| Revision as of 20:12, 25 February 2012 view sourceDalai lama ding dong (talk | contribs)1,472 editsm →Secular or racial antisemitism: Corrected English.← Previous edit | Revision as of 15:48, 26 February 2012 view source ItalyMEast (talk | contribs)2 edits Having edited this meaning to its barebones,I have removed the wrong meaning of the word and feel that this may encourage the unbiased expansion of the meaning of the word.Next edit → | ||
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| {{Antisemitism}} | {{Antisemitism}} | ||
| '''Antisemitism''' (also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism''') is suspicion of, hatred toward, or ] against ] |
'''Antisemitism''' (also spelled '''anti-semitism''' or '''anti-Semitism''') is suspicion of, hatred toward, or ] against ] and Arabs. | ||
| Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or ] against individual Jews to organized ] by mobs, or even state police, or military attacks on entire Jewish communities. Extreme instances of ] include the pogroms which preceded the ] in 1096, the ] in 1290, the ] in 1391, the persecutions of the ], the ] in 1492, the ] in 1497, various ] ], the ], and ] by ] and official ] anti-Jewish policies. | |||
| While the term's ] might suggest that antisemitism is directed against all ], the term was coined in the late 19th century in Germany as a more scientific-sounding term for ''Judenhass'' ("Jew-hatred"),<ref name=Judenhass>See, for example: | |||
| *]. '']'', ], 2004, p. 150. | |||
| *Rattansi, Ali. , ], 2007, pp. 4–5. | |||
| *Rubenstein, Richard L.; Roth, John K. , ], 2003, p. 30. | |||
| *Johnston, William M. , ], 1983, p. 27.</ref> | |||
| and that has been its normal use since then.<ref name=JustJews>See, for example: | |||
| *]. . Extract from ''Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East'', The Library Press, 1973. | |||
| *"Anti-Semitism", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2006. | |||
| *]. ''A History of the Jews'', HarperPerennial 1988, p 133 ff. | |||
| *]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at ] on March 24, 2004.</ref> | |||
| ==Etymology and usage== | |||
| ===Usage=== | |||
| Despite the use of the prefix ''anti-'', the terms ''Semitic'' and ''anti-Semitic'' are not directly opposed to each other. ''Antisemitism'' refers specifically to prejudice against ]s alone and in general,<ref name=JustJews/><ref></ref> despite the fact that there are other speakers of ]s (e.g. ]s, ], or ]) and that not all Jews speak a Semitic language. | |||
| The term ''anti-Semitic'' has been used on occasion to include bigotry against other Semitic-language peoples such as Arabs, but such usage is not widely accepted.<ref>]. , Dundurn Press, 2005, p. 34.</ref><ref>{{cite book | |||
| |title=Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into conflict and Prejudice | |||
| |first=Bernard | |||
| |last=Lewis | |||
| |authorlink=Bernard Lewis | |||
| |page=117 | |||
| |year=1999 | |||
| |unused_data=W. W. Norton}}</ref> | |||
| Both terms ''anti-Semitism'' and ''antisemitism'' are in common use. Some scholars favor the unhyphenated form ''antisemitism'' to avoid possible confusion involving whether the term refers specifically to Jews, or to ]-language speakers as a whole.<ref>{{PDFlink| (Facing History).|184 KB}} Accessed August 21, 2006</ref><ref name=Bauer>]. {{PDFlink||196 KB}}. Retrieved March 12, 2006.</ref><ref name=Bauer2>Bauer, Yehuda. ''A History of the Holocaust'', Franklin Watts, 1982, p. 52. ISBN 0-531-05641-4</ref><ref name=Almog>Almog, Shmuel. , SICSA Report: Newsletter of the ] (Summer 1989).</ref> For example, ] supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "dispel the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."<ref name=Fackenheim>]; ]. , ], 1983, p. 199.</ref> | |||
| ===Etymology=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Although ] is generally credited with coining the word ''anti-Semitism'' (see below), ] writes that the word was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar ] in the phrase "anti-Semitic prejudices".<ref>]. . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, p. 594. ISBN 0-8386-3252-1.</ref> Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize ]'s ideas about how "] races" were inferior to "] races." These ] theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as ]n nationalistic historian ] did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the term "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by ].<ref>] ''], Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003, page 404 ISBN 978-0812218657</ref> In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was synonymous with ''Jewish'', in contrast to its use by Renan and others. | |||
| In 1873 German journalist ] published a pamphlet ''"The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective."'' (''"Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet."'')<ref>]. Rudolph Costenoble. 1879, 8th edition. Archive.org.</ref> in which he used the word ''"Semitismus"'' interchangeably with the word "Judentum" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). Although he did not use the word "Antisemitismus" in the pamphlet, the coining of the latter word followed naturally from the word "Semitismus", and indicated either opposition to the Jews as a people, or else opposition to Jewishness or the Jewish spirit, which he saw as infiltrating German culture. In his next pamphlet, ''"The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit"'', published in 1880, Marr developed his ideas further and coined the related German word ''Antisemitismus'' – ''antisemitism'', derived from the word "Semitismus" that he had earlier used. | |||
| The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''"League of Antisemites"'' ("''Antisemiten-Liga''"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence, and advocating their ] from the country. | |||
| So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''"Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,"'' and ] used the term "''Antisemiten''" in the January issue of ''"Neue Freie Presse"''. The related word '']'' was coined around 1885. | |||
| ===Definition=== | |||
| Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Holocaust scholar and ] professor ] defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews." Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the ] writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the antisemites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."<ref>Avner, Falk. , ], 2008, p. 5.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated1">]. , ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, pp. 25–36. The paper is based on a lecture delivered at ] on March 24, 2004.</ref> | |||
| There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The U.S. Department of State defines antisemitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name="USDS"/> | |||
| In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now ]), then an agency of the ], developed a more detailed ], which states: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It adds "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity." It provides contemporary examples of antisemitism, which include: promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; ] or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of ] or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, or applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel.<ref name=workingdef>{{PDFlink||33.8 KB}}, EUMC.</ref> | |||
| ]: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)]] | |||
| ===Evolution of usage === | |||
| In 1879, ] founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (Antisemitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe in the latter 19th century. For example, ], the popular mayor of ] ], skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref>Richard S. Geehr. ''Karl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna'', Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1989. ISBN 0-8143-2055-4</ref> In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''The New York Times'' notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref> ''The New York Times'', March 11, 1910.</ref> In 1895 ] organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the period before ], when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, organization, or political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic. | |||
| In 1882, the early Zionist pioneer ] wrote that antisemitism was an inherited predisposition:{{quote|Judeophobia is a psychic aberration. As a psychic aberration it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable.' ... 'In this way have Judaism and Anti-Semitism passed for centuries through history as inseparable companions.'... ...'Having analyzed Judeophobia as an hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and having represented Anti-Semitism as proceeding from an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion that we must give' up contending against these hostile impulses as we must against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>]</ref>}} | |||
| In the aftermath of ], ] announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>''Daily Telegraph'', November 12, 1938. Cited in ]. ''Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction.'' Harper Collins, 2006, p. 142.</ref> | |||
| After ]'s fall from power, and particularly after the extent of the ] ] of Jews became known, the term "antisemitism" acquired ] connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>Jacob Rader Marcus. ''United States Jewry, 1776–1985.'' Wayne State University Press, 1989, page 286. ISBN 0-8143-2186-0</ref><ref>Alex Bein. ''The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem''. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, Page 580. ISBN 0-8386-3252-1</ref> Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no antisemites in the world... Nobody says, 'I am antisemitic.'" You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>]: ''The Most Ancient Group Prejudice'' in Leo Eitinger (1984): ''The Anti-Semitism of Our Time''. Oslo. Nansen Committee. p.14. citing from: Jocelyn Hellig (2003): ''The Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History.'' Oneworld Publications. p. 73. ISBN 1-85168-313-5.</ref> | |||
| ==Forms== | |||
| ] and ]) being burned during the ] in 1348.]] | |||
| It is often emphasized that there are different forms of antisemitism. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of antisemitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of antisemitism."<ref>{{cite book |title=Materialien zur Kriminalsoziologie |first=René |last= König |publisher=VS Verlag |year=2004 |page=231 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=N9oL2cljv8QC&pg=PA231&dq=%22economic+antisemitism%22+%22religious+antisemitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22economic%20antisemitism%22%20%22religious%20antisemitism%22&f=false |isbn=9783810033062}}</ref> These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |title=Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes |first=Bernard |last=Lazare |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |year=2006 |page=224|url=http://books.google.com/?id=VP81v2Y24HUC&pg=PA224&lpg=PA224&dq=religious+antisemitism+%22economic+antisemitism%22#v=onepage&q=religious%20antisemitism%20%22economic%20antisemitism%22&f=false |isbn=9781596056015}}</ref> | |||
| William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic and political.<ref>{{cite book |title=Roots of hate: anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |first=William |last=Brustein |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |page=46 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC&pg=PA46&dq=antisemitism+economic+racial+religious#v=onepage&q=antisemitism%20economic%20racial%20religious&f=false |isbn=9780521774789}}</ref> The ] historian ] distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:<ref>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1965, this edition 2004.</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2010}} | |||
| *political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples ] and ]; | |||
| *], sometimes known as ]; | |||
| *nationalistic antisemitism, citing ] and other ] thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as ] and ]; | |||
| *and ], with its extreme form resulting in the ] by the ]s. | |||
| Louis Harap separates "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature, 1900-1940s |first=Louis |last=Harap |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1987 |page=24|url=http://books.google.com/?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA24&dq=%22Economic+Jew%22#v=onepage&q=%22Economic%20Jew%22&f=false |isbn=9780313253867}}</ref> | |||
| * religious (Jew as Christ-killer), | |||
| * economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed), | |||
| * social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy," vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact), | |||
| * racist (Jews as an inferior "race"), | |||
| * ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary), | |||
| * cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization). | |||
| ===Cultural antisemitism=== | |||
| Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture.<ref>{{cite book |title=Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature |first=Louis |last=Harap |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1987 |page=76 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=mAPvam-n_DYC&pg=PA76&dq=Harap+%22cultural+anti+semitism%22#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn=9780313253867}}</ref> Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of “Jewishness” as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."<ref name=Kandel30>{{cite book |title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |first=Eric R. |last=Kandel |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2007 |page=30 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30&dq=%22cultural+anti+semitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22cultural%20anti%20semitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780393329377}}</ref> Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |first1=Donald L. |last1=Niewyk|first2=Francis R. |last2=Nicosia |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003|page=215|url=http://books.google.com/?id=z-6vKBHggVwC&pg=PA215&dq=%22Cultural+antisemitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22Cultural%20antisemitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780231112017}}</ref> | |||
| An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or religious conversion.<ref name=Kandel3031>{{cite book |title=In search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |first=Eric R. |last=Kandel |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2007 |pages=30–31 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=PFnRwWXzypgC&pg=PA30&dq=%22cultural+anti+semitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22cultural%20anti%20semitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780393329377}}</ref> | |||
| ===Religious antisemitism=== | |||
| {{See also|Anti-Judaism|Christianity and antisemitism|Islam and antisemitism}} | |||
| ] is also known as anti-Judaism. Under this version of antisemitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practicing or changed their public faith, especially by ] to the official or right religion, and sometimes, liturgical exclusion of Jewish converts (the case of Christianized '']'' or Iberian Jews in the late 15th century and 16th century convicted of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs).<ref name=Flannery>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism'', Stimulus Books, first published 1985, this edition 2004.</ref> | |||
| Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, religious antisemitism, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that, "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism and the like."<ref>{{cite book |title=A concise history of American antisemitism |first=Robert |last=Michael |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2005|page=vii |url=http://books.google.com/?id=5G3feplFBYUC&pg=PR7&dq=%22Cultural+antisemitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22Cultural%20antisemitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780742543133}}</ref> William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion . . . a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "... the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism ... . From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." | |||
| ===Economic antisemitism=== | |||
| The underlying premise of ] is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref name=MeyerBrenner220>{{cite book |title=German-Jewish History in Modern Times: Integration in dispute, 1871–1918 |publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1998 |page=220 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=HFFoSglsovoC&pg=PA220&dq=economic+antisemitism#v=onepage&q=economic%20antisemitism&f=false |isbn=9780231074766}}</ref> | |||
| Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting ].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jews & Money – The story of a stereotype|url=http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp|accessdate=2011-04-18}}</ref> ]s say that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the ], and later repeated by ] and his ]. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as ] published by the ], and on the internet. | |||
| ]'', around Christmas 1929. It urged Germans to avoid buying from Jewish shops.]] | |||
| ] writes that there are two components to the financial ]:<ref>Penslar, p 5</ref>a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor" | |||
| :b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination" | |||
| ] describes six facets of the financial canards: | |||
| #All Jews are wealthy <ref>Foxman, p 84</ref> | |||
| #Jews are stingy and greedy<ref>Foxman, p 89</ref> | |||
| #Powerful Jews control the business world<ref>Foxman, p 93</ref> | |||
| #Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism<ref>Foxman, p 98</ref> | |||
| #It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews<ref>Foxman, p 102</ref> | |||
| #Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"<ref>Foxman, p 105</ref> | |||
| Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as " control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses – of the community, of the country, of the world".<ref>Krefetz, p 45</ref> Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.<ref>Krefetz, p 6-7</ref> During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the ] and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate ".<ref>Krefetz, p 47</ref> | |||
| ] asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of the economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, the economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".<ref>Penslar, p 12</ref> | |||
| ===Racial antisemitism=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] is prejudice against ]s as a racial/ethnic group, rather than ] as a religion.<ref>, ].</ref> | |||
| ] is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the ] movement, which categorized non-"Europeans" as inferior. It more specifically claimed that the "Nordic" Europeans were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their "alien" extra-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion. Anthropologists discussed whether the Jews possessed any Arabic-], African-] or Asian-] ancestries. | |||
| Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the ], following the ], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing ], the rise of ], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism. | |||
| According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on ] or ] grounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion . . . a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism ... . From the ] onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."<ref>Nichols, William: ''Christian Antisemitism, A History of Hate'' (1993) p. 314.</ref> | |||
| In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling ] were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>Paul Webster (2001)''Petain's Crime''. London, Pan Books: 13, 15</ref><ref>Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2006) ''The Paradox of Anti-Semitism''. Continuum: 44–46</ref> The old laws restricting them to ]s, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by ], encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as ] and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–5.] agendas based on ], known as ], usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.<ref>Steven Beller (2007)''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': 64</ref> Allied to this were theories of ], which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by white Europeans, advocated the superiority of white ]s to ] Jews.<ref>Steven Beller (2007) ''Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction'': pp 57–9</ref> | |||
| ===Political antisemitism=== | |||
| {{Expand section|date=June 2011}} | |||
| William Brustein defines ] as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national and/or world power." Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book |title=Genocide, critical issues of the Holocaust: a companion to the film, Genocide |publisher=Behrman House, Inc |year=1983 |page=100 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=DcdiVs9lwvcC&pg=PA100&dq=%22political+antisemitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22political%20antisemitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780940646049}}</ref> | |||
| According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal ] and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation. | |||
| <ref>{{cite book |title=The Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline |first=Viktor |last=Karády |publisher=Central European University Press |year=2004 |page=348 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=4hGg9rMQpEEC&pg=PA351&dq=anti+semitism+occupations#v=onepage&q=anti%20semitism%20occupations&f=false |isbn=9789639241527}}</ref> | |||
| ===Apocalyptic antisemitism=== | |||
| {{Expand section|date=July 2011}} | |||
| ]'s millennial and messianic vision which culminated in the ] is sometimes referred to as an "apocalyptic antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |title=Charles B. |last1=Strozier |first2=David M. |last2=Terman |first3=James William |last3=Jones |first4=Katharine |last4=Boyd |publisher=Oxford University Press US |year=2010 |page=168 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=mWqLrJpSA4oC&pg=PA168&dq=%22apocalyptic+anti+semitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22apocalyptic%20anti%20semitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780195379655}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The color of words: an encyclopaedic dictionary of ethnic bias in the United States |first=Philip |last=Herbst |publisher=Intercultural Press |year=1997 |page=13 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=UiZQH5gHuggC&pg=PA13&dq=%22new+antisemitism%22+economic+racial+religious#v=onepage&q=%22new%20antisemitism%22%20economic%20racial%20religious&f=false |isbn=9781877864971}}</ref> | |||
| ===Conspiracy theories=== | |||
| <!-- refs need sorting out --> | |||
| ] and ] theories are also considered a form of antisemitism.<ref name="hoax">Mathis, Andrew E. , ], July 2, 2004. Retrieved May 16, 2007.</ref><ref>Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. ''Denying History: : who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?'', University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-23469-3, p. 106.</ref><ref>, ], 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007.</ref><ref>]. ''Denying the Holocaust – The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1993, ISBN 0-452-27274-2, p. 27.</ref><ref name="adl.org">, "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", ], 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.</ref><ref name="adl.org"/> | |||
| <ref>Lawrence N. Powell, ''Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana'', University of North Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="antisemitic">|33.8 KB, ]</ref> ] have been propagated by the Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage. | |||
| ===New antisemitism=== | |||
| {{Main|New antisemitism}} | |||
| ]. Latuff is an extreme left-wing political activist who won second place in the ].]] | |||
| Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of ], coming simultaneously from the ], the ], and ], which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the ],<ref name="New-AS-List"> | |||
| *]. ''The New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158–159, 181 | |||
| *]. , accessed March 5, 2006 | |||
| *, '']'', August 8, 2004. | |||
| *Endelman, Todd M. in ''Contemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World''. University of Toronto Press, 2005, pp. 65–79. | |||
| *]. , Dundurn Press, 2005, pp. 30–31. | |||
| </ref> and argue that the language of ] and ] are used to attack the Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that ] and ] are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to antisemitism.<ref> | |||
| Sources for the following are: | |||
| *]. , 2003, retrieved April 22, 2006. | |||
| *]. ''The New Anti-Semitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It'', Jossey-Bass, 2003, pp. 158–159, 181. | |||
| *Doward, Jamie. , '']'', August 8, 2004. | |||
| *]. , accessed March 5, 2006. | |||
| *]. , Ha'aretz, September 6, 2002, retrieved on January 10, 2007. | |||
| *Strauss, Mark. in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed). ''Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism'', Random House 2004, p 272.</ref> It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the "]".<ref name="New-AS-List"/> | |||
| Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and deflect attention from legitimate ], and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misused to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>]. . '']'', posted January 15, 2004 (February 2, 2004 issue), accessed January 9, 2006; and ]. , posted February 5, 2007. Retrieved February 6, 2007.</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{Main|History of antisemitism}} | |||
| Many authors see the roots of economic antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. ] identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism: | |||
| #Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature | |||
| #Christian anti-semitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times | |||
| #Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was – at least in its classical form – nuanced in that Jews were a protected class | |||
| #Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism | |||
| #Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism | |||
| #Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the ] | |||
| Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."<ref name=Chanes5>{{cite book |title=Antisemitism: a reference handbook |first=Jerome A. |last=Chanes|publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |pages=5–6 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=ju7U83nRDt8C&pg=PA5&dq=%22economic+antisemitism%22+antiquity#v=onepage&q=%22economic%20antisemitism%22%20antiquity&f=false |isbn=9781576072097}}</ref> | |||
| ===Ancient world=== | |||
| The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced back to ] in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name=Flannery>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism''. Paulist Press, first published in 1985; this edition 2004, pp. 11–2. ISBN 0-8091-2702-4. ]</ref> Alexandria was home to the largest Jewish community in the world and the ], a Greek translation of the ], was produced there. ], an Egyptian priest and historian of that time, wrote scathingly of the Jews and his themes are repeated in the works of ], ], ], ], and in ] and ].<ref name=Flannery /> ] ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of ]", making a mocking reference to how ] was able to invade ] in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the '']''.<ref name=Flannery /> One of the earliest anti-Jewish ]s, promulgated by ] in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the ] in ]. | |||
| In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the ] retelling of ]ian prejudices".<ref name="Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. ''Judeophobia'', Harvard University Press, 1997, p 208.]</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher ] describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name=Barclay>Barclay, John M G, 1999. ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE)'', University of California. John M. G. Barclay of the ]</ref><ref>Philo of Alexandria, </ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as ].<ref name=vanderhorst>Van Der Horst, Pieter Willem, 2003. ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom'', Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, Brill. ]</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the '']''.<ref name=tcherikover>Tcherikover, Victor, ''Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews'', New York: Atheneum, 1975</ref> Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name=Bohak>Bohak, Gideon. "The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context" in Menachem Mor et al., ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud'', Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003, p 27–43.</ref> | |||
| Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many ] ] and ] writers.<ref>Daniels. J,L,''Anti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period'' in JBL 98 (1979) pp.45–65</ref> Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." ], an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian ] who had been taught by ] "not to adore the gods." The same themes appeared in the works of ], ], ], ], and in ] and ]. ] wrote about the "ridiculous practices" of the Jews and of the "absurdity of their Law" and how ] was able to invade ] in 320 BC because its inhabitants were observing the ].<ref name=Flannery>Flannery, Edward H. ''The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism''. Paulist Press, first published in 1985; this edition 2004, pp. 11–12.</ref> Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."<ref>{{cite book |title=The anguish of the Jews: twenty-three centuries of antisemitism |first=Edward H. |last=Flannery |publisher=Paulist Press |year=1985 |page=25 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=J40gNC7cxfYC&pg=PA25&dq=%22economic+antisemitism%22#v=onepage&q=%22economic%20antisemitism%22&f=false |isbn=9780809143245}}</ref> | |||
| There are examples of ] rulers desecrating the ] and banning Jewish religious practices, such as ], Shabbat observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in ] in the 3rd century BCE. ] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. | |||
| The Jewish diaspora on the ] island ], which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>Colpe, Carsten (Berlin). "Anti-Semitism." Brill's New Pauly. Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 28 April 2008</ref> | |||
| Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying ] were at times antagonistic and resulted in ]. According to ], the emperor ] expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th century English historian ] identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE {{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews ]. | |||
| ] asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the ]. By that ratio, if other factors such as ]s and ]s had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>Carroll, James. '']'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| ===Persecutions in the Middle Ages=== | |||
| {{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|history}} | |||
| From the 9th century CE, the ] classified Jews (and Christians) as '']'', and allowed them to practice their religion more freely than they could do in ]. Under ], there was a ] that lasted until at least the 11th century,<ref>{{Cite book|first=María Rosa|last=Menocal|author-link=María Rosa Menocal|title=The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain|date=April 2003|publisher=Back Bay Books|isbn=0316168718}}</ref> when several Muslim ]s against Jews took place in the ]; those that occurred in ] in 1011 and in ].<ref name="Schweitzer267-268">Schweitzer, Perry (2002) pp. 267–268.</ref><ref> by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, '']''. 1906 ed.</ref><ref>Harzig, Hoerder & Shubert, 2003, p. 42.</ref> Several decrees ordering the destruction of ]s were also enacted in ], ], ] and ] from the 11th century. Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, ] and ] several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref></ref> The ], who had taken control of the ]' ] and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name=islamicworldeb>Islamic world. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 2, 2007, from .</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.<ref name=frank>Frank and Leaman, 2003, p. 137-138.</ref><ref></ref><ref></ref> Some, such as the family of ], fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,<ref name=frank/> while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.<ref></ref> | |||
| During the ] in Europe there was persecution against Jews in many places, with ]s, expulsions, ]s and ]s. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. The persecution hit its first peak during the ]. In the ] (1096) flourishing communities on the ] and the ] ]. In the ] (1147) the Jews in Germany were subject to several massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the ]s of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including, in 1290, the banishing of all ] Jews; in 1396, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews in France; and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{Wayback |url=http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |date=20031211173212 |title=Why the Jews? – Black Death}}</ref> In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed European promoting antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>Franco Mormando, ''The Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy'', Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1999, Chapter Two.</ref> | |||
| As the ] epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, Jews were used as ]. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed. Although ] tried to protect them by the July 6, 1348, ] and an additional bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in ], where the plague had not yet affected the city.<ref name="Black">See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, ''La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire'' ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in '']'' magazine, n°310, June 2006, p.47 {{fr icon}}</ref> | |||
| ===Seventeenth century=== | |||
| During the mid-to-late 17th century the ] was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in hundreds of thousands. First, the ] when ]'s ] massacred tens of thousands of ] in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's ]). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and ], called ''jasyr''.<ref>"Bogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed." , '']''. Accessed May 13, 2007.</ref><ref>"... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's Cossack soldiers on the rampage." ]. ''Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past'', Columbia University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-231-10965-2, p. 219.</ref> | |||
| European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. ], the Dutch governor of ], implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the ] did Jews gain legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boyer|first=Ed. by Paul S.|title=The Oxford companion to United States history|year=2006|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780195082098|pages=42}}</ref> | |||
| ===Enlightenment=== | |||
| In 1744, ] limited the number of Jews allowed to live in ] to only ten so-called "protected" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other ]n cities. In 1750 he issued the ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the "protected" Jews had an alternative to "either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin" (quoting ]). In the same year, Archduchess of Austria ] ordered Jews out of ] but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This ] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, ] abolished most of these persecution practices in his '']'', on the condition that ] and ] were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. ] wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution." | |||
| In 1772, the empress of Russia ] forced the Jews of the ] to stay in their ] and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the ].<ref></ref> | |||
| ===Islamic antisemitism in the nineteenth century=== | |||
| Historian ] writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. ] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish ]. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10>]. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref> | |||
| ===Secular or racial antisemitism=== | |||
| In 1850 the German composer ] published '']'' ("Jewishness in Music") under a ] in the '']''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries (and rivals) ] and ], but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in ]. Antisemitism can also be found in many of the ] by ] and ], published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the ] of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain (Der gute Handel)" and "The Jew Among Thorns (Der Jude im Dorn)." | |||
| The ] was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. ], a Jewish artillery captain in the French army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to ] at Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides regarding whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. ] accused the army of polluting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: eighty percent of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.</ref> | |||
| ] (1835–1909), the ] court chaplain to ], founded in 1878 an antisemitic, ] political party called The ]. However, this party did not attract as many votes as the Nazi party, which flourished in part because of ], which hit Germany especially hard during the early 1930s.<ref>Harold M. Green (2003). "Adolf Stoecker:Portrait of a Demagogue." ''Politics and Policy'''''31'''(1):106–129; D.A. Jeremy Telman (1995) "Adolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission." ''Jewish History'''''9'''(2):93–112</ref> | |||
| Some scholars view ] essay '']'' as antisemitic, and he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.<ref name="Jacobs2005">{{cite book |chapter=Marx, Karl (1818–1883) |title=Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |last=Jacobs |first=Jack |authorlink= |editor=Levy, Richard S. |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=1851094393 |pages=446–447 |url= }}</ref><ref name="Lewis1999">{{cite book |title=Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1999 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=0393318397 |pages=112 |url= }}</ref> Marx's equation of Judaism with capitalism, together with his pronouncements on Jews, strongly influenced socialist movements and shaped their attitudes and policies toward the Jews. Marx's ''On the Jewish Question'' influenced ], as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.<ref name="Perry2005">{{cite book |title=Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present |last=Perry |first=Marvin |authorlink= |coauthors=Schweitzer, Frederick M. |year=2005 |publisher=Palgrave |location=New York |isbn=0312165617 |pages=154–157 |url= }}</ref><ref name="Stav2003">{{cite book |chapter=Israeli Anti-Semitism |title=Israel and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk |last=Stav |first=Arieh |authorlink= |editor=Sharan, Shlomo |year=2003 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |location=Brighton |isbn=1903900522 |pages=171 |url= |quote=Hitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism. }}</ref><ref name="Muravchik2003">According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four point: "combat the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can achieve permanent health." See {{cite book |title=Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |last=Muravchik |first=Joshua |authorlink=Joshua Muravchik |coauthors= |year=2003 |publisher=Encounter Books |location=San Francisco |isbn=1893554457 |pages=164 |url= }}</ref> ] and ] have suggested that Marx was ].<ref>Lindemann, Albert S. ''Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews''. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521795389, ISBN 9780521795388. p. 166.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Antisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity |last=Maccoby |first=Hyam |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=041531173X |pages=64–66 |url= }}</ref> | |||
| Others point out that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.<ref>David McLellan: ''Marx before Marxism'' (1970), pp.141-142</ref><ref>Y. Peled: From theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation, in: ''History of Political Thought'', Volume 13, Number 3, 1992, pp. 463-485(23); | |||
| </ref><ref>{{Cite book | |||
| | last=Brown | |||
| | first=Wendy | |||
| | author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist) | |||
| | year=1995 | |||
| | contribution=Rights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question' | |||
| | editor-last=Sarat | |||
| | editor-first=Austin | |||
| | editor2-last=Kearns | |||
| | editor2-first=Thomas | |||
| | title=Identities, Politics, and Rights | |||
| | publisher=University of Michigan Press | |||
| | pages=85–130 | |||
| | postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref><ref>Robert Fine: in: ''] Journal'' 2, May 2006</ref> The political-scientist Professor Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote in his textbook: "This work has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>Iain Hampsher-Monk, ''A History of Modern Political Thought'' (1992), Blackwell Publishing, p. 496</ref> Also, McLellan and ] argue readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with ], author of '']'', about ] in Germany. ] says: "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>Wheen, F., Karl Marx, p. 56</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word ''Judentum'' colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as ''an extended pun at Bauer's expense''.<ref>McLellan 1980, p.142</ref> | |||
| ===Twentieth century=== | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe. Before 1900 American Jews had always amounted to less than 1 percent of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews formed about 3½ percent. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the USA, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of ] by a mob of prominent citizens in ], ] in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.<ref> | |||
| .</ref> The case was also used{{by whom|date=November 2011}} to build support for the renewal of the ] which had been inactive since 1870.<ref>Levy, Richard S. , ], p. 72.</ref> | |||
| In the beginning of 20th century, the ] in Russia represented incidents of blood-libel in Europe. Christians{{which?|date=November 2011}} used allegations of Jews killing Christians as justification for killing of Jews. | |||
| Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer ] propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper '']'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of ] in the late 1930s attacked ]'s ] and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: ], Chairman of the ], blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the ], and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book |last=Arad |first=Gulie Ne'eman |title=America, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism |year=2000 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Indianapolis |isbn=0253338093 |page=174}}</ref> | |||
| ]'' members shoot Jews on the outskirts of ], 1941-1942]] | |||
| In the 1940s the ] ] and many prominent Americans led The ] in opposing any involvement in the war against ]. During his July 1936 visit to Germany, he wrote letters saying that there was "more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized". | |||
| The ] held parades in New York City during the late 1930s, where members wore ] uniforms and raised flags featuring ]s alongside American flags. With the start of U.S. involvement in ] most of the Bund's members were placed{{by whom|date=November 2011}} in ]s, and some were deported{{by whom|date=November 2011}} at the end of the war. | |||
| Sometimes race riots, as in ] in 1943, targeted Jewish businesses for looting and burning.<ref>Capeci Jr., Dominic J. , in Maurianne Adams, John H. Bracey. ''Strangers & neighbors: relations between Blacks & Jews in the United States'', ], 1999, p. 384.</ref> | |||
| ]|thumb]] | |||
| <!-- ], May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the ]s. This image shows the arrival of ] Jews from ], many of them from the ] ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the ]. Courtesy of ].<ref name=AuschwitzAlbum>, ].</ref> {{ifdc|1=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log=2009 April 6}}]] --> | |||
| In Germany the ] regime of ], which came to power on 30 January 1933, instituted repressive legislation denying the Jews basic civil rights. It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed '']'', in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>Ian Kershaw (2008) ''Fateful Choices'': 441-44 | |||
| </ref> Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to Nazi-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) ''The Third Reich: A Concise History''. Tempus.</ref> After the invasion of Russia in 1941 a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the ], culminated between 1942 to 1945 in systematic ]: ].<ref name="saul1">Saul Friedlander (2008) The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name="saul1"/><ref>Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)</ref><ref>]. ''The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945''. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.</ref> | |||
| Antisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for personal conflicts in ], starting from conflict between ] and ] and continuing through numerous conspiracy-theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the ] (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name="jcws">{{cite journal|author=Konstantin Azadovskii and Boris Egorov| title=From Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism| journal=Journal of Cold War Studies| year=2002| volume=4:1| issue=Winter| pages=66–80| url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31}}</ref><ref name="Myth">{{cite book|title=The Myth of the Jewish Race| coauthors=Raphael and Jennifer Patai| year=1989| page=178| publisher=Wayne State University Press| isbn=0814319483, 9780814319482}}</ref> This culminated in the so-called ] (1952–1953). Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name="Myth" /> | |||
| After the war, the ] and "]" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The ] has a common theme of ] rumours.<ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://books.google.com/?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA233&dq=Cracow+Kupa+synagogue+ritual+murder | title = Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath | isbn = 9780813531588 | author1 = Zimmerman | first1 = Joshua D | year = 2003}} | |||
| </ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://books.google.com/?id=xZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pg=PA74&dq=blood+libel+kielce | title = World without civilization: Mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis | isbn = 9780761829638 | author1 = Spector | first1 = Robert Melvin | year = 2005}}</ref> | |||
| In 1965 ] disbanded the cult of ], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled{{by whom|date=November 2011}}. He was removed from the ], and his future veneration was forbidden{{by whom|date=November 2011}}, though a handful of extremists{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} still promote the Simon of Trent narrative as fact. | |||
| ==Current situation== | |||
| A March 2008 report by the ] found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.<ref>, ], March 14, 2008, retrieved November 24, 2010.</ref> | |||
| ===Causes=== | |||
| {{Expand section|date=July 2011}} | |||
| Dean Phillip Bell documents and enumerates a number of categories of causes for anti-Jewish sentiment and behavior. Socio-psychological explanations focus on scapegoating via projection of guilt and displaced aggression. Ethnic explanations associate marginalization of Jews with perceived ethnic and cultural differences.<ref>{{cite book |title=Jews in the early modern world |first=Dean Phillip |last=Bell |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |page=212 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=5rJ85OyVWV0C&pg=PA212&dq=antisemitism+%22early+modern+period%22#v=onepage&q=antisemitism%20%22early%20modern%20period%22&f=false |isbn=9780742545182}}</ref> | |||
| ===United States=== | |||
| {{Main|Antisemitism in the United States}} | |||
| {{see also|History of antisemitism in the United States}} | |||
| A 2007 survey by the ] (ADL) concluded that 15% of Americans hold antisemitic views, which was in-line with the average of the previous ten years, but a decline from the 29% of the early sixties. The survey concluded that education was a strong predictor, “with most educated Americans being remarkably free of prejudicial views.” The belief that Jews have too much power was considered a common anti-Semitic view by the ADL. Other views indicating antisemitism, according to the survey, include the view that Jews are more loyal to Israel than America, and that they are responsible for the death of Christ. The survey found that antisemitic Americans are likely to be intolerant generally, e.g. regarding immigration and free-speech. The 2007 survey also found that 29% of foreign-born ] and 32% of ] hold strong anti-Semitic beliefs, three times more than the 10% for whites.<ref></ref> | |||
| In November 2005, the ] examined antisemitism on college campuses. It reported that "incidents of threatened bodily injury, physical intimidation or property damage are now rare", but antisemitism still occurs on many campuses and is a "serious problem." The Commission recommended that the ]'s ] protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of ''Title VI'' of the ] and further recommended that ] clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.<ref>http://www.eusccr.com/Ending%20Campus%20Ant-Semitism1.htm</ref> | |||
| On September 19, 2006, ] founded the ] (YIISA), the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its Institution for Social and Policy Studies. Director ] of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a "need to understand the current manifestation of this disease".<ref> Associated Press, September 19, 2006</ref> In June 2011, Yale voted to close this initiative. After carrying out a routine review, the faculty review committee said that the initiative had not met its research and teaching standards. Donald Green, who heads Yale’s Institution for Social and Policy Studies, the body under whose aegis the antisemitism initiative was run, said that it had not had many papers published in the relevant leading journals or attracted many students. As with other programs that had been in a similar situation, the initiative had therefore been cancelled.<ref name=nhregister201106>{{Cite news | author = Mary E. O'Leary | title = Yale cancels interdisciplinary course on anti-Semitism | newspaper = New Haven Register | date = 7 June 2011 | url = http://nhregister.com/articles/2011/06/07/news/new_haven/doc4deebfb3198cb509290513.txt | accessdate = <!--14 June 2011-->}}</ref><ref></ref> This decision has been criticized by figures such as former U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Staff Director ], who is now the director of the Initiative to Combat Anti-Semitism and Anti-Israelism in America’s Educational Systems at the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, and ], who described the decision as "weird" and "strange."<ref></ref> ] has supported Yale's decision, describing the YIISA as a politicized initiative that was devoted to the promotion of Israel rather than to serious research on antisemitism.<ref>, Antony Lerman: Context Is Everything, 10 June 2011, accessed 13 June 2011.</ref> | |||
| A 2009 study published in '']'' found that nearly 25 percent of non-Jewish Americans blamed Jews for the ], with a higher percentage among Democrats than Republicans.<ref></ref> | |||
| ===Latin America=== | |||
| ====Venezuela==== | |||
| {{See|History of the Jews in Venezuela}} | |||
| In a 2009 news story, Michael Rowan and Douglas E. Schoen wrote, "In an infamous Christmas Eve speech several years ago, Chávez said the Jews killed Christ and have been gobbling up wealth and causing poverty and injustice worldwide ever since."<ref>"". Forbes.com. February 15, 2009.</ref> ] stated that "he world is for all of us, then, but it so happens that a minority, the descendants of the same ones that crucified Christ, the descendants of the same ones that kicked Bolívar out of here and also crucified him in their own way over there in Santa Marta, in Colombia. A minority has taken possession all of the wealth of the world."<ref>"". ''The Weekly Standard''. January 11, 2006.</ref> | |||
| ===Europe=== | |||
| {{See|Antisemitism in Europe|New antisemitism}} | |||
| According to a 2004 report from the ], antisemitism had increased significantly in Europe since 2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against Jews and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Germany, France, ] and Russia are the countries with the highest rate of antisemitic incidents in Europe.<ref name = "mgjmsp"></ref> The Netherlands and Sweden have also consistently had high rates of antisemitic attacks since 2000.<ref name="ReferenceA">The 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Antisemitism.</ref> | |||
| Much of the new European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running ] since the majority of the perpetrators are from the ]. However, compared to France, the United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in Germany Arab and pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a small percentage of antisemitic incidents.<ref name = "mgjmsp"/><ref>Stephen Roth Institute, Tel Aviv University, http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/.</ref> According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the more extreme attacks on Jewish sites and physical attacks on Jews in Europe come from militant Islamic and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside.<ref name=roth>, The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism, Tel Aviv University. Retrieved March 29, 2011.</ref> | |||
| On January 1, 2006, Britain's chief ], Lord ], warned that what he called a "tsunami of antisemitism" was spreading globally. In an interview with ], Sacks said: "A number of my rabbinical colleagues throughout Europe have been assaulted and attacked on the streets. We've had synagogues desecrated. We've had Jewish schools burnt to the ground – not here but in France. People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable."<ref name=Gillan>Gillan, Audrey. , ''The Guardian'', January 2, 2006.</ref> | |||
| ====Germany==== | |||
| {{See|History of the Jews in Germany}} | |||
| The Interior Minister of Germany, ], points out the official policy of Germany: "We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism."<ref name=bbcwolfgang>{{cite news | |||
| |title=Germans warned of neo-Nazi surge | |||
| |accessdate=2007-06-06 | |||
| |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5005472.stm | |||
| |date=May 22, 2006 | |||
| | work=BBC News}}</ref> Although the number of extreme right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001)<ref name=bundesamt1>Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. {{PDFlink|}}. Annual Report. 2003, Page 29</ref> to 182 (2006),<ref name=bundesamt2>]. Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. {{PDFlink|}}. 2006, Page 51</ref> especially in the formerly communist East Germany,<ref name=bbcwolfgang/> Germany's measures against right wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe. According to the annual reports of the ] the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700 (2001),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 45,000 (2002),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 41,500 (2003),<ref name=bundesamt1/> 40,700 (2004),<ref name=bundesamt2/> 39,000 (2005),<ref name=bundesamt2/> to 38,600 in 2006.<ref name=bundesamt2/> Germany provided several million Euros to fund "nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups."<ref name=ihtassociated> | |||
| ]. '']''. October 22, 2006</ref> | |||
| ====The Netherlands==== | |||
| {{See|History of the Jews in the Netherlands}} | |||
| Antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys of ] descent. According to the ], a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of antisemitic incidents in ], the city that is home to most of the approximately 40,000 ], was said to be doubled compared to 2008.<ref></ref> In 2010, Raphaël Evers, an ] rabbi in ], told the Norwegian newspaper ] that Jews can no longer be safe in the city anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. "Jews no longer feel at home in the city. Many are considering ] to ]."<ref name="aftenposten.no">http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece</ref> | |||
| ====United Kingdom==== | |||
| {{See|British Jews}} | |||
| In 2005, a group of British ] set up an inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. Its report stated that "until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society." It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. It aimed to investigate the problem, identify the sources of contemporary antisemitism and make recommendations to improve the situation. It discussed the influence of the Israel-Palestine conflict and issues of anti-Israel sentiment versus antisemitism at length and noted "most of those who gave evidence were at pains to explain that ] is not to be regarded in itself as antisemitic ... The Israeli government itself may, at times, have mistakenly perceived criticism of its policies and actions to be motivated by antisemitism."<ref>{{PDFlink||430 KB}}, All-Party Parliamentary Group against Antisemitism, September 2006, accessed 24 November 2010. For the first quote, see summary; for the second quote, see p. 17. 24 November 2010. | |||
| *See .</ref> In November 2010, the ]'s investigative program ''Panorama'' reported that Saudi national textbooks advocating anti-Semitism were being used in Islamic religious programs attended by 5,000 British schoolchildren the United Kingdom. In the textbooks, Jews were described as looking like monkeys and pigs, and said to be condemned to hellfire.<ref></ref> | |||
| ====France==== | |||
| {{See|History of the Jews in France}} | |||
| France is home to the continent's largest Jewish community (about 600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of ] or African heritage, but also growing among ] islanders from former French colonies.<ref> by Daniel Ben-Simon. Haaretz. 25/03/07</ref> | |||
| Former Interior Minister ] denounced the killing of ] on 13 February 2006 as an antisemitic crime. | |||
| Jewish philanthropist Baron ] suggests that the extent of antisemitism in France has been exaggerated. In an interview with '']'' he says that "the one thing you can't say is that France is an anti-Semitic country."<ref>Krieger, Leila Hilary. . '']'', June 15, 2006/ November 24, 2010.</ref> | |||
| ====Norway==== | |||
| {{Main|Antisemitism in Norway}} | |||
| In 2010, the ] after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among some 8th, 9th, and 10th graders in Oslo's schools. Teachers at schools with large numbers of ]s revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire ] for his killing of ]s", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students" and that "Muslims laugh or command to stop when trying to educate about the ]". Additionally, "while some students might protest when some express support for ], none object when students express hate of Jews", saying that it says in "the ] that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews". Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One ]ish father also stated that his child had been taken by a Muslim mob after school (though the child managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and ] because he was a Jew".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www1.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057|work=NRK Lørdagsrevyen|title=Jødiske blir hetset|date=13 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://theforeigner.no/pages/columns/what-about-norwegian-anti-semitism/}}</ref> | |||
| Norwegian Education Minister Kristin Halvorsen referred to the antisemitism reported in this study as being “completely unacceptable.” The head of a local Islamic council joined Jewish leaders and Halvorsen in denouncing such antisemitism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsinenglish.no/2010/03/16/anti-semitism-report-shocks-officials/}}</ref> | |||
| ====Sweden==== | |||
| {{Main|Antisemitism in Sweden}} | |||
| After Germany and Austria, Sweden has the highest rate of antisemitic incidents in Europe. Though the Netherlands reports a higher rate of antisemitism in some years.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> A government study in 2006 estimated that 15% of Swedes agree with the statement: "The Jews have too much influence in the world today".<ref>http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf</ref> Five percent of the entire adult population, and 39% of the ] population, harbor strong and consistent antisemitic views. Former Prime Minister ] described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the Rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden claimed that "It's not true to say that the Swedes are anti-Semitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the ] to be."<ref>, Haaretz, November 9, 2007.</ref> | |||
| In early 2010, the Swedish publication ''The Local'' published series of articles about the growing anti-Semitism in ]. In an interview in January 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki of the Jewish Community of Malmö stated that "Threats against Jews have increased steadily in Malmö in recent years and many young Jewish families are choosing to leave the city. Many feel that the community and local politicians have shown a lack of understanding for how the city's Jewish residents have been marginalized." He also added that "right now many Jews in Malmö are really concerned about the situation here and don't believe they have a future here." The Local also reported that Jewish cemeteries and synagogues have repeatedly been defaced with anti-Semitic graffiti, and a chapel at another Jewish burial site in Malmö was firebombed in 2009.<ref name="thelocal%2525252525252Ese"> by David Landes, The Local, January 27, 2010.</ref> In 2009 the Malmö police received reports of 79 anti-Semitic incidents, double the number of the previous year (2008).<ref> Sunday Telegraph. 21 February 2010</ref> Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmo Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is shrinking by 5% a year. "Malmo is a place to move away from," he said, citing anti-Semitism as the primary reason.<ref name="forward.com">http://www.forward.com/articles/129233/</ref> | |||
| In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told ''Die Presse'', an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East," although he added that only a small number of Malmo's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews." Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmo to Israel in the past year, specifically to escape from harassment. Also in March, the Swedish newspaper ''Skånska Dagbladet'' reported that attacks on Jews in Malmo totaled 79 in 2009, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.<ref>, Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA), March 22, 2010.</ref> | |||
| In October 2010, ''The Forward'' reported on the current state of Jews and the level of Anti-semitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund, claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended anti-Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags of Hamas and Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often anti-Semitic—not just anti-Israel. But such public rhetoric is not branded hateful and denounced. Charles Small, director of the ], stated that "Sweden is a microcosm of contemporary anti-Semitism. It's a form of acquiescence to radical Islam, which is diametrically opposed to everything Sweden stands for." Per Gudmundson, chief editorial writer for ''Svenska Dagbladet'', has sharply criticized politicians who offer "weak excuses" for Muslims accused of anti-Semitic crimes. "Politicians say these kids are poor and oppressed, and we have made them hate. They are, in effect, saying the behavior of these kids is in some way our fault."<ref name=moveaway> by Donald Snyder, The Forward, Published July 07, 2010, issue of July 16, 2010.).</ref> Judith Popinski, an 86-year-old Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust. Popinski, who found refuge in Malmo in 1945, stated that, until recently, she told her story in Malmo schools as part of their Holocaust studies program, but that now, many schools no longer ask Holocaust survivors to tell their stories, because Muslim students treat them with such disrespect, either ignoring the speakers or walking out of the class. She further stated that "Malmo reminds me of the anti-Semitism I felt as a child in Poland before the war. "I am not safe as a Jew in Sweden anymore."<ref name="forward.com"/> | |||
| In December 2010, the ] ] organization ] issued a travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens in the city of ].<ref>http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903</ref> | |||
| ===Middle East=== | |||
| {{See|Arabs and antisemitism}} | |||
| ], founder of ], says that anti-Semitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times."<ref></ref> | |||
| Mudar Zahran, a Palestinian, writing for the ] says that "the Palestinians have been used as fuel for the new form of anti-Semitism; this has hurt the Palestinians and exposed them to unprecedented and purposely media-ignored abuse by Arab governments, including some of those who claim love for the Palestinians, yet in fact only bear hatred to Jews. This has resulted in Palestinian cries for justice, equality, freedom and even basic human rights being ignored while the world getting consumed with delegitimizing Israel from either ignorance or malice."<ref></ref> | |||
| In a 2011 survey by the ], all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held strongly negative views of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2 percent of ]ians, 3 percent of ] Muslims, and 2 percent of ]ians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East held similarly negative views, with 4 percent of ] and 9 percent of ]ns viewing Jews favorably.<ref>Pew Research Center. </ref> | |||
| ] meeting with ], December 1941. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem helped recruit Muslims for the ].]] | |||
| ], cultural critic of '']'', writes that some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to ].<ref>Rothstein, Edward. , '']'', February 23, 2009, accessed November 24, 2010.</ref> According to Josef Joffe of '']'', "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>Joffe, Josef. , '']'', February 28, 2009, retrieved November 24, 2010.</ref> | |||
| In the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders. | |||
| In ], Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of ]'s antisemitic treatise, '']'', complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.<ref> on intelligence.org.il, site of the Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center | |||
| at the Center for Special Studies (C.S.S), Israel. Retrieved 24 September 2006.</ref> | |||
| The website of the ]n ] initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sauditourism.gov.sa/sct/indexlist.php?catid=39&maincat=Travel_Tips |title=Visa requirements |publisher=] |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040206173019/http://www.sauditourism.gov.sa/sct/indexlist.php?catid=39&maincat=Travel_Tips |archivedate=February 6, 2004 |quote=Visas will not be issued for the following groups of people: * An Israeli passport holder or a passport that has an Israeli arrival/departure stamp. * Those who don't abide by the Saudi traditions concerning appearance and behaviors. Those under the influence of alcohol will not be permitted into the Kingdom. * There are certain regulations for pilgrims and you should contact the consulate for more information. * Jewish People}}</ref><ref>, ], February 27, 2004, accessed November 25, 2010.</ref> | |||
| The Saudi embassy in the U.S. distanced itself from the statement, which was later removed.<ref>Morrison, JAmes. , '']'', March 1, 2004, accessed November 25, 2010. | |||
| *Whitaker, Brian. , '']'', March 1, 2004, accessed November 25, 2010.</ref> Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia. | |||
| In 2001, Arab Radio and Television of Saudi Arabia produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled "Horseman Without a Horse", a dramatization of '']''.<ref>, ], December 10, 2001, retrieved November 24, 2010.</ref> One Saudi Arabian government newspaper suggested that hatred of all Jews is justifiable.<ref>''Al-Riyadh'', Saudi government daily, April 15, 2002, Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, ''All of History is against Them''</ref> | |||
| ] vilify Jews (and Christians and non-] Muslims): according to the May 21, 2006 issue of '']'', Saudi textbooks claimed by them to have been sanitized of antisemitism still call Jews apes (and Christians swine); demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad to vanquish Jews.<ref>Shea, Nina. , '']'', May 21, 2006, p. B01.</ref> | |||
| The Center for Religious Freedom of ] analyzed a set of Saudi Ministry of Education textbooks in Islamic studies courses for elementary and secondary school students. The researchers found statements promoting hate of Christians, Jews, "polytheists" and other "unbelievers," including non-Wahhabi Muslims. ] was taught as historical fact. The texts described Jews and Christians as enemies of Muslim believers and the clash between them as an ongoing fight that will end in victory over the Jews. Jews were blamed for virtually all the "subversion" and wars of the modern world.<ref></ref> A {{PDFlink||371 KB}} of Saudi Arabia's curriculum has been released to the press by the ]. | |||
| ] recently aired a drama series, ''The Diaspora'', which observers allege is based on historical antisemitic allegations. ] correspondents who have watched the program says it quotes extensively from the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion''.<ref>, ], 20 August 2004, retrieved November 24, 2010.</ref> | |||
| Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>Bernard Lewis. ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 33.</ref><ref>Aluma Solnick. MEMRI Special Report – No. 11, November 1, 2002</ref> ] is the leading ] of the ] located in the Islamic holy city of ], ].<ref> | |||
| *Neil J. Kressel. , ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', ''The Chronicle Review'', March 12, 2004. | |||
| *Tom Gross, , '']'', June 18, 2004.</ref> The ] aired a ] episode, entitled ''A Question of Leadership'', which reported that al-Sudais referred to Jews as "the scum of the human race" and "offspring of apes and pigs", and stated, "the worst of the enemies of Islam are those whom he made monkeys and pigs, the aggressive Jews and oppressive ] and those that follow them Monkeys and pigs and worshippers of false Gods who are the Jews and the Zionists."<ref name="panorama">{{cite interview | |||
| |last=Sacranie | |||
| |first=Iqbal | |||
| |subjectlink = Iqbal Sacranie | |||
| |last2 = Abdul Bari | |||
| |first2 = Muhammad | |||
| |subjectlink2 = Muhammad Abdul Bari | |||
| |last3 = Kantharia | |||
| |first3 = Mehboob | |||
| |last4 = Siddiqui | |||
| |first4 = Ghayasuddin | |||
| |interviewer = John Ware | |||
| |title=A Question of Leadership | |||
| |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/panorama/4171950.stm | |||
| |program = '']'' | |||
| |callsign = ] | |||
| |city = ] | |||
| |date=August 21, 2005 | |||
| |accessdate=2007-03-30 | |||
| }}</ref> In another sermon, on April 19, 2002, he declared that Jews are "evil offspring, infidels, distorters of words, calf-worshippers, prophet-murderers, prophecy-deniers the scum of the human race whom Allah cursed and turned into apes and pigs "<ref>{{PDFlink|}} by Dr. Leah Kinberg. Lecture delivered in May 2003, Monash University, Melbourne, quoting </ref> | |||
| On May 5, 2001, after ] visited ], the Egyptian '']'' internet paper said that "lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews. For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs."<ref>, "Classic Anti-Semitic Stereotypes", ]. Retrieved March 4, 2007.</ref> | |||
| In Israel, Zalman Gilichenski has warned about the spread of antisemitism among ] in the last decade.<ref>See and by example , ], London, 2007-10-09</ref> | |||
| ===Asia=== | |||
| ====Armenia==== | |||
| {{See|History of the Jews in Armenia}} | |||
| {{Expand section|date=May 2011}} | |||
| ====Turkey==== | |||
| {{See|History of the Jews in Turkey}} | |||
| In recent decades, synagogues have been targeted in a number of terrorist attacks. In 2003, the ] was targeted in a car bombing, killing 21 Turkish Muslims and 6 Jews.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3276549.stm | work=BBC News | title=Film clue to Turkey Jewish attack | date=November 17, 2003}}</ref> | |||
| In June 2011, the ''Economist'' suggested that "The best way for Turks to promote democracy would be to vote against the ruling party". Not long after, the Turkish Prime Minister, ], said that "The International media, as they are supported by Israel, would not be happy with the continuation of the AKP government".<ref name=cm>, Commentary Magazine, 6 June 2011.</ref> The ''Hurriyet Daily News'' quoted Erdoğan at the time as claiming "The Economist is part of an Israeli conspiracy that aims to topple the Turkish government".<ref>, The Hurriyet Daily News (English language edition), 12 June 2011.</ref> | |||
| Moreover, during Erdogan's tenure, Hitler's ''Mein Kampf'' has once again become a best selling book in Turkey.<ref name=cm/> Prime Minister Erdogan called antisemitism a "crime against humanity." He also said that "as a minority, they're our citizens. Both their security and the right to observe their faith are under our guarantee."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=131576 |work=] | title=Erdogan vows to fight anti-Semitism in Turkey |date=March 2, 2009 |accessdate=June 12, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|Judaism}} | |||
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| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Refbegin|colwidth=60em}} | |||
| *]. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999. | |||
| *Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001. | |||
| *Chanes, Jerome A. '']'', ABC-CLIO, 2004. | |||
| *Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996. | |||
| *{{Cite book |title=The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism |last=Flannery |first=Edward H. |year=2004 |publisher=Paulist Press |isbn=0809143240}} | |||
| *]. ''Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred''. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, 2008. ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0. | |||
| *Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994. | |||
| *] (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In ''History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism'', ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7 | |||
| *]. '']''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes. | |||
| *]: ''A History of the Jews'' (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1987) ISBN 0-06-091533-1 | |||
| *]. ''The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day''. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2 | |||
| *] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8 | |||
| *Lewis, Bernard (1999). ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 | |||
| *]. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994. | |||
| *McKain, Mark. '']'', Greenhaven Press, 2005. | |||
| *Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. , The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007 | |||
| *Perry, Marvin and Frederick Schweitzer. ''Anti-Semitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present.'' Palgrave Macmillan. 2002. | |||
| *]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 | |||
| *]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 | |||
| *]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 | |||
| *]. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 | |||
| *] (1997). "Anti-Semitism". '']'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. ]. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8 | |||
| *Prager, Dennis, Telushkin, Joseph. ''Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism''. Touchstone (reprint), 1985. | |||
| *{{Cite book |title=Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity |last=Richardson |first=Peter |year=1986 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=0889201676}} | |||
| *Roth, Philip. ], 2004 | |||
| *Schweitzer, Frederick M. & Perry, Marvin. ''Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7 | |||
| *Selzer, Michael (ed). ''"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972. | |||
| *Steinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X. | |||
| *] (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 | |||
| *Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". '']''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online | |||
| * entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the ], 1901–1906 ed. | |||
| *{{PDFlink||7.4 MB}}, ], 2008, accessed 25 November 2010. See . | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| {{Refbegin|colwidth=60em}} | |||
| * by ]. | |||
| *, ''Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles'', March 9, 2007 | |||
| *] | |||
| * | |||
| *Stav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X | |||
| *Falk, Avner. (2008). ''Anti-Semitism: The History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred''. Wesport, Connecticut, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0 | |||
| * (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today) | |||
| * hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA) | |||
| * at ] | |||
| * | |||
| * at Zionism and Israel Information Center. | |||
| *Porat, Dina. , '']'', January 27, 2007, retrieved November 24, 2010. | |||
| * by ], , Spring 2008. | |||
| * | |||
| * Robert Michael ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust'' | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Sister project links}} | |||
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| *Simpletoremember.com | |||
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Revision as of 15:48, 26 February 2012
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is suspicion of, hatred toward, or discrimination against Jews and Arabs.