a final Christian victory in 1492. However, the ] did not result in the total expulsion of Muslims from Spain, since they, along with Jews, were tolerated by the ruling Catholic elite. Large cities, especially ], ] and ], had significant Jewish populations centered in ], but in the coming years the Muslims were increasingly subjugated by alienation and torture. The Jews on the other had who thrived under Muslim rule now suffered similar maltreatment. | |||
| Post-reconquest medieval Spain has been characterized by ] and some other Iberianists as a society of "convivencia", that is relatively peaceful co-existence, albeit punctuated by occasional conflict among the ruling Catholics and the Jews and Muslims. However, as Henry Kamen notes, "so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals."<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'', p. 4.</ref> Despite their legal inequality, there was a long tradition of Jewish service to the crown of Aragon and Jews occupied many important posts, both religious and political. Castile itself had an unofficial ]. Ferdinand's father ] named the Jewish ] to be Court ]. | |||
| Nevertheless, in some parts of Spain towards the end of the 14th century, there was a wave of violent ], encouraged by the preaching of ], ] of ]. The ]s of June 1391 were especially bloody: in Seville, hundreds of Jews were killed, and the ] was completely destroyed. The number of people killed was also high in other cities, such as ], ] and Barcelona.<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'', p. 17. Kamen cites approximate numbers for Valencia (250) and Barcelona (400), but no solid data about Córdoba.</ref> | |||
| One of the consequences of these programs was the mass conversion of Jews. Forced baptism was contrary to the law of the Catholic Church, and theoretically anybody who had been forcibly baptized could legally return to Judaism; this however was very narrowly interpreted. Legal definitions of the time theoretically acknowledged that a forced baptism was not a valid sacrament, but confined this to cases where it was literally administered by physical force: a person who had consented to baptism under threat of death or serious injury was still regarded as a voluntary convert, and accordingly forbidden to revert to Judaism.<ref>], ''Summa'', lib. 1 p.33, citing D.45 c.5.</ref> After the public violence, many of the converted "felt it safer to remain in their new religion."<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'', p. 10.</ref> Thus after 1391 a new social group appeared and were referred to as '']'' or ''New Christians''. Many ''conversos'', now freed from the antisemitic restrictions imposed on Jewish employment, attained important positions in 15th century Spain, including positions in the government and in the Church. Among many others, physicians ] and Francisco Lopez Villalobos (Ferdinand's court physician), writers ], ], ] and ], and bankers ] and Gabriel Sanchez (who financed the voyage of ]) were all ''conversos''. ''Conversos'' - not without opposition - managed to attain high positions in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, at times becoming severe detractors of Judaism.<ref>Notably Bishop ], author of ''Scrutinium Scripturarum'', ] (''Hebraomastix'') and ] (''Zelus Christi contra Judaeos''). All three were ''conversos''. (Kamen, op. cit., p. 39).</ref> Some even received titles of nobility, and as a result, during the following century some works attempted to demonstrate that virtually all of the nobles of Spain were descended from Israelites.<ref>Notably the ''Libro verde de Aragon'' and ''Tizón de la nobleza de España'' (cited in Kamen, op. cit. p. 38.</ref> | |||
| ==Activity of the Inquisition== | |||
| ===The start of the Inquisition=== | |||
| ], a ] friar from Seville, convinced Queen Isabel of the existence of ] among Andalusian ''conversos'' during her stay in Seville between 1477 and 1478.<ref>The terms ''converso'' and crypto-Jew are somewhat vexed, and occasionally historians are not clear on how, precisely, they are intended to be understood. For the purpose of clarity, in this article ''converso'' will be taken to mean one who has sincerely renounced Judaism or Islam and embraced Catholicism. Crypto-Jew will be taken to mean one who accepts Christian baptism, yet continues to practice Judaism.</ref> A report, produced by ], Archbishop of Seville, and by the Segovian Dominican ], corroborated this assertion. | |||
| The monarchs decided to introduce the Inquisition to Castile to discover and punish crypto-Jews, and requested the Pope's assent. Ferdinand II of Aragon pressured Pope Sixtus IV to agree to an Inquisition controlled by the monarchy by threatening to withdraw military support at a time when the Turks were a threat to Rome. The Pope issued a bull to stop the Inquisition but was pressured into withdrawing it. On November 1, 1478, Pope ] published the Papal bull, ''Exigit Sinceras Devotionis Affectus'', through which he gave the monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors in their kingdoms. The first two inquisitors, ] and ] were not named, however, until two years later, on September 27, 1480 in ]. | |||
| The first '']'' was held in Seville on February 6, 1481: six people were burned alive. From there, the Inquisition grew rapidly in the Kingdom of Castile. By 1492, tribunals existed in eight Castilian cities: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| Sixtus IV promulgated a new bull categorically prohibiting the Inquisition's extension to Aragon, affirming that, | |||
| <blockquote>''many true and faithful Christians, because of the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other low people—and still less appropriate—without tests of any kind, have been locked up in secular prisons, tortured and condemned like relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and properties, and given over to the secular arm to be executed, at great danger to their souls, giving a pernicious example and causing scandal to many''.<ref>Cited in Kamen, op. cit., p. 49.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| In 1483, Jews were expelled from all of Andalusia. Ferdinand pressured the Pope<ref>Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition'' op. cit., pp. 49-50.</ref> to promulgate a new bull. He did so on October 17, 1483, naming Tomás de Torquemada Inquisidor General of Aragón, Valencia and Catalonia. Torquemada quickly established procedures for the Inquisition. A new court would be announced with a thirty day grace period for confessions and the gathering of accusations by neighbors. Evidence that was used to identify a crypto-Jew included the absence of chimney smoke on Saturdays (a sign the family might secretly be honoring the Sabbath) or the buying of many vegetables before Passover or the purchase of meat from a converted butcher. The court employed physical torture to extract confessions. Crypto-Jews were allowed to confess and do penance, although those who relapsed were burned at the stake.<ref>Ben-Sasson, H.H., editor. A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press, 1976, pp. 588-590.</ref> | |||
| In 1484 Pope ] attempted to allow appeals to Rome against the Inquisition, but Ferdinand in December 1484 and again in 1509 decreed death and confiscation for anyone trying to make use of such procedures without royal permission.<ref>Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition'' op. cit., p. 157.</ref> With this, the Inquisition became the only institution that held authority across all the realms of the Spanish monarchy, and, in all of them, a useful mechanism at the service of the crown. However, the cities of Aragón continued resisting, and even saw revolt, as in ] from 1484 to 1485. However, the murder of ''Inquisidor'' ] in ] on September 15, 1485, caused public opinion to turn against the ''conversos'' and in favour of the Inquisition. In Aragón, the Inquisitorial courts were focused specifically on members of the powerful ''converso'' minority, ending their influence in the Aragonese administration. | |||
| The Inquisition was extremely active between 1480 and 1530. Different sources give different estimates of the number of trials and executions in this period; Henry Kamen estimates about 2,000 executed, based on the documentation of the '']'', the great majority being ''conversos'' of Jewish origin. He offers striking statistics: 91.6% of those judged in Valencia between 1484 and 1530 and 99.3% of those judged in Barcelona between 1484 and 1505 were of Jewish origin.<ref>Kamen, op. cit., p. 60.</ref> "In 1498 the pope was still trying to...gain acceptance for his own attitude towards the New Christians, which was generally more moderate than that of the Inquisition and the local rulers."<ref>Ben-Sasson, H.H., editor. 1976. p. 588.</ref> | |||
| ===Expulsion of Jews and repression of ''conversos''=== | |||
| The Spanish Inquisition had been set up in part to prevent ''conversos'' from engaging in Jewish practices, which, as Christians, they were supposed to have given up. However this remedy for securing the orthodoxy of ''conversos''' religion was eventually deemed inadequate, since the main justification the monarchy gave for formally expelling all Jews from Spain was the "great harm suffered by Christians (i.e. conversos) from the contact, intercourse and communication which they have with the Jews, who always attempt in various ways to seduce faithful Christians from our Holy Catholic Faith".<ref>quoted in Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition,''p. 20.</ref> The ], which ordered the expulsion, was issued in January 1492. The number of Jews who left Spain is not even approximately known. Historians of the period give extremely high figures: ] speaks of 800,000 people, and ] of 300,000. Modern estimates are much lower: Henry Kamen estimates that, of a population of approximately 80,000 Jews, about one half or 40,000 chose emigration.<ref>Kamen, op. cit., pp. 29-31.</ref> The Jews of the kingdom of Castile emigrated mainly to Portugal (from where they were expelled in 1497) and to North Africa. However, according to Henry Kamen, the Jews of the kingdom of Aragon, went "to adjacent Christian lands, mainly to Italy", rather than to Muslim lands as is often assumed.<ref>Kamen, op. cit. p. 24.</ref> The ] or ] descendants of Spanish Jews gradually migrated throughout Europe and North Africa, where they established communities in many cities. They also went to ], the ] and North America (the American Southwest), Central and South America. | |||
| Tens of thousands of Jews were baptised in the three months before the deadline for expulsion, some 40,000 if one accepts the totals given by Kamen: most of these undoubtedly to avoid expulsion, rather than as a sincere change of faith. These ''conversos'' were the principal concern of the Inquisition; being suspected of continuing to practice Judaism put them at risk of denunciation and trial. | |||
| The most intense period of persecution of ''conversos'' lasted until 1530. From 1531 to 1560, however, the percentage of ''conversos'' among the Inquisition trials dropped to 3% of the total. There was a rebound of persecutions when a group of crypto-Jews was discovered in ] in 1588; and there was a rise in denunciations of ''conversos'' in the last decade of the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, some ''conversos'' who had fled to Portugal began to return to Spain, fleeing the persecution of the ], founded in 1532. This led to a rapid increase in the trials of crypto-Jews, among them a number of important financiers. In 1691, during a number of '']'' in ], 36 ''chuetas'', or ''conversos'' of Majorca, were burned. | |||
| During the 18th century the number of ''conversos'' accused by the Inquisition decreased significantly. ], tried in Córdoba in 1818, was the last person tried for being a crypto-Jew. | |||
| The generally accepted number ] by the Inquisition (including all categories such as Protestants, blasphemers, bigamists and crypto-Jews) is below 5,000 (]). | |||
| ===Repression of Moriscos=== | |||
| The Inquisition not only hunted for Protestants and false converts from Judaism, the '']s'' but also searched for false or relapsed converts among the ], forced converts from ]. The Moriscos were mostly concentrated in the recently conquered kingdom of ], in ], and in ]. Officially, all Muslims in the Crown of Castile had been forcibly converted to Christianity in 1502. Muslims in the Crown of Aragon were obliged to convert by ]'s decree of 1526, as most had been forcibly baptized during the ] (1519–1523) and these baptisms were declared to be valid. | |||
| Many Moriscos were suspected of practising Islam in secret, and the jealousy with which they guarded the privacy of their domestic life prevented the verification of this suspicion.<ref>S.P. Scott: History;Vol II, op cit; p. 259.</ref> Initially they were not severely persecuted by the Inquisition, but experienced a policy of evangelization without torture,{{Clarify|reason=How can one term being hauled in front of a blood-thirsty inquisition "peaceful"? The original sentence was garbled in any case.|date=September 2010}} a policy not followed with those ''conversos'' who were suspected of being crypto-Jews. There were various reasons for this. Most importantly, in the kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon a large number of the Moriscos were under the jurisdiction of the nobility, and persecution would have been viewed as a frontal assault on the economic interests of this powerful social class.<ref>Kamen,''Spanish Inquisition'' p. 222.</ref> Still, fears ran high among the population that the Moriscos were traitorous, especially in Granada. The coast was regularly raided by ]s backed by Spain's enemy the ], and the Moriscos were suspected of aiding them. | |||
| In the second half of the century, late in the reign of Philip II, conditions worsened between ] and Moriscos. The 1568–1570 ] in Granada was harshly suppressed, and the Inquisition intensified its attention to the Moriscos. From 1570 Morisco cases became predominant in the tribunals of ], Valencia and Granada; in the tribunal of Granada, between 1560 and 1571, 82% of those accused were Moriscos.<ref>Kamen, op. cit. p. 217.</ref> Still, according to Kamen, the Moriscos did not experience the same harshness as judaizing ''conversos'' and Protestants, and the number of capital punishments was proportionally less.<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'' p. 225.</ref> | |||
| In 1609 ], upon the advice of his financial adviser the ] and Archbishop of Valencia ], decreed the ]. Hundreds of thousands of Moriscos were expelled, some of them probably sincere Christians. This was further fueled by the religious intolerance of Archbishop Ribera who quoted the Old Testament texts ordering the enemies of God to be slain without mercy and setting forth the duties of kings to extirpate them.<ref>H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; op cit; p. 308.</ref> The edict required: 'The ] to depart, under the pain of death and confiscation, without trial or sentence... to take with them no money, bullion, jewels or bills of exchange.... just what they could carry.'<ref>H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; op cit; p. 345.</ref> So successful was the enterprise, in the space of months, Spain was emptied of its ]. Expelled were the ] of ], ], ], ], ] and ]. As for the ] of ], such as the Herrador family who held positions in the Church and magistracy, they still had to struggle against exile and confiscation.<ref>H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; op cit; p. 375.</ref> | |||
| An indeterminate number of Moriscos remained in Spain and, during the 17th century, the Inquisition pursued some trials against them of minor importance: according to Kamen, between 1615 and 1700, cases against Moriscos constituted only 9 percent of those judged by the Inquisition. | |||
| ====Demographic consequences==== | |||
| In December 2008, a genetic study of the current population of the Iberian Peninsula, published in the '']'', estimated that about 10% have ] ancestors and 20% have ] as ancestors. Since there is no direct link between genetic makeup and religious affiliation, however, it is difficult to draw direct conclusions between their findings and forced or voluntary conversion.<ref>, Adams et al. 2008.</ref> Nevertheless, the Sephardic result is in contradiction<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225|title=Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: Implications for population demography|year=2004|last1=Flores|first1=Carlos|last2=Maca-Meyer|first2=Nicole|last3=González|first3=Ana M|last4=Oefner|first4=Peter J|last5=Shen|first5=Peidong|last6=Pérez|first6=Jose A|last7=Rojas|first7=Antonio|last8=Larruga|first8=Jose M|last9=Underhill|first9=Peter A|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=12|issue=10|pages=855–63|pmid=15280900}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=12627534|year=2003|last1=González|first1=AM|last2=Brehm|first2=A|last3=Pérez|first3=JA|last4=Maca-Meyer|first4=N|last5=Flores|first5=C|last6=Cabrera|first6=VM|title=Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe|volume=120|issue=4|pages=391–404|doi=10.1002/ajpa.10168|journal=American journal of physical anthropology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00439-004-1168-9|title=Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe|year=2004|last1=Giacomo|first1=F.|last2=Luca|first2=F.|last3=Popa|first3=L. O.|last4=Akar|first4=N.|last5=Anagnou|first5=N.|last6=Banyko|first6=J.|last7=Brdicka|first7=R.|last8=Barbujani|first8=G.|last9=Papola|first9=F.|journal=Human Genetics|volume=115|issue=5|pages=357–71|pmid=15322918}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=16500815|year=2006|last1=Sutton|first1=WK|last2=Knight|first2=A|last3=Underhill|first3=PA|last4=Neulander|first4=JS|last5=Disotell|first5=TR|last6=Mountain|first6=JL|title=Toward resolution of the debate regarding purported crypto-Jews ''in a'' spanish-American population: Evidence from the Y chromosome|volume=33|issue=1|pages=100–11|doi=10.1080/03014460500475870|journal=Annals of human biology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012|title=Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean|year=2008|last1=Zalloua|first1=Pierre A.|last2=Platt|first2=Daniel E.|last3=El Sibai|first3=Mirvat|last4=Khalife|first4=Jade|last5=Makhoul|first5=Nadine|last6=Haber|first6=Marc|last7=Xue|first7=Yali|last8=Izaabel|first8=Hassan|last9=Bosch|first9=Elena|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=83|issue=5|pages=633|pmid=18976729|pmc=2668035}}</ref> or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and has been later questioned by the authors themselves<ref>"'''''Despite alternative possible sources for lineages''' ascribed a Sephardic Jewish origin''", </ref><ref>"La cifra de los sefardíes puede estar sobreestimada, ya que en estos genes hay mucha diversidad y quizá absorbieron otros genes de Oriente Medio" ''('''"The Sephardic result may be overestimated''', since there is much diversity in those genes and maybe absorbed other genes from the Middle East")''. ¿Pone en duda Calafell la validez de los tests de ancestros? "Están bien para los americanos, nosotros ya sabemos de dónde venimos" ''(Puts Calafell in doubt the validity of ancestry tests? "They can be good for the Americans, we already know from where we come from)''.''''' ''" </ref><ref>"'''We think it might be an over estimate'''" "The genetic makeup of Sephardic Jews is probably common to other Middle Eastern populations, such as the Phoenicians, that also settled the Iberian Peninsula, Calafell says. "'''In our study, that would have all fallen under the Jewish label.'''"" http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/39056/title/Spanish_Inquisition_couldn%E2%80%99t_quash_Moorish,_Jewish_genes</ref><ref>"El doctor Calafell matiza que (...) los marcadores genéticos usados para distinguir a la población con ancestros sefardíes pueden producir distorsiones". "ese 20% de españoles que el estudio señala como descendientes de sefardíes podrían haber heredado ese rasgo de movimiento más antiguos, como el de los fenicios o, incluso, primeros pobladores neolíticos hace miles de años." "Dr. Calafell clarifies that (...) '''the genetic markers used to distinguish the population with Sephardim ancestry may produce distortions. The 20% of Spaniards that are identified as having Sephardim ancestry in the study could have inherited that same marker from older movements like the Phoenicians, or even the first Neolithic settlers thousands of years ago'''" http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/12/04/ciencia/.html</ref> and by ] who estimates that much earlier migrations, 5000 to 10,000 years ago from the Eastern Mediterranean might also have accounted for the Sephardic estimates: "They are really assuming that they are looking at his migration of Jewish immigrants, but the same lineages could have been introduced in the Neolithic".<ref>, ], December 4, 2008.</ref> The rest of genetic studies done in Spain estimate the Moorish contribution ranging from 2.5/3.4%<ref>{{cite journal|doi=}}</ref> to 7.7%.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2008.258|title=Moors and Saracens in Europe: Estimating the medieval North African male legacy in southern Europe|year=2009|last1=Capelli|first1=Cristian|last2=Onofri|first2=Valerio|last3=Brisighelli|first3=Francesca|last4=Boschi|first4=Ilaria|last5=Scarnicci|first5=Francesca|last6=Masullo|first6=Mara|last7=Ferri|first7=Gianmarco|last8=Tofanelli|first8=Sergio|last9=Tagliabracci|first9=Adriano|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=17|issue=6|pages=848–52|pmid=19156170|pmc=2947089}}</ref> | |||
| === Control of Protestants === | |||
| Despite much popular myth about the Inquisition relating to Protestants, it dealt with very few cases involving actual Protestants, as there were so few in Spain. The first of the trials against those labeled by the Inquisition as "Lutheran" were those against the sect of ] known as the "]" of ] and ]. The trials were long, and ended with prison sentences of differing lengths, though none of the sect were executed. Nevertheless, the subject of the "Alumbrados" put the Inquisition on the trail of many intellectuals and clerics who, interested in ] ideas, had strayed from orthodoxy (which is striking because both Charles I and ] were confessed admirers of ]). Such was the case with the humanist ], who was forced to flee to Italy to escape the process that had been begun against him, and the preacher, ], who spent close to a year in prison. | |||
| The first trials against ] groups, as such, took place between 1558 and 1562, at the beginning of the reign of Philip II, against two communities of Protestants from the cities of Valladolid and Seville numbering about 120.<ref>These trials, specifically those of Valladolid, form the basis of the plot of ''The Heretic: A novel of the Inquisition'' by Miguel Delibes (Overlook: 2006).</ref> The trials signaled a notable intensification of the Inquisition's activities. A number of '']'' were held, some of them presided over by members of the royal family and around 100 executions took place.<ref>Kamen, (op. cit. p. 99) gives the figure of about 100 executions for heresy of any kind between 1559 and 1566. He compares these figures with those condemned to death in other European countries during the same period, concluding that in similar periods England, under ], executed about twice as many for heresy: in France, three times the number, and ten times as many in the ].</ref> The '']'' of the mid-century virtually put an end to Spanish Protestantism which was, throughout, a small phenomenon to begin with. | |||
| After 1562, though the trials continued, the repression was much reduced, According to Kamen, only about 200 Spaniards were accused of being Protestants in the last decades of the 16th century. "Most of them were in no sense Protestants...Irreligious sentiments, drunken mockery, anticlerical expressions, were all captiously classified by the inquisitors (or by those who denounced the cases) as ‘Lutheran.’ Disrespect to church images, and eating meat on forbidden days, were taken as signs of heresy"<ref>Kamen p. 98.</ref> | |||
| and it is estimated that a dozen Spaniards were burned alive.<ref>Kamen, op. cit., pp. 99-100.</ref> | |||
| Outside Spain, but in Spanish territories however, especially in the ], a large number (some suggest 6,000) of (alleged) Protestants were executed by the ]'s ] | |||
| === Censorship === | |||
| As one manifestation of the ], the Spanish Inquisition worked actively to impede the diffusion of heretical ideas in Spain by producing "Indexes" of prohibited books. Such lists of prohibited books were common in Europe a decade before the Inquisition published its first. The first Index published in Spain in 1551 was, in reality, a reprinting of the Index published by the University of Louvain in 1550, with an appendix dedicated to Spanish texts. Subsequent Indexes were published in 1559, 1583, 1612, 1632, and 1640. The Indexes included an enormous number of books of all types, though special attention was dedicated to religious works, and, particularly, vernacular translations of the Bible. | |||
| Included in the Indexes, at one point, were many of the great works of Spanish literature. Also, a number of religious writers who are today considered saints by the Catholic Church saw their works appear in the Indexes. At first, this might seem counter-intuitive or even nonsensical—how were these Spanish authors published in the first place if their texts were then prohibited by the Inquisition and placed in the Index? The answer lies in the process of publication and censorship in Early Modern Spain. Books in Early Modern Spain faced prepublication licensing and approval (which could include modification) by both secular and religious authorities. However, once approved and published, the circulating text also faced the possibility of post-hoc censorship by being denounced to the Inquisition—sometimes decades later. Likewise, as Catholic theology evolved, once-prohibited texts might be removed from the Index. | |||
| At first, inclusion in the Index meant total prohibition of a text; however, this proved not only impractical and unworkable, but also contrary to the goals of having a literate and well-educated clergy. Works with one line of suspect dogma would be prohibited in their entirety, despite the remainder of the text's sound dogma. In time, a compromise solution was adopted in which trusted Inquisition officials blotted out words, lines or whole passages of otherwise acceptable texts, thus allowing these expurgated editions to circulate. Although in theory the Indexes imposed enormous restrictions on the diffusion of culture in Spain, some historians, such as Henry Kamen, argue that such strict control was impossible in practice and that there was much more liberty in this respect than is often believed. And Irving Leonard has conclusively demonstrated that, despite repeated royal prohibitions, romances of chivalry, such as ], found their way to the New World with the blessing of the Inquisition. Moreover, with the coming of the ] in the 18th century, increasing numbers of licenses to possess and read prohibited texts were granted. | |||
| Despite repeated publication of the Indexes and a large bureaucracy of censors, the activities of the Inquisition did not impede the flowering of Spanish literature's "Siglo de Oro", although almost all of its major authors crossed paths with the Holy Office at one point or another. Among the Spanish authors included in the Index are: ], ], ], ] and ], as well as the anonymous ] and the ] by ]. ], which was not included in the Indexes of the 16th century, was expurgated in 1632 and prohibited in its entirety in 1790. Among the non-Spanish authors prohibited were ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] (known in Spain as Tomás Moro). One of the most outstanding and best-known cases in which the Inquisition directly confronted literary activity is that of ], noted humanist and religious writer of converso origin, who was imprisoned for four years (from 1572 to 1576) for having translated the ] directly from Hebrew. | |||
| Some scholars indicate that one of the main effects of the inquisition was to end free thought and scientific thought in Spain. As one contemporary Spanish in exile put it: "Our country is a land of ... barbarism; down there one cannot produce any culture without being suspected of heresy, error and Judaism. Thus silence was imposed on the learned." For the next few centuries, while the rest of Europe was slowly awakened by the influence of the Enlightenment, Spain stagnated.<ref>Johnson, Paul, ''A History of Christianity'', Penguin, London 1976.</ref> However, this conclusion is contested. The censorship of books was actually very ineffective, and prohibited books circulated in Spain without significant problems. The Spanish Inquisition never persecuted scientists, and relatively few scientific books were placed on the Index. On the other hand, Spain was a state with more political freedom than in other absolute monarchies in the 16th to 18th centuries. The backwardness of Spain in economy and science can hardly be attributed to the Inquisition.<ref>Henry Kamen: ''Inkwizycja Hiszpańska'', Warszawa 2005, pp. 126-130. ISBN 83-06-02963-1.</ref> | |||
| === Other offenses === | |||
| Although the Inquisition was created to suppress heresy, it also occupied itself with a wide variety of offences that only indirectly could be related to religious heterodoxy. Of a total of 49,092 trials from the period 1560–1700 registered in the archive of the Suprema, appear the following: ''judaizantes'' (5,007); ''moriscos'' (11,311); ] (3,499); '']'' (149); superstitions (3,750); heretical propositions (14,319); ] (2,790); solicitation (1,241); offences against the Holy Office of the Inquisition (3,954); miscellaneous (2,575).{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}} | |||
| These data demonstrate that not only New Christians (''conversos'' of ] or ] descent) and ] faced investigation, but also ] could be targeted for various reasons as well. | |||
| ====Witchcraft==== | |||
| The category "superstitions" includes trials related to ]. The ] in Spain had much less intensity than in other European countries (particularly France, ], and Germany). One remarkable case was that of ], in which the witches of ] in ] were persecuted. During the '']'' that took place in ] on November 7 and November 8, 1610, 6 people were burned and another 5 burned in effigy.<ref>These trials are the theme of the film ''Akelarre'', by the Spanish director Pedro Olea.</ref> In general, nevertheless, the Inquisition maintained a sceptical attitude towards cases of ], considering it as a mere superstition without any basis. ], who, after the trials of ] took the Edict of Faith to various parts of ], noted in his report to the Suprema that, "There were neither ] nor ] in a village until they were talked and written about".<ref>Cited in Henningsen, Gustav, ed. The Salazar Documents: Inquisitor Alonso de Salazar Frías and Others on the Basque Witch Persecution. Vol 21, Cultures, Beliefs, and Traditions: Medieval and Early Modern Peoples. Boston: Koninklijke Brill, 2004. Second Report of Salazar to the Inquisitor General (Logroño, 24 March 1612): An account of the whole visitation and publication of the Edict with special reference to the witches’ sect, 352.</ref> | |||
| ====Blasphemy==== | |||
| Included under the rubric of ''heretical propositions'' were verbal offences, from outright ] to questionable statements regarding religious beliefs, from issues of sexual morality, to misbehaviour of the clergy. Many were brought to trial for affirming that ''simple fornication'' (sex between unmarried persons) was not a sin or for putting in doubt different aspects of ] faith such as ] or the virginity of ]. Also, members of the clergy itself were occasionally accused of heretical propositions. These offences rarely lead to severe penalties. | |||
| ====Bigamy==== | |||
| The Inquisition also pursued offences against morals, at times in open conflict with the jurisdictions of civil tribunals. In particular, there were numerous trials for ], a relatively frequent offence in a society that only permitted divorce under the most extreme circumstances. In the case of men, the penalty was five years in the ] (tantamount to a death sentence). Women too were accused of ]. Also, many cases of solicitation during confession were adjudicated, indicating a strict vigilance over the clergy. | |||
| ====Sodomy==== | |||
| Inquisitorial repression of the sexual offence of ], considered, according to ], as a crime against nature, merits separate attention. This included cases of incidences of heterosexual and homosexual ], ], and separately ]. Civil authorities at times executed those convicted. | |||
| In 1506 at ] the Inquisition made a special investigation into sodomy, causing many arrests and many fugitives and burning 12 persons, but in 1509 the Suprema in ] declared that crime not within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition deciding that cases of sodomy could not be adjudicated, unless related to ]. Alleging that sodomy had been introduced to Spain by the ], in 1524 the Spanish Ambassador to Rome obtained a special commission from ] for the Holy Office to curb its spread by investigating laymen and clergy in ], whether or not it was related to heresy; and proceeding according to local, municipal law in spite of the resistance by local bishops to this usurpation of their authority. | |||
| The tribunal of ] distinguished itself for its severity in judging these offences: between 1571—1579, 101 men accused of ] were processed and at least 35 were executed. In total, between 1570 and 1630 there were 534 trials (incl. 187 for homosexuality, 245 for bestiality, and 111 with unknown specification of the charges) with 102 executions (incl. 27 for homosexuality, 64 for bestiality and 11 uncertain cases). | |||
| The first sodomite was burned by the Inquisition in Valencia in 1572, and those accused included 19% clergy, 6% nobles, 37% workers, 19% servants, and 18% soldiers and sailors.<ref>Kamen, ''op. cit.'', p. 259.</ref> A growing reluctance to convict those who, unlike heretics, could not escape by confession and penance led after 1630 to greater leniency. Torture decreased: in Valencia 21% of sodomites were tortured prior to 1630, but only 4% afterwards. The last execution ''in persona'' for sodomy by the Inquisition took place in Zaragoza in April 1633. In total, out of about 1,000 convicted of sodomy - 170 were actually burnt at the stake, including 84 condemned for bestiality and 75 for homosexuality, with 11 cases where the exact character of the charges is not known. | |||
| Nearly all of almost 500 cases of sodomy between persons concerned the relationship between an older man and an adolescent, often by coercion; with only a few cases where the couple were consenting ] adults. About 100 of the total involved allegations of child abuse. Adolescents were generally punished more leniently than adults, but only when they were very young (under ca. 12 years) or when the case clearly concerned rape, did they have a chance to avoid punishment altogether. As a rule, the Inquisition condemned to death only those "sodomites" over the age of 25 years. As about half of those tried were under this age, it explains the relatively small percent of death sentences.<ref>Detailed account of repressions against "sodomy", related statistics and the profiles of defendants in Monter, ''Frontiers of Heresy'', pp. 276-299.</ref> | |||
| ====Freemasonry==== | |||
| In 1815, ], the ] of the Spanish Inquisition and the ], suppressed ] and denounced the lodges as "societies which lead to atheism, to sedition and to all errors and crimes."<ref name="Denslow">William R. Denslow, ]: ''10,000 Famous Freemasons'', ISBN 1-4179-7579-2.</ref> He then instituted a purge during which ] could be arrested on the charge of being "suspected of Freemasonry".<ref name="Denslow" /> | |||
| == Organization == | |||
| Beyond its role in religious affairs, the Inquisition was also an institution at the service of the monarchy. The Inquisitor General, in charge of the Holy Office, was designated by the crown. The Inquisitor General was the only public office whose authority stretched to all the kingdoms of Spain (including the American viceroyalties), except for a brief period (1507–1518) during which there were two Inquisitors General, one in the kingdom of Castile, and the other in ]. | |||
| The Inquisitor General presided over the Council of the Supreme and General Inquisition (generally abbreviated as "Council of the Suprema"), created in 1483, which was made up of six members named directly by the crown (the number of members of the Suprema varied over the course of the Inquisition's history, but it was never more than 10). Over time, the authority of the Suprema grew at the expense of the power of the Inquisitor General. | |||
| The Suprema met every morning, save for holidays, and for two hours in the afternoon on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays. The morning sessions were devoted to questions of faith, while the afternoons were reserved for "minor heresies"<ref>Henningsen, Gustav: The Spanish Inquisition and the Inquisitorial Mind, p. 220.</ref> cases of perceived unacceptable sexual behavior, ], ], etc.<ref>García Cárcel, Ricardo: La Inquisición, p. 21.</ref> | |||
| Below the Suprema were the different tribunals of the Inquisition, which were, in their origins, itinerant, installing themselves where they were necessary to combat heresy, but later being established in fixed locations. In the first phase, numerous tribunals were established, but the period after 1495 saw a marked tendency towards centralization. | |||
| ] in ], Viceroyalty of Peru, 17th century]] | |||
| In the kingdom of Castile, the following permanent tribunals of the Inquisition were established: | |||
| * 1482 In ] and in ]. | |||
| * 1485 In ] and in ]. | |||
| * 1488 In ] and in ]. | |||
| * 1489 In ]. | |||
| * 1505 In ] (]). | |||
| * 1512 In ]. | |||
| * 1526 In ]. | |||
| * 1574 In ]. | |||
| There were only four tribunals in the kingdom of ]: ] and ] (1482), ] (1484), and ] (1488).<ref>Kamen, ''op. cit.'', p. 141.</ref> ] also established the Spanish Inquisition in ] (1513), housed in ] and ], in the town of ].<ref>In ], the Inquisition functioned until March 30, 1782, when it was abolished by King ]. It is estimated that 200 people were executed during this period.</ref> In the Americas, tribunals were established in ] and in ] (1569) and, in 1610, in ] (present day ]). | |||
| == Composition of the tribunals == | |||
| Initially, each of the tribunals included two inquisitors, a ''calificador'', an ''alguacil'' (bailiff) and a ''fiscal'' (prosecutor); new positions were added as the institution matured. | |||
| The inquisitors were preferably jurists more than theologians, and, in 1608, ] even stipulated that all the inquisitors must have a background in law. The inquisitors did not typically remain in the position for a long time: for the Court of ], for example, the average tenure in the position was about two years.<ref>García Cárcel, Ricardo, op.cit., p. 24.</ref> Most of the inquisitors belonged to the secular clergy (priests who were not members of ]), and had a university education. | |||
| The ''fiscal'' was in charge of presenting the accusation, investigating the denunciations and interrogating the witnesses by the use of physical and mental torture. The ''calificadores'' were generally theologians; it fell to them to determine if the defendant's conduct added up to a crime against the faith. Consultants were expert jurists who advised the court in questions of procedure. The court had, in addition, three secretaries: the ''notario de secuestros'' (Notary of Property), who registered the goods of the accused at the moment of his detention; the ''notario del secreto'' (Notary of the Secret), who recorded the testimony of the defendant and the witnesses; and the ''escribano general'' (General Notary), secretary of the court. | |||
| The ''alguacil'' was the executive arm of the court: he was responsible for detaining, jailing, and physically torturing the defendant. Other civil employees were the ''nuncio'', ordered to spread official notices of the court, and the ''alcaide'', jailer in charge of feeding the prisoners. | |||
| In addition to the members of the court, two auxiliary figures existed that collaborated with the Holy Office: the ''familiares'' and the ''comissarios'' (commissioners). ''Familiares'' were lay collaborators of the Inquisition, who had to be permanently at the service of the Holy Office. To become a familiar was considered an honour, since it was a public recognition of ''limpieza de sangre'' — Old Christian status — and brought with it certain additional privileges. Although many nobles held the position, most of the ''familiares'' many came from the ranks of commoners. The commissioners, on the other hand, were members of the religious orders who collaborated occasionally with the Holy Office. | |||
| One of the most striking aspects of the organization of the Inquisition was its form of financing: devoid of its own budget, the Inquisition depended exclusively on the confiscation of the goods of the denounced. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of those prosecuted were rich men. That the situation was open to abuse is evident, as stands out in the memorial that a ''converso'' from ] directed to ]: <blockquote>"Your Majesty must provide, before all else, that the expenses of the Holy Office do not come from the properties of the condemned, because if that is the case, if they do not burn they do not eat."<ref>Cited in Kamen, op. cit., p. 151.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| == Functioning of the inquisition == | |||
| Near the outset of the Inquisition, in a letter of April 14, 1482, ] instructed the Spanish to ensure due process, allow legal counsel and appeal to Rome.<ref name="crisismagazine.com">], , Crisis Magazine, September 2003</ref> King Ferdinand defiantly rejected Papal control, the Inquisition becoming thereafter a tool of the monarchy, rather than the church.<ref name="crisismagazine.com"/> In 1483, Ferdinand made Torquemada the Inquisitor General of most areas of Spain.<ref name="crisismagazine.com"/> Its procedures were set out in various ''Instrucciones'' issued by the successive Inquisitors General, Torquemada, Deza, and Valdés. | |||
| === Accusation === | |||
| When the Inquisition arrived in a city, the first step was the ''Edict of Grace''. Following the Sunday mass, the Inquisitor would proceed to read the edict; it explained possible heresies and encouraged all the congregation to come to the tribunals of the Inquisition to "relieve their consciences". They were called ''Edicts of Grace'' because all of the self-incriminated who presented themselves within a ''period of grace'' (usually ranging from thirty to forty days) were offered the possibility of reconciliation with the Church without severe punishment.<ref>Kamen, Henry; The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision, p. 57.</ref> The promise of benevolence was effective, and many voluntarily presented themselves to the Inquisition and were often encouraged to denounce others who had also committed offenses, informants being the Inquisition's primary source of information. After about 1500, the Edicts of Grace were replaced by the ''Edicts of Faith'', which left out the grace period and instead encouraged the denunciation of those guilty.<ref>Kamen, Henry; The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision, p. 174.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The denunciations were anonymous, and the defendants had no way of knowing the identities of their accusers.<ref>Though over the course of the trial, their identities likely became apparent.</ref> This was one of the points most criticized by those who opposed the Inquisition (for example, the ], in 1518). In practice, false denunciations were frequent. Denunciations were made for a variety of reasons, from genuine concern, to rivalries and personal jealousies. | |||
| === Detention === | |||
| After a denunciation, the case was examined by the ''calificadores'' (qualifiers), who had to determine if there was heresy involved, followed by detention of the accused. In practice, however, many were detained in preventive custody, and many cases of lengthy incarcerations occurred, lasting up to two years, before the ''calificadores'' examined the case.<ref>"In the tribunal of ], in 1699, various suspects (including a girl of 9 and a boy of 14) were jailed for up to two years with having had the least evaluation of the accusations presented against them" (Kamen, ''op. cit.'', p. 180).</ref> | |||
| Detention of the accused entailed the preventive sequestration of their property by the Inquisition. The property of the prisoner was used to pay for procedural expenses and the accused's own maintenance and costs. Often the relatives of the defendant found themselves in outright misery. This situation was only remedied following instructions written in 1561. | |||
| The entire process was undertaken with the utmost secrecy, as much for the public as for the accused, who were not informed about the accusations that were levied against them. Months, or even years could pass without the accused being informed about why they were imprisoned. The prisoners remained isolated, and, during this time, the prisoners were not allowed to attend ] nor receive the ]. The jails of the Inquisition were no worse than those of secular authorities, and there are even certain testimonies that occasionally they were much better.<ref>Walsh, Thomas William, ''Characters of the Inquisition'', P.J. Kennedy & Sons, 1940, p. 163.</ref> | |||
| === The trial === | |||
| The inquisitorial process consisted of a series of hearings, in which both the denouncers and the defendant gave testimony. A defense counsel was assigned to the defendant, a member of the tribunal itself, whose role was simply to advise the defendant and to encourage them to speak the truth. The prosecution was directed by the ''fiscal''. Interrogation of the defendant was done in the presence of the ''Notary of the Secreto'', who meticulously wrote down the words of the accused. The archives of the Inquisition, in comparison to those of other judicial systems of the era, are striking in the completeness of their documentation. In order to defend themselves, the accused had two possibilities: ''abonos'' (to find favourable witnesses, akin to "substantive" evidence/testimony in Anglo-American law) or ''tachas'' (to demonstrate that the witnesses of accusers were not trustworthy, akin to Anglo-American "impeachment" evidence/testimony). | |||
| In order to interrogate the accused, the Inquisition made use of ], but not in a systematic way. It was applied mainly against those suspected of ] and ], beginning in the 16th century. For example, Lea estimates that between 1575 and 1610 the court of ] tortured approximately a third of those processed for heresy.<ref>H. C. Lea, III, p. 33, Cited in Kamen, ''op. cit'', p. 185. García Cárcel, ''op. cit.'' p. 43 finds the same statistics.</ref> In other periods, the proportions varied remarkably. Torture was always a means to obtain the confession of the accused, not a punishment itself. Torture was also applied without distinction of sex or age, including children and the aged. | |||
| === Torture === | |||
| ]. ''Mémoires Historiques'' (1716)]] | |||
| As with all European tribunals of the time, torture was employed.<ref name="crisismagazine.com"/><ref name="Kamenop">Kamen, ''op. cit.'', p. 190.</ref><ref name="books.google.com">Haliczer, Stephen, , p. 79, University of California Press, 1990</ref> The Spanish inquisition, however, engaged in it far less often and with greater care than other courts.<ref name="crisismagazine.com"/><ref name="books.google.com"/><ref>by Peters, Edward, ''Inquisition'', Dissent, Heterodoxy and the Medieval Inquisitional Office, pp. 92-93, University of California Press (1989), ISBN 0-520-06630-8.</ref> The scenes of sadism found in popular writers on the inquisition are not based in truth.<ref>Kamen, ''op. cit.'', p. 189.</ref> Modern scholars have determined that torture was used in only two percent of the cases, for no more than 15 minutes, and in only less than one percent of the cases was it used a second time, never more than that.<ref name="crisismagazine.com"/><ref name="books.google.com"/> | |||
| Although the Inquisition was technically forbidden from permanently harming or drawing blood,<ref name="Kamenop" /> this still allowed for methods of ]. The methods most used, and common in other secular and ecclesiastical tribunals, were ''garrucha'', ''toca'' and the ''potro''.<ref name="Kamenop" /> The application of the ''garrucha'', also known as the ], consisted of suspending the victim from the ceiling by the wrists, which are tied behind the back. Sometimes weights were tied to the ankles, with a series of lifts and drops, during which the arms and legs suffered violent pulls and were sometimes dislocated.<ref>Sabatini, Rafael, ''Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition: A History'', p. 190, Kessinger Publishing (2003), ISBN 0-7661-3161-0.</ref> The ''toca'', also called ''interrogatorio mejorado del agua'', consisted of introducing a cloth into the mouth of the victim, and forcing them to ingest water spilled from a jar so that they had the impression of drowning (see: ]).<ref>Scott, George Ryley, ''The History of Torture Throughout the Ages'', p. 172, Columbia University Press (2003) ISBN 0-7103-0837-X.</ref> The ''potro'', the ], was the instrument of torture used most frequently.<ref>Carrol. James, ''Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews: A History'', p. 356, Houghton Mifflin Books (2002), ISBN 0-618-21908-0.</ref> | |||
| The assertion that "confessionem esse veram, non factam vi tormentorum" (literally: ((a person's)) confession is truth, not made by way of torture.) sometimes follows a description of how, after torture had ended, the subject freely confessed to the offenses.<ref>by Peters, Edward, ''Inquisition'', Dissent, Heterodoxy and the Medieval Inquisitional Office, p. 65, University of California Press (1989), ISBN 0-520-06630-8.</ref> Thus, all confession acquired by means of torture were considered completely valid as they were supposedly made of the confessor's own free will. | |||
| Once the process concluded, the inquisidores met with a representative of the bishop and with the ''consultores'', experts in ] or ], which was called the ''consulta de fe''. The case was voted and sentence pronounced, which had to be unanimous. In case of discrepancies, the ''Suprema'' had to be informed. | |||
| According to authorities within the ], there was at least one casualty tortured by those Jesuits who administered the Spanish Inquisition in North America: St. ]. | |||
| === Sentencing === | |||
| The results of the trial could be the following: | |||
| # Although quite rare in actual practice, the defendant could be '''acquitted'''. | |||
| # The trial, itself, could be '''suspended''', in which case the defendant, although under suspicion, went free (with the threat that the process could be continued at any time) or was held in long-term imprisonment until a trial commenced. When set free after a suspended trial it was considered a form of acquittal without specifying that the accusation had been erroneous. | |||
| # The defendant could be '''penanced'''. Since they were considered guilty, they had to publicly abjure their crimes (''de levi'' if it was a misdemeanor, and ''de vehementi'' if the crime were serious), and accept a public punishment. Among these were '']'', exile, fines or even sentencing to the ]s. | |||
| # The defendant could be '''reconciled'''. In addition to the public ceremony in which the condemned was reconciled with the Catholic Church, more severe punishments were used, among them long sentences to jail or the galleys, plus the confiscation of all property. Physical punishments, such as whipping, were also used. | |||
| # The most serious punishment was '''relaxation''' to the secular arm for ]—the Church did not itself kill. This penalty was frequently applied to impenitent heretics and those who had relapsed. Execution was public. If the condemned repented, they were shown mercy by being ]d before burning; if not, they were burned alive. | |||
| Frequently, cases were judged ''in absentia'', and when the accused died before the trial finished, the condemned were burned in effigy. | |||
| The distribution of the punishments varied considerably over time. It is believed that sentences of death were enforced in the first stages within the long history of the Inquisition. According to García Cárcel, the court of ] employed the death penalty in 40% of the processings before 1530, but later that percentage dropped to 3%).<ref>García Cárcel, '''op. cit.,''' p. 39.</ref> | |||
| ] in Madrid, 1683]] | |||
| === The ''autos-da-fé'' === | |||
| {{details|Auto-da-fé}} | |||
| If the sentence was condemnatory, this implied that the condemned had to participate in the ceremony of an '''''auto de fe''''' (more commonly known in English as an ''auto-da-fé''), that solemnized their return to the Church (in most cases), or punishment as an impenitent heretic. The ''autos-da-fé'' could be private (''auto particular'') or public (''auto publico'' or ''auto general''). | |||
| Although initially the public ''autos'' did not have any special solemnity nor sought a large attendance of spectators, with time they became solemn ceremonies, celebrated with large public crowds, amidst a festive atmosphere. The ''auto-da-fé'' eventually became a ] spectacle, with staging meticulously calculated to cause the greatest effect among the spectators. | |||
| The ''autos'' were conducted in a large public space (in the largest plaza of the city, frequently), generally on holidays. The rituals related to the ''auto'' began the previous night (the "procession of the Green Cross") and sometimes lasted the whole day. The ''auto-da-fé'' frequently was taken to the canvas by painters: one of the better known examples is the painting by ] held by the ] Museum in ] and which represents the ''auto'' celebrated in the Plaza Mayor of Madrid on June 30, 1680. The last public ''auto-da-fé'' took place in 1691. | |||
| The ''auto-da-fé'' involved: a Catholic Mass; prayer; a public procession of those found guilty; and a reading of their sentences (Peters 1988: 93-94). They took place in public squares or esplanades and lasted several hours: ecclesiastical and civil authorities attended. Artistic representations of the ''auto-da-fé'' usually depict torture and the burning at the stake. However, this type of activity never took place during an ''auto-da-fé'', which was in essence a religious act. Torture was not administered after a trial concluded, and executions were always held after and separate from the ''auto-da-fé'' (Kamen 1997: 192-213), though in the minds and experiences of observers and those undergoing the confession and execution, the separation of the two might be experienced as merely a technicality. | |||
| The first recorded ''auto-da-fé'' was held in Paris in 1242, during the reign of Louis IX.<ref>Stavans 2005:xxxiv.</ref> However, the first Spanish ''auto-da-fé'' did not take place until Seville in 1481; six of the men and women subjected to this first religious ritual were later executed. The Inquisition had limited power in Portugal, having been established in 1536 and officially lasting until 1821, although its influence was much weakened with the government of the Marquis of Pombal in the second half of the 18th century. ''Autos-da-fé'' also took place in Mexico, Brazil and Peru: contemporary historians of the Conquistadors such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo record them. They also took place in the Portuguese colony of Goa, India, following the establishment of Inquisition there in 1562–1563. | |||
| The arrival of the ] in Spain slowed inquisitorial activity. In the first half of the 18th century, 111 were condemned to be burned in person, and 117 in effigy, most of them for ]. In the reign of ], there were 125 ''autos-da-fé'', while in the reigns of ] and ] only 44. | |||
| During the 18th century, the Inquisition changed: Enlightenment ideas were the closest threat that had to be fought. The main figures of the Spanish Enlightenment were in favour of the abolition of the Inquisition, and many were processed by the Holy Office, among them ], in 1776; ], in 1779; and ], in 1796; Jovellanos sent a report to Charles IV in which he indicated the inefficiency of the Inquisition's courts and the ignorance of those who operated them: | |||
| <blockquote>friars who take only to obtain gossip and exemption from choir; who are ignorant of foreign languages, who only know a little ]...<ref>Cited in Elorza, ''La Inquisición y el pensamiento ilustrado.'' Historia 16. Especial 10º Aniversario ''La Inquisición''; p. 81.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| In its new role, the Inquisition tried to accentuate its function of censoring publications, but found that Charles III had secularized ] procedures and, on many occasions, the authorization of the ] hit the more intransigent position of the Inquisition. Since the Inquisition itself was an arm of the state, being within the Council of Castile, civil, rather than ecclesiastical, censorship usually prevailed. This loss of influence can also be explained because the foreign Enlightenment texts entered the peninsula through prominent members of the nobility or government,<ref>Members of the government and the Council of Castile, as well as other members close to the court, obtained special authorization for books purchased in France, the Low Countries or Germany to cross the border without inspection by members of the Holy Office. This practice grew beginning with the reign of Charles III.</ref> influential people with whom it was very difficult to interfere. Thus, for example, ] entered Spain thanks to special licenses granted by the king. | |||
| However, after the ] the Council of Castile, fearing that revolutionary ideas would penetrate Spain's borders, decided to reactivate the Holy Office that was directly charged with the persecution of French works. An Inquisition edict of December 1789, that received the full approval of Charles IV and ], stated that: | |||
| <blockquote>having news that several books have been scattered and promoted in these kingdoms... that, without being contented with the simple narration events of a seditious nature... seem to form a theoretical and practical code of independence from the legitimate powers.... destroying in this way the political and social order... the reading of thirty and nine French works is prohibited, under fine...<ref>Elorza, ''La Inquisición y el pensamiento ilustrado.'' p. 84.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| However, inquisitorial activity was impossible in the face of the information avalanche that crossed the border; in 1792 | |||
| <blockquote>the multitude of seditious papers... does not allow formalizing the files against those who introduce them...</blockquote> | |||
| The fight from within against the Inquisition was almost always clandestine. The first texts that questioned the Inquisition and praised the ideas of ] or ] appeared in 1759. After the suspension of pre-publication censorship on the part of the Council of Castile in 1785, the newspaper '']'' began the publication of protests against the activities of the Holy Office by means of a rationalist critique and, even, ] published '']'', a plea in favour of freedom of expression that was avidly read in the salons. Also, ], in the same vein, wrote, On Toleration in ''El Censor'', '']'' and '']''.<ref>The argument presented in the periodicals and other works circulating in Spain were virtually exact copies of the reflections of Montesquieu or Rousseau, translated into Spanish.</ref> | |||
| ==End of the Inquisition== | |||
| During the reign of ], in spite of the fears that the ] provoked, several events took place that accelerated the decline of the Inquisition. In the first place, the state stopped being a mere social organizer and began to worry about the well-being of the public. As a result, they considered the land-holding power of the Church, in the '']s'' and, more generally, in the accumulated wealth that had prevented social progress.<ref>Church properties, in general, and those of the Holy Office in particular, occupied large tracts of today's ], ] and ]. The properties were given under feudal terms to farmers or to localities who used them as community property with many restrictions, owing a part of the rent, generally in cash, to the church.</ref> On the other hand, the perennial struggle between the power of the throne and the power of the Church, inclined more and more to the former, under which, ] thinkers found better protection for their ideas. ] and ] were openly hostile to an institution whose only role had been reduced to ] and was the very embodiment of the Spanish ], internationally, and was not suitable to the political interests of the moment:<blockquote>The Inquisition? Its old power no longer exists: the horrible authority that this bloodthirsty court had exerted in other times was reduced... the Holy Office had come to be a species of commission for book censorship, nothing more...<ref>Elorza, ''La Inquisición y el Pensamiento Ilustrado''. Historia 16. Especial 10º Aniversario ''La Inquisición''; pg. 88</ref></blockquote> | |||
| The Inquisition was abolished during the domination of ] and the reign of ] (1808–1812). In 1813, the liberal deputies of the ] also obtained its abolition,<ref>See ], ''La Inquisición sin máscara'', Cádiz, 1811–1813.</ref> largely as a result of the Holy Office's condemnation of the popular revolt against French invasion. But the Inquisition was reconstituted when ] recovered the throne on July 1, 1814. It was again abolished during the three year Liberal interlude known as the ]. Later, during the period known as the ], the Inquisition was not formally re-established,<ref>Historians have different interpretations. One argument is that during the Ominous Decade, the Inquisition was re-established, but the Royal Decree that would have abolished the order of the Trienio Liberal was never approved, or at least, never published. The formal abolition under the regency of Maria Cristina was thus nothing more than a ratification of the abolition of 1820.</ref> although, ''de facto'', it returned under the so-called Meetings of Faith, tolerated in the dioceses by King Ferdinand. These had the dubious honour of executing the last heretic condemned, the school teacher ], ] in ] on July 26, 1826 (presumably for having taught ] principles), all amongst a European-wide scandal at the despotic attitude still prevailing in Spain. ], who had been the Inquisition's general secretary in 1789, became a ] and published a critical history in 1817 from his French exile, based on his privileged access to its archives. | |||
| {{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} | |||
| The Inquisition was definitively abolished on July 15, 1834, by a Royal Decree signed by regent ], Ferdinand VII's liberal widow, during the minority of ] and with the approval of the President of the Cabinet ]. (It is possible that something similar to the Inquisition acted during the 1833–1839 ], in the zones dominated by the Carlists, since one of the government measures praised by ] was the re-implementation of the Inquisition to protect the Church). During the Carlist Wars it was the conservatives who fought the progressists who wanted to reduce the Church's power, amongst other reforms to liberalise the economy. {{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} | |||
| ==Outcomes== | |||
| ===Confiscations=== | |||
| It is unknown exactly how much wealth was confiscated from converted Jews and others tried by the Inquisition. Wealth confiscated in one year of persecution in the small town of Guadaloupe paid the costs of building a royal residence.<ref>Anderson, James Maxwell. Daily Life during the Spranish Inquisition. Greenwood Press, 2002. ISBN 0-313-31667-8.</ref> There are numerous records of the opinion of ordinary Spaniards of the time that "the Inquisition was devised simply to rob people. "They were burnt only for the money they had,’ a resident of Cuenca averred. "They burn only the well-off," said another. In 1504 an accused stated, "only the rich were burnt." …In 1484…Catalina de Zamora was accused of asserting that "this Inquisition that the fathers are carrying out is as much for taking property from the conversos as for defending the faith. "It is the goods that are the heretics." This saying passed into common usage in Spain. In 1524 a treasurer informed Charles V that his predessor had received ten million ducats from the conversos, but the figure is unverified. In 1592 an inquisitor admitted that most of the fifty women he arrested were rich. In 1676, the Suprema claimed it had confiscated over 700,000 ducats for the royal treasury (which was paid money only after the Inquisition's own budget, amounting in one known case to only 5%). The property on Mallorca alone in 1678 was worth ‘well over 2,500,000 ducats."<ref>Kamen, ''Spanish Inquisition'', p. 150.</ref> | |||
| ===Death tolls=== | |||
| García Cárcel estimates that the total number processed by the Inquisition throughout its history was approximately 150,000; applying the percentages of executions that appeared in the trials of 1560–1700 — about 2% — the approximate total would be about 3,000 put to death. Nevertheless, very probably this total should be raised keeping in mind the data provided by Dedieu and García Cárcel for the tribunals of Toledo and Valencia, respectively. It is likely that the total would be between 3,000 and 5,000 executed. | |||
| Modern historians have begun to study the documentary records of the Inquisition. The archives of the Suprema, today held by the ] (Archivo Histórico Nacional), conserves the annual relations of all processes between 1540 and 1700. This material provides information on about 44,674 judgements, the latter studied by Gustav Henningsen and Jaime Contreras. These 44,674 cases include 826 executions ''in persona'' and 778 ''in effigie''. This material, however, is far from being complete — for example, the tribunal of Cuenca is entirely omitted, because no ''relaciones de causas'' from this tribunal have been found, and significant gaps concern some other tribunals (e.g. Valladolid). Many more cases not reported to the Suprema are known from the other sources (e.g. no ''relaciones de causas'' from Cuenca have been found, but its original records have been preserved), but were not included in Contreras-Hennigsen's statistics for the methodological reasons.<ref>For full account see: Gustav Henningsen, ''The Database of the Spanish Inquisition. The relaciones de causas project revisited'', in: Heinz Mohnhaupt, Dieter Simon, '''', Vittorio Klostermann, 1992, pp. 43-85.</ref> William Monter estimates 1000 executions between 1530–1630 and 250 between 1630–1730.<ref>W. Monter, ''Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily'', Cambridge 2003, p. 53.</ref> | |||
| The archives of the Suprema only provide information surrounding the processes prior to 1560. To study the processes themselves, it is necessary to examine the archives of the local tribunals; however, the majority have been lost to the devastation of war, the ravages of time or other events. ] has studied those of Toledo, where 12,000 were judged for offences related to heresy.<ref>Jean-Pierre Dedieu, ''Los Cuatro Tiempos'', in Bartolomé Benassar, ''Inquisición Española: poder político y control social'', pp. 15-39.</ref> Ricardo García Cárcel has analyzed those of the tribunal of Valencia.<ref>Ricardo García Cárcel, ''Orígenes de la Inquisición Española. El Tribunal de Valencia, 1478–1530.'' Barcelona, 1976.</ref> These authors' investigations find that the Inquisition was most active in the period between 1480 and 1530, and that during this period the percentage condemned to death was much more significant than in the years studied by Henningsen and Contreras. Henry Kamen gives the number of about 2,000 executions ''in persona'' in the whole Spain up to 1530.<ref>H. Kamen, ''Inkwizycja Hiszpańska'', Warszawa 2005, p. 62; and H. Rawlings, ''The Spanish Inquisition'', Blackwell Publishing 2004, p. 15.</ref> | |||
| ====Henningsen-Contreras statistics for the period 1540–1700==== | |||
| The statistics of Hennigsen and Contreras, based entirely on ''relaciones de causas'', are following: | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%" | |||
| ! width="28%" | Tribunal | |||
| ! width="18%" | Number of years with preserved ''relaciones de causas'' from the period 1540–1700<ref>Henningsen, ''The Database of the Spanish Inquisition'', p. 84.</ref> | |||
| ! width="18%" | Number of cases reported in the preserved ''relaciones de causas''<ref name="Henningsen">Henningsen, ''The Database of the Spanish Inquisition'', p. 58.</ref> | |||
| ! width="18%" | Executions ''in persona'' reported in the preserved ''relaciones de causas''<ref name="Henningsen"/> | |||
| ! width="18%" | Executions ''in effigie'' reported in the preserved ''relaciones de causas''<ref name="Henningsen"/> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |94 | |||
| |3047 | |||
| |37 | |||
| |27 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |130 | |||
| |4296 | |||
| |85 | |||
| |59 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |96 | |||
| |1260 | |||
| |37 | |||
| |25 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |49 | |||
| |767 | |||
| |8 | |||
| |2 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |126 | |||
| |5967 | |||
| |200 | |||
| |19 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |101 | |||
| |3188 | |||
| |25 | |||
| |25 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |128 | |||
| |4540 | |||
| |78 | |||
| |75 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1610) | |||
| |62 | |||
| |699 | |||
| |3 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1570) | |||
| |92 | |||
| |1176 | |||
| |30 | |||
| |16 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1570) | |||
| |52 | |||
| |950 | |||
| |17 | |||
| |42 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Aragonese Secretariat (total)''' | |||
| |'''930''' | |||
| |'''25890''' | |||
| |'''520''' | |||
| |'''291''' | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |66 | |||
| |695 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |78 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |28 | |||
| |883 | |||
| |8 | |||
| |26 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1560) | |||
| |83 | |||
| |2203 | |||
| |19 | |||
| |44 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |79 | |||
| |4157 | |||
| |33 | |||
| |102 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |84 | |||
| |2851 | |||
| |47 | |||
| |89 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |66 | |||
| |1735 | |||
| |56 | |||
| |20 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |58 | |||
| |1962 | |||
| |96 | |||
| |67 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (incl. ]) | |||
| |108 | |||
| |3740 | |||
| |40 | |||
| |53 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |29 | |||
| |558 | |||
| |6 | |||
| |8 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Castilian Secretariat (total)''' | |||
| |'''601''' | |||
| |'''18784''' | |||
| |'''306''' | |||
| |'''487''' | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Total''' | |||
| |'''1531''' | |||
| |'''44674''' | |||
| |'''826''' | |||
| |'''778''' | |||
| |} | |||
| The actual numbers, as far as they can be reconstructed from the available sources, are following: | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%" | |||
| ! width="34%" | Tribunal | |||
| ! width="33%" | Estimated number of all trials in the period 1540–1700<ref>Henningsen, ''The Database of the Spanish Inquisition'', p. 84. Numbers in the table are given in approximation.</ref> | |||
| ! width="33%" | The number of executions ''in persona'' in the period 1540–1700<ref>Data for the Aragonese Secretariat are probably complete, some small lacunae may concern only Valencia and possibly Sardinia and Cartagena, but the numbers for Castilian Secretariat - except Canaries and Galicia - should be considered as minimal due to gaps in the documentation. In some cases it is remarked that the number does not concern the whole period 1540–1700.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~5000 | |||
| |53<ref name="Arag">W. Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', p. 327.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~5200 | |||
| |90<ref name="Arag"/> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~2100 | |||
| |38<ref>W. Monter, pp. 309 i 329.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~2700 | |||
| |At least 8 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~7600 | |||
| |250<ref name="Arag"/> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~6400 | |||
| |52<ref name="Arag"/> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~5700 | |||
| |At least 93<ref name="Arag"/> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1610) | |||
| |~1100 | |||
| |At least 3 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1570) | |||
| |~2200 | |||
| |31<ref>.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1570) | |||
| |~2400 | |||
| |47<ref>See H. Ch. Lea, ''The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies'', London 1922, p. 204 ff. and.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Aragonese Secretariat (total)''' | |||
| |'''~40000''' | |||
| |'''At least 665''' | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~1500 | |||
| |3<ref>Francisco Fajardo Spínola, ''La actividad procesal del Santo Oficio. Algunas consideraciones sobre su estudio'', Manuscrits 17, 1999, p. 114.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~5000 | |||
| |At least 27<ref>One burned in 1567 (E. Schäffer, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Spanischen Protestantismus, Bd. 2, Gütersloh 1902, p. 41-42), 13 in the period 1570–1625 (W. Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', p. 48), 5 burned in 1627, another 5 burned in 1655 (H. Kamen, ''Inkwizycja Hiszpańska'', Warszawa 2005, p. 266) and 3 burned alive in 1665 (Miriam Bodian, ''Dying in the law of Moses: crypto-Jewish martyrdom in the Iberian world'', Indiana University Press 2007, p. 219).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |5202<ref>cf. Henningsen, p. 68.</ref> | |||
| |At least 34<ref>Four burned between 1553 and 1558 (W. Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', p. 37-38 n. 22), one in 1561 (W. Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', p. 233), 19 others in the period 1570–1625 (W. Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', p. 48) and 10 burned in 1654 (Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews, Vol. V, 2009, p. 91).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (established 1560) | |||
| |~2700 | |||
| |17<ref>Two persons condemned to death in 1678 were burned in the ''auto da fe'' celebrated in Madrid in 1680 (H. Ch. Lea, ''History of the Inquisition of Spain'', New York 1907, vol. III, p. 300). Therefore, they are included in the number of executions for Toledo/Madrid.</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~8100 | |||
| |At least 72<ref>This number includes 7 persons burned ca. 1545 (H. Ch. Lea, ''History of the Inquisition of Spain'', New York 1907, vol. III, p. 189), 9 persons burned in 1550-52 (Flora García Ivars, ''La represión en el tribunal inquisitorial de Granada'', 1550–1819, ed. Akal, 1991, p. 194), 14 persons burned in 1560s. (W. Monter, p. 44 i 233), 24 burned between 1570 and 1625 (W. Monter, p. 48), 12 burned in 1654 (Heinrich Graetz, ''History of the Jews'', Vol. V, 2009, p. 92) and 6 burned in 1672 (A. J. Saraiva, H. P. Salomon, I. S. D. Sassoon: ''The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians 1536–1765''. Leiden – Boston – Cologne: BRILL, 2001, p. 217 n. 62).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~5200 | |||
| |At least 47 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~4300 | |||
| |At least 190<ref>154 burned between 1557–1568 (, s. 40), 11 executed in the period 1570–1625 (W. Monter, p. 48) and 25 between 1686–1699 (Consuelo Maqueda Abreu, ''El auto de fe'', Madryt 1992, p. 97).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~6700 | |||
| |At least 128<ref>This number includes 2 executions in the ''auto-da-fé'' in 1545 (W.Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', p. 38), 114 executions in the ''autos da fe'' between 1559–1660 (Victoria González de Caldas, ''Judíos o cristianos?'', Universidad de Sevilla, 2000, p. 528) and 12 executions in the ''autos da fe'' between 1666–1695 (Consuelo Maqueda Abreu, ''El auto de fe'', Madrid 1992, pp. 99-100).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] (incl. ]) | |||
| |~5500 | |||
| |At least 66<ref>13 burned in the ''autos da fe'' between 1555–1569 (E. Schäffer, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Spanischen Protestantismus, Bd. 2, Gütersloh 1902, p. 79-91.), 25 burned between 1570–1625 (W. Monter, p. 48), 2 burned between 1648–1699 (H. Ch. Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, vol. IV, New York 1907, p. 524; cf. Joaquín Pérez Villanueva & Bartolomé Escandell Bonet (ed.), ''Historia de la Inquisición en España y América'', vol. 1, Madrid 1984, p. 1395), and 26 burned in two ''autos da fe'' in Madrid w 1632 and 1680 (H. Ch. Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, vol. III, New York 1907, p. 228).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |~3000 | |||
| |At least 54<ref>This number includes 6 executions given by Henningsen and Contreras for the period 1620–1670 (Henningsen, ''The Database of the Spanish Inquisition'', pp. 58 and 65), 26 burned in two famous ''autos-da-fé'' in 1559 (W.Monter, ''Frontiers of heresy'', pp. 41 i 44),2 burned in 1561 (W. Monter, pp. 41, 44 i 233),15 burned between 1562 and 1567 (E. Schäffer, ''Beiträge zur Geschichte des Spanischen Protestantismus'', Bd. 3, Gütersloh 1902, p. 131) and 5 burned in 1691 (H. Ch. Lea, ''History of the Inquisition of Spain'', New York 1907, vol. III, p. 197).</ref> | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Castilian Secretariat (total)''' | |||
| |'''~47000''' | |||
| |'''At least 638''' | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Total''' | |||
| |'''~87000''' | |||
| |'''At least 1303''' | |||
| |} | |||
| ====Autos da fe between 1701–1746==== | |||
| Table of sentences pronounced in the public ''autos da fe'' in Spain (excluding tribunals in Sicily, Sardinia and Latin America) between 1701 and 1746:<ref>Source: Teofanes Egido, ''Las modificaciones de la tipologia: nueva estructura delictiva'', in: Joaquín Pérez Villanueva & Bartolomé Escandell Bonet, ''Historia de la Inquisición en España y América'', vol. 1, Madrid 1984, p. 1395.</ref> | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%" | |||
| ! width="25%" | Tribunal | |||
| ! width="15%" | Number of ''autos da fe'' | |||
| ! width="15%" | Executions ''in persona'' | |||
| ! width="15%" | Executions ''in effigie'' | |||
| ! width="15%" | Penanced | |||
| ! width="15%" | Total | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |4 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |15 | |||
| |17 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |1 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0? | |||
| |1? | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |3 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |11 | |||
| |11 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |1 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |3 | |||
| |3 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |4 | |||
| |2 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |49 | |||
| |51 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |13 | |||
| |17 | |||
| |19 | |||
| |125 | |||
| |161 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |7 | |||
| |7 | |||
| |10 | |||
| |35 | |||
| |52 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |4 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |13 | |||
| |13 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |15 | |||
| |36 | |||
| |47 | |||
| |369 | |||
| |452 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |5 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |0 | |||
| |45 | |||
| |46 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |4 | |||
| |11 | |||
| |13 | |||
| |46 | |||
| |70 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |6 | |||
| |4 | |||
| |1 | |||
| |106 | |||
| |111 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |15 | |||
| |16 | |||
| |10 | |||
| |220 | |||
| |246 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |33 | |||
| |6 | |||
| |14 | |||
| |128 | |||
| |148 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |] | |||
| |10 | |||
| |9 | |||
| |2 | |||
| |70 | |||
| |81 | |||
| |- valign="top" | |||
| |'''Total''' | |||
| |'''125''' | |||
| |'''111''' | |||
| |'''117''' | |||
| |'''1235''' | |||
| |'''1463''' | |||
| |} | |||
| ==Historiography== | |||
| <!--NOTE: This intro paragraph is a high-level summary of the content below. Please add specific new information to the main sub-sections below.--> | |||
| How historians and commentators have viewed the Spanish Inquisition has changed over time, and continues to be a source of controversy to this day. Before and during the 19th century historical interest focused on who was being persecuted. In the early and mid 20th century historians examined the specifics of what happened and how it influenced Spanish history. In the later 20th and 21st century, historians have re-examined how severe the Inquisition really was, calling into question some of the conclusions made earlier in the 20th century. | |||
| ===19th to early 20th century scholarship=== | |||
| Before the rise of professional historians in the 19th century, the Spanish Inquisition had largely been studied and portrayed by Protestant scholars who saw it as the archetypal symbol of Catholic intolerance and ecclesiastical power.<ref name=kagan/> The Spanish Inquisition for them was largely associated with the persecution of Protestants.<ref name=kagan/> The 19th century professional historians, including the Spanish scholar ], were the first to challenge this perception and look seriously at the role of Jews and Muslims.<ref name=kagan/> | |||
| At the start of the 20th century ] published the groundbreaking ''History of the Inquisition in Spain''. This influential work saw the Spanish Inquisition as "an engine of immense power, constantly applied for the furtherance of obscurantism, the repression of thought, the exclusion of foreign ideas and the obstruction of progress."<ref name=kagan>, by ] in the '']'', April 19, 1998.</ref> Lea documented the Inquisition's methods and modes of operation in no uncertain terms, calling it "theocratic absolutism" at its worst.<ref name=kagan/> In the context of the polarization between Protestants and Catholics during the second half of the 19th century,<ref name=leabio/> some of Lea's contemporaries, as well as most modern scholars thought Lea's work had an ] bias.<ref name=leabio>{{cite web |url=http://www.library.upenn.edu/collections/rbm/mss/lea/leabio.html/ |title=Henry Charles Lea Papers - Biographical Sketch |work=Univ. of Penn.-Penn Special Collections |accessdate=2007-04-18 |date=January 11, 2003|last= |first=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.net/RCC/Periodicals/Dossier/1112-96/article3.html |title=A New Industry: The Inquisition |work=Catholic.net |accessdate=2007-04-18 |date=November 12, 1996|last=Van Hove |first=Brian |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070405150258/http://www.catholic.net/RCC/Periodicals/Dossier/1112-96/article3.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate=2007-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| ], the Boston historian, likened the Inquisition to an "eye that never slumbered". | |||
| Starting in the 1920s, Jewish scholars picked up where Lea's work left off.<ref name=kagan/> ]'s ''History of the Jews in Christian Spain'', ]'s ''History of the Marranos'' and, after World War II, the work of ] who for the first time published trial transcripts of cases involving conversos. | |||
| === Revision after 1960 === | |||
| {{Main|Historical revision of the Inquisition}} | |||
| One of the first books to challenge the classical view was ''The Spanish Inquisition'' (1965) by ]. Kamen established that the Inquisition was not nearly as cruel or as powerful as commonly believed. The book was very influential and largely responsible for subsequent studies in the 1970s to try to quantify (from archival records) the Inquisition's activities from 1480 to 1834.<ref>See for example Jean-Pierre Dedieu, Los Cuatro Tiempos, in Bartolomé Benassar, Inquisición Española: poder político y control social, pp. 15-39 and Ricardo García Cárcel, Orígenes de la Inquisición Española. El Tribunal de Valencia, 1478–1530. Barcelona, 1976.</ref> Those studies showed there was an initial burst of activity against conversos suspected of relapsing into Judaism, and a mid-16th century pursuit of Protestants, but the Inquisition served principally as a forum Spaniards occasionally used to humiliate and punish people they did not like: blasphemers, bigamists, foreigners and, in Aragon, homosexuals and horse smugglers.<ref name=kagan/> There were so few Protestants in Spain that widespread persecution of Protestantism was not physically possible.{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}} Kamen went on to publish two more books in 1985 and 2006 that incorporated new findings, further supporting the view that the Inquisition was not as bad as once described by Lea and others. Along similar lines is ]'s ''Inquisition'' (1988). | |||
| One of the most important works in challenging traditional views of the Inquisition as it related to the Jewish conversos or New Christians, was ''The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain'' by ]. It challenged the view that most conversos were actually practicing Judaism in secret and were persecuted for their crypto-Judaism. Rather, according to Netanyahu, the persecution was fundamentally racial, and was a matter of envy of their success in Spanish society.<ref>http://www.tabletmag.com/news-and-politics/38335/personal-history/</ref> | |||
| ==In popular culture== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ===Literature=== | |||
| * The literature of the 18th century approaches the theme of the Inquisition from a critical point of view. In '']'' by ], the Inquisition appears as the epitome of intolerance and arbitrary justice in Portugal and America. | |||
| * During the ], the ], which was primarily a genre developed in Protestant countries, frequently associated Catholicism with terror and repression. This vision of the Spanish Inquisition appears in, among other works, '']'' (1796) by ] (set in Madrid during the Inquisition, but can be seen as commenting on the ] and ]); in '']'' (1820) by ] and in '']'' by ] author ]. | |||
| * 19th century literature tends to focus on the element of torture employed by the Inquisition. In France, in the early 19th century, the ] '']'', which has been attributed to Spaniard ], ferociously criticizes the Inquisition and its representatives. The Inquisition also appears in one of the chapters of the novel '']'' (1880) by ], which imagines an encounter between ] and the Inquisitor General. One of the best known stories of ], '']'', explores along the same lines the use of torture by the Inquisition. | |||
| *20th century literature. ''La Gesta del Marrano'' by the Argentine Author, ], portrays the length of the Inquisition's arm to reach people in Argentina during the 16th and 17th centuries. The ] series '']'' shows the Inquisition targeting ] for "blasphemy". The character ] also appears as the Grand Inquisitor.The ] novels by the Spanish writer ] are set in the early 17th century. The second novel, Purity of Blood, has the narrator being tortured by the Inquisition and describes an ]. ]'s novella, published in 1994, '']'' (''In the Last Blue'') is set during the repression of the ''chuetas'' (''conversos'' from ]) at the end of the 17th century. In 1998, the Spanish writer ] published the historical novel ''The Heretic'', about the Protestants of ] and their repression by the Inquisition.'']'', (1992) one of the '']'' Novels by ] centres around a small country - Omnia - in which all the inhabitants are (nominally) followers of the ]. One of the ways to ensure that all ]s follow the words of the Omnian prophets, is a torture body, known as the Quisition, whose methods are reminiscent of those ascribed to the Spanish Inquisition. Similarly, the '']'' series by ] includes an Inquisition-like body informally called "the Questioners" who employ torture to extract confessions from people who "sin against the Light". ]'s ] deals directly with the Spanish Inquisition during the first part of the novel. | |||
| ===Film=== | |||
| * The 1947 epic '']'' by ], starring ], uses The Inquisition as the major plot point of the film. It tells how powerful families used its evils to ruin their rivals. The first part of the film shows this and the reach of the Inquisition reoccurs throughout this movie following ] (played by Power) even to the 'New World'. | |||
| * ]'s '']'' has been brought to the screen many times. Perhaps best known is the ] by ] in 1961. However, the film has much less to do with the Inquisition than the original story. | |||
| * The Inquisition captures the main character in the 1965 Polish film ''Rekopis Znaleziony w Saragossie'' (''The ]''). | |||
| * In both the stage and film versions of the musical play '']'', ] is arrested by the Spanish Inquisition and thrown into a dungeon, in which he and the other prisoners perform the story of ]. At the end of the musical, he and his manservant are escorted by the Inquisition to their trial. | |||
| * The ] of the 1981 Mel Brooks movie '']'' is a comedic musical performance based on the activities of the first ] of Spain, ]. | |||
| * The film '']'' (1984) by ], deals with the ] of the Witches of ] in ]. | |||
| * The beginning of the film '']'' (1992) by ] speaks of the fear induced by the Spanish Inquisition and shows several aspects of the relaxation to the secular arm. | |||
| * In the 1998 film '']'', ] is tried before the Spanish Inquisition. | |||
| * The film '']'' (2006) by ], features the Spanish Inquisition as part of a plot in 1500 when the Grand Inquisitor threatens Queen Isabella's life. | |||
| * '']'' (2006) by ] is set in Spain between 1792 and 1809 and focuses realistically on the role of the Inquisition and its end under Napoleon's rule. | |||
| * The film '']'' (2006) is set in 16th century Spain at the height of the Inquisition's persecution of the hidden Jews. | |||
| ===Theatre, music, television, and video games=== | |||
| * The Grand Inquisitor of Spain plays a part in '']'', (1867) a play by ] (which was the basis for the ] in five acts by ], in which the Inquisitor is also featured, and the third act is dedicated to an ''auto-da-fé''). | |||
| * In the ] comedy team's ], an inept Inquisitior repeatedly bursts unexpectedly into scenes after someone utters the words "I didn't expect the Spanish Inquisition", screaming "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!" The Inquisition then uses ineffectual forms of ], including a dish-drying rack, soft cushions and a comfy chair. | |||
| * The '']'' episode "Megalomaniacs!" featured a game show sketch based on the Spanish Inquisition titled "Convert or Die!" The sketch was later banned from the episode and replaced with a new sketch about ] in re-runs due to complaints from the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights that the sketch was teaching kids to reject Catholicism. However, it was restored when the episode was broadcast on ]. | |||
| * The musical ] (1965) is set in a dungeon where ] awaits a hearing with the Spanish Inquisition. | |||
| * In the Gamecube game ] (2002) part of the story unfolds in a church during the time of the Spanish Inquisition. One of the playable characters is framed and put on trial for murdering a monk. | |||
| *The Spanish Inquistion was parodied as the "Spinach Iinquisition" in the ] episode ''Codename: S.P.I.N.A.C.H.''. | |||
| ===Expressions=== | |||
| * '''Holding Someone's feet to the fire''': Torture with a view to the confession for heresy. The target was positioned in a manner that allowed the ] to apply flames to the feet & lower body of the accused. This was often done until the accused confessed or died. | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| ===Notes=== | |||
| {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
| ===Bibliography=== | |||
| <!-- Please order books alphabetically by the author's last name --> | |||
| {{Refbegin|2}} | |||
| * '''Recent scholarship''' | |||
| * | |||
| * ], ''Isabel: the Catholic Queen'', Christendom Press (1991) | |||
| * Homza, Lu Ann, ''The Spanish Inquisition, 1478–1614, An Anthology of Sources'', Hackett Publishing (2006) | |||
| * ], ''The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision'', Yale University Press (1997) | |||
| * Monter, William, ''Frontiers of Heresy: The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily'', Cambridge University Press (1990) | |||
| * ], "Some Recent Work on the Inquisition in Spain and Italy", '']'' '''54''':3 (1982) | |||
| * Rawlings, Helen, ''The Spanish Inquisition'', Blackwell Publishing (2006) | |||
| * | |||
| * '''Seminal classical works''' | |||
| * | |||
| * ], ''A History of the Inquisition of Spain'' (4 volumes), (New York and London, 1906–1907). | |||
| * ], "Historia crítica de la Inquisición de España" | |||
| * ], History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the ] and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis, B.Herder 1898 | |||
| * | |||
| * '''Old scholarship and polemics''' | |||
| * | |||
| * ], ''La Inquisición sin máscara'' (Cádiz, 1811–1813). | |||
| * ], ''Isabella of Spain'' (1930) and ''Characters of the Inquisition'' (1940). Both reprinted by TAN Books (1987). | |||
| * ], ''Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition'' (1913) | |||
| * ], ''The Spanish Inquisition'' (1937) | |||
| * C. Roth, ''History of the Marranos'' (1932) | |||
| * ], ''Medieval History and the Inquisition'' (1920) | |||
| * A.S. Turberville, ''The Spanish Inquisition'' (1932). | |||
| * ], ''La Inquisición de México'' (1906). | |||
| * Genaro Garcia, ''Autos de fe de la Inquisición de Mexico'' (1910) | |||
| * ], ''La Fee Triunfante'' (1691-reprinted 1931) | |||
| * ], ''Historia de la Inquisicion de Lima; de Chile; le la Plata; de Cartagena de las Indias; en las islas Filipinas'' (6 volumes), (1887–1899) | |||
| * ], ''Catálogo... de la Inquisición de Toledo'' (1903) | |||
| * ], ''History of the Inquisition'' (1736) | |||
| * ''History of the Inquisition from its origin under Pope Innocent III till the present time. Also the private practices of the Inquisitors, the form of trial and modes of torture'' (1814) | |||
| * ], ''A Review of the Bloody Tribunal'' (1770) | |||
| * ], ''Autos de fe and the Jew'' (1908) | |||
| * ], ''Discovery and Playne Declaration of Sundry Subtile Practices of the Holy Inquisition of Spayne'' | |||
| * ], ''De Origine et Progressu Sanctae Inquisitionis'' (1598) | |||
| * ], ''Procedimientos de la Inquisición'' (2 volumes), (1886) | |||
| * ], ''Libro Verde de Aragon'' (1929) | |||
| * ], ''La Inquisicion Espanola'' (1888) | |||
| * ], ''Catálogo Abreviado de Papeles de Inquisición'' (1914) | |||
| * ], ''Luis de Leon'' (1925) | |||
| * ], ''Torquemada'' (1935) | |||
| * Sir ], ''A Short History of the Inquisition'' (1933) | |||
| * ], ''The Inquisition'' (1929) | |||
| * ''Memoires Instructifs pour un Voyageur dans les Divers États de l'Europe'' (1738) | |||
| * ], ''La verdadera práctica apostólica de el S. Tribunal de la Inquisición'' (1735) | |||
| * ], ''A Short and True Account of the Inquisition and its Proceeding'' (1722) | |||
| * ], ''The Inquisition'' (1926) | |||
| * ], ''The Inquisition'' (1932) | |||
| * ], ''Un Complot Terrorista en el Siglo XV; los Comienzos de la Inquisicion Aragonesa'', (1927) | |||
| * ], ''Manuel de l'Inquisiteur'', (1927) | |||
| * ], ''Histoire des Tribunaux de l'Inquisition'' (1893) | |||
| * ], ''Antonio Homem e a Inquisicao'' (1902) | |||
| * ], ''A Inquisiçao em Portugal e no Brasil'' (1921) | |||
| * ], ''Historia da Origem e Estabelecimento da Inquisiçao em Portugal'' (English translation, 1926) | |||
| * ], ''Letters on the Spanish Inquisition'' (1822, composed 1815):— late defence of the Inquisition | |||
| * Cornelius August Wilkens: ''Spanish Protestants in the Sixteenth Century'' (1897), 218p. {{cite web | url=http://libro.uca.edu/title.htm | title=Title Catalog | publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources | accessdate=2006-05-17}} | |||
| * | |||
| * '''Other''' | |||
| *<!-- Can anyone verify if this works are up to the former? My quest into Amazon makes me suspicious about --> | |||
| * ], ''Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition'' (Creation Books, 2003). | |||
| * ], ''The Most Evil Men And Women In History'' (Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., 2002). | |||
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Revision as of 20:02, 23 December 2011
NOBODY EXPECTS THE SPANISH INQUISITION!!!