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| {{pp-protected|expiry=2012-06-09T03:16:13Z|small=yes}} | |||
| {{two other uses|city of Istanbul|the province|Istanbul Province}} | |||
| {{Infobox settlement <!-- for more fields see Template:Infobox settlement --> | |||
| | name =Istanbul | |||
| | native_name = | |||
| | native_name_lang = | |||
| | settlement_type =City | |||
| | image_skyline= Istanbul2010.jpg | |||
| | image_caption= An aerial view of ] (foreground) and the ] (background) at the eastern tip of the ] of Istanbul. The ] are seen on the horizon, at left. | |||
| | imagesize= 300px | |||
| | image_blank_emblem = | |||
| | blank_emblem_type =Logo | |||
| | blank_emblem_size =100px | |||
| | pushpin_map =Turkey | |||
| | pushpin_map_caption =Location in Turkey | |||
| | pushpin_mapsize =300px | |||
| | latd=41|latm=01|latNS=N | |||
| | longd= 28|longm= 58|longEW= E | |||
| | coordinates_region =TR | |||
| | subdivision_type =Country | |||
| | subdivision_name ={{TUR}} | |||
| | subdivision_type1 =] | |||
| | subdivision_name1 =] | |||
| | subdivision_type2 =] | |||
| | subdivision_name2 =] | |||
| | leader_party =] | |||
| | leader_title =Mayor | |||
| | leader_name =] | |||
| | established_title =Established | |||
| | established_date = | |||
| | established_title1 = - ] | |||
| | established_date1 =c. 660 BC<ref group="note" name="byz-date"/> | |||
| | established_title2 = - ] | |||
| | established_date2 =330 AD | |||
| | established_title3 = - Istanbul | |||
| | established_date3 =1453 (])<br/>1923 (])<br/>1930 (internationally) | |||
| | parts_type =Districts | |||
| | parts =39 | |||
| | area_metro_km2 =5343 | |||
| | area_metro_mi2 =2063 | |||
| | area_metro_footnotes =<ref group="note" name="city-area"/> | |||
| | population_total =13,483,052 | |||
| | population_urban =13,624,240 | |||
| | population_as_of =2011 | |||
| | population_footnotes =<ref name="tuik" /> | |||
| | population rank =], ] | |||
| | population_density_metro_km2= 2481 | |||
| | timezone =] | |||
| | utc_offset =+2 | |||
| | timezone_DST =] | |||
| | utc_offset_DST =+3 | |||
| | postal_code_type =] | |||
| | postal_code =34000 to 34850 | |||
| | area_code =(+90) 212 (European side) <br/> (+90) 216 (Asian side) | |||
| | website ={{URL|http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Home.aspx|Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality}} | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Istanbul''' (Turkish: ''İstanbul'') is the largest city in ], forming the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With a population of {{nowrap|13.4 million}}, the city is at the center of the second-largest urban area in Europe after ], and among the ] by population within city limits.<ref name="tuik">{{cite web|url=http://rapor.tuik.gov.tr/reports/rwservlet?adnksdb2&ENVID=adnksdb2Env&report=wa_turkiye_il_koy_sehir.RDF&p_il1=34&p_kod=2&p_yil=2011&p_dil=1&desformat=html|publisher=The Turkish Statistical Institute|title=Province by Province / Town Center and Town / Village Population – 2011|work=Address Population-Based Registration System (ABPRS) Database|year=2011|accessdate=9 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="citypop-agg">{{cite web|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html|last=Brinkhoff|first=Thomas|work=CityPopulation.de|title=The Principal Agglomerations of the World|date=1 October 2011|accessdate=24 December 2011}}</ref> Istanbul's vast area of {{convert|5343|km2|mi2|sp=us}} is coterminous with ], of which the city is considered capital.<ref group="note" name="city-area"/> Straddling the ]—one of the world's busiest waterways—in northwestern Turkey, between the ] and the ], Istanbul is a transcontinental city, with one third of its population living in Asia but its commercial and historical center in Europe.<ref name="wctr281">{{harvnb|WCTR Society; Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō|2004|p=281}}</ref> | |||
| Founded around 660 BC as ] on the ], the city now known as Istanbul developed to become one of the most significant cities in history. For nearly sixteen centuries following its reestablishment as ] in 330 AD, it served as the capital of four empires — the late classical ] (330–395), the ] (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the ] (1204–1261), and the ] (1453–1922).<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=xv}}</ref> It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before the Ottomans ] in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold from which the ] ruled.<ref name="fre296">{{harvnb|Freely|1996|pp=296-7}}</ref> Although the Republic of Turkey established its capital elsewhere, in ], remnants of Istanbul's previous central role still remain highly visible across the city, with palaces and imperial mosques lining its hills. | |||
| Istanbul's strategic position along the historic ], rail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the ] have helped foster an eclectic populace, although less so since the establishment of the Republic. Overlooked for the new capital during much of the mid-20th century, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across ] have flocked to the metropolis and city limits have expanded to accommodate them.<ref>{{harvnb|Turan|2010|p=224}}</ref><ref name="ecoc-popdem">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/sites/ks/en-US/0-Exploring-The-City/Location/Pages/PopulationandDemographicStructure.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Population and Demographic Structure|year=2008|accessdate=27 March 2012|work=Istanbul 2010: European Capital of Culture}}</ref> Arts festivals were established at the end of the century, while infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network. | |||
| Seven million foreign visitors arrived in Istanbul in 2010, when it was named a ], making it the world's tenth-most popular tourist destination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.usnews.com/features/Worlds_Most_Visited_Cities|last=Weiner|first=Miriam B|publisher=U.S. News & World Report|title=World's Most Visited Cities|accessdate=21 May 2012}}</ref> The city's biggest draw remains its historic center, partially listed as a UNESCO ], but its cultural and entertainment hub have moved across the city's natural harbor, the ], to the ] district. Ranked an ], Istanbul hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country's gross domestic product.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010.html|title=The World According to GaWC 2010|work=Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network|publisher=]|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="oecd">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/62/40317916.pdf|title=OECD Territorial Reviews: Istanbul, Turkey|publisher=The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|date=March 2008|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref> Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul is currently a ] for the ].<ref></ref> | |||
| ==Toponymy== | |||
| {{Main|Names of Istanbul}} | |||
| ] ({{lang-el|Βυζάντιον}}, ''Byzántion'') is the first known name of the city. Around 660 BC,{{#tag:ref|The foundation of Byzantion (]) is sometimes, especially in encyclopedic or other tertiary sources, placed firmly in 667 BC. However, historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. Commonly cited is the work of 5th-century-BC historian ], which says the city was founded seventeen years after the city of ],<ref>Herodotus ''Histories'' 4.144, translated in {{harvnb|De Sélincourt|2002|p=288}}</ref> which came into existence around 685 BC. However, ], while concurring with 685 BC as the year Chalcedon was founded, places Byzantion's establishment in 659 BC.<ref name="isa199">{{harvnb|Isaac|1986|p=199}}</ref> Among more modern historians, Carl Roebuck proposed the 640s BC<ref>{{harvnb|Roebuck|1959|p=114}}, also as mentioned in {{harvnb|Isaac|1986|p=199}}</ref> while others have suggested even later. Further, the foundation date of Chalcedon is itself subject to some debate; while many sources place it in 685 BC,<ref name="lis35"/> others put it in 675 BC<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|1998|p=10}}</ref> or even 639 BC (with Byzantion's establishment placed in 619 BC).<ref name="isa199"/> As such, some sources have opted to refer to Byzantium's foundation as simply located in the 7th century BC.|group="note"|name="byz-date"}} ] settlers from the ] of ] founded a ] colony on the present-day Istanbul, and named the new colony after their king, ].<ref name="eva16">{{harvnb|Evans|2000|p=16}}</ref> After ] (Constantine the Great) made the city the new eastern capital of the ] in 330 AD, the city became widely known as Constantinopolis or ], which, as the Latinised form of "Κωνσταντινούπολις" (Kōnstantinoúpolis), means the "City of Constantine".<ref name="roo177">{{harvnb|Room|2006|pp=177}}</ref> He also attempted to promote the name ''Nea Roma'' ("New Rome"), but this never caught on.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=62–3}}</ref> Constantinople remained the official name of the city throughout the ] period, and the most common name used for it in the West until the establishment of the ]. | |||
| By the 19th century, the city had acquired a number of names used by either foreigners or Turks. Europeans<ref>{{harvnb|Gautier|1851|passim}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|De Amicis|1881|passim}}</ref> used ''Constantinople'' to refer to the whole of the city, while using the name ''Stamboul'' – as the Turks also did – to describe the walled peninsula between the ] and the ]. ''Pera'' was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the ], but Turks also used the name '']'', which is still in use today.<ref>{{harvnb|Wheatcroft|1995|pp=138–9}}</ref> However, with the Turkish Postal Service Law of 28 March 1930, the Turkish authorities formally requested foreigners to adopt ''İstanbul'', a name in existence since the 10th century,<ref name="lewix">{{harvnb|Lewis|1963|p=ix}}</ref> as the sole name of the city within their own languages.<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Richard D.|title=The First Turkish Republic: A Case Study in National Development|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1965|location=Cambridge}}</ref> | |||
| Etymologically, the name "İstanbul" ({{IPA-tr|isˈtanbuɫ}}, colloquially {{IPA-tr|ɯsˈtambuɫ|}}) derives from the ] phrase {{lang|grc|"εἰς τὴν ]"}} {{IPA-el|is tin ˈpolin|}}/{{IPA-el|istimbolin|}} or, in the Aegean dialect, {{lang|grc|"εἰς τὰν Πόλιν"}} {{IPA|}} ({{lang-el|εις την πολιν}}, ] "στην Πόλη" {{IPA-el|stimboli|}}), which means "in the city" or, "to the city".<ref name="roo177"/><ref name="lewix"/><ref name="Browning33">{{harvnb|Browning|1969|pp=33–34}}</ref> In modern ], the name is written "İstanbul", with a dotted İ, as the ] distinguishes between a ]. Also, while in English the stress is on the first syllable ("Is"), in Turkish it is on the second syllable ("tan"). Following Rome, Istanbul has been called "]" because the oldest part of the city is supposedly built on seven hills, each of which bears a historic mosque.<ref>{{harvnb|Dwight|1915|p=4}}</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ===First settlements=== | |||
| {{Main|Byzantium}} | |||
| ]'s ], located today within the ] complex.]] | |||
| Recent construction of the ] tunnel unearthed a ] settlement underneath ] on Istanbul's peninsula. Dating back to the 7th millennium BC, before the ] was even formed, the discovery indicated that the peninsula was settled thousands of years earlier than previously thought.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rainsford |first=Sarah |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7820924.stm |publisher=BBC |title=Istanbul's ancient past unearthed |date=10 January 2009 |accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref> ] tribes established two settlements—''Lygos'' and ''Semistra''—on the ], near where ] now stands, between the 13th and 11th centuries BC. On the Asian side, artifacts have been found in Fikirtepe (present-day ]) that date back to the ] period.<ref>{{harvnb|Alkım|Metzger|1969|p=78}}</ref> The same location was the site of a ]n trading post at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC as well as the town of ], which was established by ] settlers from ] in 685 BCE.<ref name="lis35">{{harvnb|Lister|1979|p=35}}</ref> | |||
| However, the history of Istanbul generally begins around 660 BCE,<ref group="note" name="byz-date"/> when the settlers from Megara, under the command of King ], established Byzantion (Latinised as ]) on the European side of the Bosphorus. By the end of the century, an ] was established at the former locations of ''Lygos'' and ''Semistra'', on the ].<ref name="eva16"/> The city experienced a brief period of ] rule at the turn of the 5th century BC, but the Greeks recaptured it during the ].<ref>{{harvnb|De Souza|2003|p=88}}</ref> Byzantium then continued as part of the ] and its successor, the ], before ultimately gaining independence in 355 BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1897|p=287}}</ref> Long protected by the ], Byzantium officially became a part of the ] in AD 73. | |||
| Byzantium's decision to side with the ] ] against ] ] cost it dearly; by the time it surrendered at the end of 195, two years of siege had left the city devastated.<ref>{{harvnb|Grant|1996|pp=8–10}}</ref> Still, five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity.<ref>{{harvnb|Limberis|1994|pp=11–2}}</ref> | |||
| ===Byzantine era=== | |||
| {{Main|Constantinople}} | |||
| {{See|Fall of Constantinople}} | |||
| ], this is the oldest surviving map of Constantinople and the only one that predates the Ottoman conquest.|alt=A crudely-drawn map depicting a walled city on a peninsula with a park, a network of roads, and a scattering of buildings]] | |||
| When ] defeated ] at the ] in September 324, he effectively became the emperor of the whole of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=77}}</ref> Just two months later, Constantine laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. Intended to replace ] as the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named ''Nea Roma'' (]); however, most simply called it Constantinople ("the city of Constantine"), a name that persisted into the 20th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=212}}</ref> Six years later, on 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the capital of an empire that eventually became known as the ] or Eastern Roman Empire.<ref name="ba222">{{harvnb|Barnes|1981|p=222}}</ref> | |||
| The establishment of Constantinople served as one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward and becoming a center of Greek culture and Christianity.<ref name="ba222"/><ref name="gr63">{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=63}}</ref> Numerous churches were built across the city, including the ], which remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years.<ref name="ev217">{{harvnb|Evans|2000|p=217}}</ref> The ] developed in the city, and its leader is still one of the foremost figures in the ]. Constantinople's location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east as well as from the advance of Islam.<ref name="gr63"/> During most of the ] and the latter part of the Byzantine period, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent, and during parts of this period the largest in the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|2002|p=9}}</ref> | |||
| Constantinople began to decline after the ], during which it was sacked and pillaged.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=324–9}}</ref> The city subsequently became the center of the ], created by Catholic crusaders to replace the Orthodox Byzantine Empire, which was divided into splinter states.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=330–3}}</ref> However, the Latin Empire was short-lived, and the Byzantine Empire was restored, weakened, in 1261.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=340}}</ref> Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair,<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=341–2}}</ref> and its population had dwindled to forty thousand from nearly half a million, during the 9th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Madden|2004|p=113}}</ref><ref name="chfo374">{{harvnb|Chandler|Fox|1974|p=374}}</ref> | |||
| Various economic and military policies instituted by ], such as the reduction of forces, weakened the empire and left it more vulnerable to attack.<ref>{{harvnb|Reinert|2002|pp=258–60}}</ref> In the mid-14th century, the ] began a strategy by which they took smaller towns and cities over time, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly.<ref>{{harvnb|Baynes|1949|p=47}}</ref> Finally, on 29 May 1453, after an eight-week siege (during which the last Roman Emperor, ], was killed), ] ] "the Conqueror" ({{lang-tr|Fatih}}) captured Constantinople and declared it the new capital of the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|pp=394–9}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|2003|p=89}}</ref> Hours later, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sofia and summoned an ] to proclaim the ], converting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque.<ref name="le6">{{harvnb|Lewis|1963|p=6}}</ref> | |||
| ===Ottoman and Turkish era=== | |||
| {{Main|History of Istanbul}} | |||
| ] ] ruled from the ] for centuries.]] | |||
| Following the fall of Constantinople, ] immediately set out to revitalize the city, now also known as Istanbul. First he deported all the Christian population of the City, leaving only the Jewish inhabitants of ]<ref name=ma98>Mamboury (1953), p. 98</ref> then he invited and forcibly resettled many Muslims, Jews, and Christians from other parts of Anatolia and ] into the city,<ref name=ma99>Mamboury (1953), p. 99</ref> creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=306–7}}</ref> By the end of the century, Istanbul had returned to a population of two hundred thousand, making it the second-largest city in Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandler|Fox|1974|p=376}}</ref> Meanwhile, Mehmed II repaired the city's damaged infrastructure and began to build the ]. Also constructed during this period was ], which served as the official residence of the sultan for four hundred years.<ref name="holale307">{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|pp=307}}</ref> | |||
| The Ottomans quickly transformed ] from a bastion of Christianity to a symbol of ]. ] were established to fund the construction of grand ], often adjoined by schools, hospitals, and ].<ref name="holale307"/> ]'s reign from 1520 to 1566 was a period of especially great artistic and architectural achievements; chief architect ] designed the ] and other grand buildings in the city, while Ottoman arts of ceramics, ] and ] flourished.<ref>{{harvnb|Atıl|1987}}</ref> The total population of ] amounted to 570,000 by the end of the 18th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandler|Fox|1974|p=377}}</ref> | |||
| ] spanning the ], with the ] in the background, ca. 1892–1893.]] | |||
| A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan ] and eventually the '']'' period, which produced reforms that aligned the empire along Western European standards.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyar|Fleet|2010|p=97}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|p=55}}</ref> Bridges across the ] were constructed during this period,<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=87–9}}</ref> and Istanbul was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s.<ref name="ha251">{{harvnb|Harter|2005|p=251}}</ref> The ], one of the world's oldest subterranean urban rail lines, opened in 1875;<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=96–8}}</ref> other modern facilities, such a stable water network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Istanbul over the following decades, although later than to other European cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|pp=230, 287, 306}}</ref> | |||
| ], departing from the backdoor of the ] a year before the declaration of the Republic of Turkey.]] | |||
| Still, the modernization efforts were not enough to forestall the decline of the Ottoman regime. The early 20th century saw the ], which disposed of Sultan ], and a series of wars that plagued the ailing empire's capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=31}}</ref> The last of these, World War I, resulted in the British, French, and Italian ]. The final Ottoman sultan, ], was exiled in November 1922; the following year, the occupation of Istanbul ended with the signing of the ] and the recognition of the ], which was declared by ] on 29 October 1923.<ref>{{harvnb|Landau|1984|p=50}}</ref> | |||
| In the early years of the republic, Istanbul was overlooked in favor of the country's new capital, ]. However, starting from the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares (such as ]), boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|pp=11–2, 34–6}}</ref> In 1955, the ] targeted the city's ethnic Greek community. The pogrom greatly accelerated the emigration of the city's ethnic Greeks to Greece.<ref name=birand>Birand, Mehmet Ali. “,” '']'', 7 September 2005.</ref> The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing development, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the greater ] of Istanbul.<ref>{{harvnb|Erkök|2008|p=178}}</ref> | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| {{See|Geography of Turkey|Geology of Turkey}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Istanbul is located in northwestern ] within the ] on a total area of {{convert|5343|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.{{#tag:ref|Sources have provided conflicting figures on the area of Istanbul. The most authoritative source on this figure ought to be the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), but the English version of its website suggests a few figures for this area. One page states that "Each MM is sub-divided into District Municipalities ("DM") ''of which there are 27 in Istanbul''" with a total area of {{convert|1538.9|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.<ref name="mmi-districts">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Jurisdiction/Pages/Districts.aspx |title=Districts |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> However, the Municipal History page appears to be the most explicit and most updated, saying that in 2004, "Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality's jurisdiction was enlarged to cover all the area within the provincial limits". It also states a 2008 law merged the ] district into the ] district (a point that is not reflected in the previous source) and increased the number of districts in Istanbul to thirty-nine.<ref name="mmi-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/MunicipalHistory/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx |title=History of Local Governance in Istanbul |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> That total area, as corroborated on the Turkish version of the MMI website,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/tr-TR/kurumsal/Pages/IlceveIlkKademe.aspx |title=İstanbul İl ve İlçe Alan Bilgileri |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=20 June 2010 |language=Turkish |trans_title=Istanbul Province and District Area Information}}</ref> and a recently updated Jurisdiction page on the English site<ref name="mmi-jurisdiction">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Jurisdiction/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx |title=Jurisdiction |publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality |accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> is {{convert|5343|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}.|group="note"|name="city-area"}} The ], which connects the ] to the ], divides the city into a European side, comprising the historic and economic centers, and an Asian, ]n side; as such, Istanbul is one of the two bi-continental cities in Turkey, along with ]. The city is further divided by the ], a natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former ] and ] were founded. In the late-19th century, a wharf was constructed in ] at the mouth of the Golden Horn, replacing a sandy beach that once formed part of the inlet's coastline.<ref name="topo">{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3130239EEA0FCDF038B91FBF5F1F3911EBA|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=The Topography of İstanbul|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and still remains a prominent feature of the city's landscape. | |||
| ]s in western Turkey are concentrated just southwest of Istanbul, under the Sea of Marmara and northern ].|alt=A high concentration of fault lines in northwestern Turkey, where the Eurasian and African plates meet; a small number of faults and ridges also appear under the Mediterranean]] | |||
| The historic peninsula - consciously following ] - is said to be characterized by ]. Each of these was topped in the Byzantine age by a large church, substituted by the Ottomans by imperial mosques. The hills are still surrounded by the surviving sections of the {{convert|22|km|mi|sp=us}} long ]; the easternmost of these hills is the site of ] on the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.istanbul.gov.tr/Default.aspx?pid=294|publisher=Governorship of Istanbul|title=Istanbul from a Bird's Eye View|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> Rising from the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another, conical hill, where the modern ] district is situated. Because of the topography, buildings were once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls (some of which are still visible in older parts of the city), and roads in Beyoğlu were laid out in the form of steps.<ref name="topo"/> ] on the Asian side exhibits similarly hilly characteristics, with the terrain gradually extending down to the Bosphorus coast, but the landscape in Şemsipaşa and Ayazma is more abrupt, akin to a ]. The highest point in Istanbul is ] (also on the Asian side), with an altitude of {{convert|288|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="topo"/> | |||
| Istanbul is situated near the ] on the boundary between the ] and ] plates. This fault zone, which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara, has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city's history. Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the ], which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city, destroyed over 100 mosques, and killed more than 10,000 people. More recently, in 1999, ] with its epicenter in nearby ] left 17,000 people dead, including 1,000 people in Istanbul's suburbs.<ref name="dis-awaits">{{cite news|last=Revkin|first=Andrew C.|title=Disaster Awaits Cities in Earthquake Zones|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/25/science/earth/25quake.html|work=The New York Times|date=24 February 2010|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> The people of Istanbul remain concerned that an even more catastrophic seismic event may be in Istanbul's near future, as thousands of structures recently built to accommodate the city's rapidly increasing population may not have been constructed properly.<ref name="dis-awaits"/> Seismologists say the risk of a 7.6-] earthquake striking Istanbul by 2030 is greater than sixty percent.<ref>{{harvnb|Parsons|Toda|Stein|Barka|2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Traynor|first=Ian|title=A Disaster Waiting to Happen – Why a Huge Earthquake Near Istanbul Seems Inevitable|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/dec/09/turkey.naturaldisasters|work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=9 December 2006|accessdate=13 June 2010}}</ref> | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ===Climate=== | |||
| ] business district.|alt=Skyscrapers, both near and far, soar above a dense layer of fog that keeps the ground hidden from view.]] | |||
| Istanbul is characterized as having either a ], according to ] system, or a ], according to the updated Köppen-Geiger classification system.<ref name=McKnight>{{cite book |author=McKnight, Tom L; Hess, Darrel |year=2000 |chapter=Climate Zones and Types |title=Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=0-13-020263-0}} {{rp|200–1}}</ref> However, due to its vast size, diverse topography, and maritime location, Istanbul exhibits a multitude of distinct ]s. Northern parts of the city, for example, express characteristics of an ].<ref name=McKnight/><ref>{{harvnb|Eisma|1995|p=174}}</ref> | |||
| Summer weather in Istanbul is moderately warm, with high temperatures in July and August averaging {{convert|28|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="wmo"><{{cite web|url=http://www.worldweather.org/014/c00047.htm |title=Weather Information for Istanbul|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|work=World Weather Information Service|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Extreme heat, however, is uncommon, as temperatures rise above {{convert|32|°C|°F|abbr=on|0}} on only five days per year on average.<ref name="wbase">{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weatherall.php3?s=6071&refer=&cityname=Istanbul-Turkey&units= |publisher=WeatherBase |accessdate=8 May 2012 |title=Historical Weather for Istanbul, Turkey}}</ref> Rainfall is also uncommon during the summer, with only four or five rainy days per month. Winters are cold, wet and often snowy, with the temperature in January and February averaging {{convert|4|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="bbc-weather">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/745044|publisher=BBC Weather Centre|work=World Weather|title=Weather – Istanbul|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Snowfalls tend to be heavy, but snowcover and temperatures below freezing rarely last more than a few days. Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south—sometimes in the same day—have the tendency to cause fluctuations in temperature.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pelit|first=Attila|url=http://www.timeout.com/istanbul/features/306/when-to-go-to-istanbul|publisher=TimeOut Istanbul|title=When to Go to Istanbul|accessdate=19 Dec 2011}}</ref> | |||
| Istanbul has a persistently high ], which can exacerbate the moderate summer heat. The humidity is especially salient during the morning hours, when humidity generally reaches eighty percent and fog is very common. The city receives fog an average of 228 days each year, with the highest concentration of foggy days being in the winter months, although it usually dissipates by noontime. ]s are uncommon, occurring just 23 days each year, but they occur most frequently in the summer and early autumn months.<ref name="wbase"/> Istanbul has an annual average of 124 days with significant precipitation, which together generate around {{convert|843.9|mm|in|1|sp=us}} of precipitation.<ref name="Meteor.gov.tr">{{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/yillik-toplam-yagis-verileri.aspx?m=istanbul |title=Yıllık Toplam Yağış Verileri – Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü |publisher=Meteor.gov.tr |accessdate=10 May 2009}}</ref> The highest recorded temperature was {{convert|40.5|°C|0}} on 12 July 2000, and the lowest recorded temperature was {{convert|-16.1|°C|0}} on 9 February 1927.<ref name="Meteor.gov.tr PDF">{{tr icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/kurumsal/ekitap/4mevsim2/s5152.pdf |title=İstanbul Bölge Müdürlüğü'ne Bağlı İstasyonlarda Ölçülen Ekstrem Değerler (Extreme Values Measured in Istanbul Regional Directorate) |publisher=Meteor.gov.org |accessdate=27 July 2010}}</ref> The highest recorded rainfall in 24 hours was {{convert|227|mm|in|sp=us}} on 16 October 1985.<ref name="Meteor.gov.tr PDF"/> The highest recorded snow cover was {{convert|80|cm|in|sp=us}} in March 1987.<ref name="Meteor.gov.tr PDF"/><ref name="AMS PDF">{{cite web|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0493(1998)126%3C3036%3AMCBOTE%3E2.0.CO%3B2 |title=March 1987 Cyclone (Blizzard) over the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkan Region Associated with Blocking |publisher=American Meteorological Society |accessdate=27 July 2010}}</ref> | |||
| {{Weather box | |||
| |location= Istanbul {{TUR|date=September 2011}} | |||
| |metric first= yes | |||
| |single line= yes | |||
| |Jan high C= 8.7 | |||
| |Feb high C= 9.1 | |||
| |Mar high C= 11.2 | |||
| |Apr high C= 16.5 | |||
| |May high C= 21.4 | |||
| |Jun high C= 26.0 | |||
| |Jul high C= 28.4 | |||
| |Aug high C= 28.5 | |||
| |Sep high C= 25.0 | |||
| |Oct high C= 20.1 | |||
| |Nov high C= 15.3 | |||
| |Dec high C= 11.1 | |||
| |year high C= 18.8 | |||
| |Jan low C= 2.9 | |||
| |Feb low C= 2.8 | |||
| |Mar low C= 3.9 | |||
| |Apr low C= 7.7 | |||
| |May low C= 12.0 | |||
| |Jun low C= 16.0 | |||
| |Jul low C= 18.5 | |||
| |Aug low C= 18.7 | |||
| |Sep low C= 15.5 | |||
| |Oct low C= 12.0 | |||
| |Nov low C= 8.5 | |||
| |Dec low C= 5.3 | |||
| |year low C= 10.5 | |||
| |Jan precipitation mm= 98.4 | |||
| |Feb precipitation mm= 80.2 | |||
| |Mar precipitation mm= 69.9 | |||
| |Apr precipitation mm= 45.8 | |||
| |May precipitation mm= 36.1 | |||
| |Jun precipitation mm= 34.0 | |||
| |Jul precipitation mm= 38.8 | |||
| |Aug precipitation mm= 47.8 | |||
| |Sep precipitation mm= 61.4 | |||
| |Oct precipitation mm= 96.9 | |||
| |Nov precipitation mm= 110.7 | |||
| |Dec precipitation mm= 123.9 | |||
| |year precipitation mm= 843.9 | |||
| |Jan precipitation days= 17.7 | |||
| |Feb precipitation days= 15.3 | |||
| |Mar precipitation days= 13.6 | |||
| |Apr precipitation days= 10.3 | |||
| |May precipitation days= 7.8 | |||
| |Jun precipitation days= 5.3 | |||
| |Jul precipitation days= 3.6 | |||
| |Aug precipitation days= 4.0 | |||
| |Sep precipitation days= 6.1 | |||
| |Oct precipitation days= 10.3 | |||
| |Nov precipitation days= 12.9 | |||
| |Dec precipitation days= 16.9 | |||
| |year precipitation days= 123.8 | |||
| |source 1= ],<ref name="WMO"><{{cite web|url=http://www.worldweather.org/014/c00047.htm |title=World Weather Infromation - Climatological Information - Istanbul |publisher=WMO |accessdate=29 June 2010}}</ref> ],<ref name="Meteor.gov.tr"/> | |||
| }} | |||
| ==Cityscape== | |||
| {{See also|List of urban centers in Istanbul}} | |||
| ] style ] and the ].]] | |||
| Istanbul has ] administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI).<ref name="mmi-history"/> The district of ], which includes the neighborhood and former district of ], is among the most central of these, residing on the historic peninsula south of the ]. The district corresponds to what was, until the Ottoman conquest, the whole of the city, across from which stood the ] citadel of ] in the late Byzantine era. Those Genoese fortifications were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only the ], to make way for northward expansion of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|pp=70, 169}}</ref> Galata is now a part of the ] district, which forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center and includes ] and ].<ref>{{harvnb|Çelik|1993|p=127}}</ref> | |||
| ], the seat of government during the late Ottoman period, is located in ], just north of Beyoğlu, across from ], home to ].<ref name="fifa-bes">{{cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=44163/index.html |publisher=FIFA |accessdate=8 April 2012|title=Besiktas: The Black Eagles of the Bosporus}}</ref> The former village of ] is situated within Beşiktaş and provides its name to the ], along the Bosphorus near the ]. Lining the shores of the Bosphorus north of there are '']'', luxurious chalet mansions originally built by 19th-century aristocrats and elites as summer homes.<ref>{{harvnb|Bertram|2008|pp=33–4}}</ref> Today, some are homes within the city's most exclusive neighborhoods, including ]. Further inland, between the First Bosphorus Bridge and the ], are ], ], and ], Istanbul's primary economic centers. Officially part of the Beşiktaş and ] districts, they contain Istanbul's tallest buildings<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/statistics/tallest-buildings-istanbul-turkey|publisher=Emporis|accessdate=20 Dec 2011|title=Istanbul's tallest buildings – Top 20}}</ref> and the headquarters of Turkey's largest companies. | |||
| Like Beyoğlu, the districts of ] and ] on the Asian side were originally separate cities, Chrysopolis and ], respectively.<ref name="lis35"/> During the Ottoman period, they continued to remain outside the scope of urban Istanbul, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside ''yalıs'' and gardens. However, during the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced massive urban growth, owning in part to the construction of the two Bosphorus Bridges in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="wctr281" /> The fact that these areas were largely empty until the 1960s also provided the chance for developing better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city. While officially part of Istanbul, much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment.<ref name="wctr281"/> | |||
| As a result of Istanbul's exponential growth during the 20th century, a significant portion of the city comprises '']s'' (a Turkish term literally meaning ''built overnight''), referring to the illegally constructed squatter buildings that run rampant outside the centers of the country's largest cities.<ref name="kar7896">{{harvnb|Karpat|1976|pp=78–96}}</ref> At present, some ''gecekondu'' areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds.<ref name="yavuz">{{cite news|last=Yavuz|first=Ercan|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=177450&bolum=103|publisher=Today's Zaman|title=Gov't launches plan to fight illegal construction|date=8 Jun 2009|accessdate=20 Dec 2011}}</ref> | |||
| ===Architecture=== | |||
| {{Main|Architecture of Istanbul}} | |||
| {{See|Architecture of ancient Rome|Byzantine architecture|Ottoman architecture}} | |||
| {{Infobox World Heritage Site | |||
| |WHS=Historic Areas of Istanbul | |||
| |Image= | |||
| |State Party=] | |||
| |Type=Cultural | |||
| |Criteria=I, II, III, IV | |||
| |ID=356 | |||
| |Region=] | |||
| |Year=1985 | |||
| |Session=9th | |||
| |Link=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/356 | |||
| }} | |||
| Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have ruled its predecessors. Genoese, Roman, and even Greek forms of architecture remain visible in Istanbul alongside their Ottoman counterparts. Similarly, while the Hagia Sophia and ] dominate much of the city's skyline, the city is also home to a number of historic churches and synagogues. | |||
| While nothing of the architecture of the ] has survived, ] has proved itself to be more durable. Obelisks from the ], modeled after the ] in Rome, are still visible in Sultanahmet Square. <ref>{{harvnb|Chamber of Architects of Turkey|2006a|p=80}}</ref> A section of the ], constructed in the late 4th century to carry water to the city, stands relatively intact over {{convert|970|m|ft|sp=us|sigfig=2}} in the west of the Fatih district.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Chamber of Architects of Turkey|2006a|p=118}}</ref> Similarly, the ], which were erected in stages well into the Byzantine period, are still visible along much of their original {{convert|4|mi|km|adj=on}} course from the Sea of Marmara to the Golden Horn.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=394}}</ref> Finally, the ], erected in 330 AD to mark the new Roman capital, still stands not far from the Hippodrome.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| ] built by ]]] | |||
| Early ] followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches, but further improved these architectural concepts, as in the ]. The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul (albeit in ruins) is ] (later converted into the Imrahor Mosque), which was built in 454.<ref>{{harvnb|Chamber of Architects of Turkey|2006a|p=176}}</ref> Other extant structures from the early Byzantine period include the ], initially the first church in the new capital. After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches still extant, ] and ]. The ], high on the hill across the Golden Horn, is the only surviving tower of the wall built by the Genoese to protect their omonymous citadel. Still, the pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul's most iconic structures, is the ]. Topped by a dome {{convert|31|m|ft|sp=us}} in diameter,<ref>{{harvnb|Gregory|2010|p=138}}</ref> the Hagia Sofia stood as the largest world cathedral for more than a thousand years, before being converted into a mosque and, now, a museum.<ref name="ev217"/><ref name="le6"/> | |||
| ], an example of the Ottoman Baroque architecture.]] | |||
| Among the oldest extant examples of ] in Istanbul are the ] and ] fortresses, which helped block sea traffic aimed at assisting the Byzantines during the Ottoman ].<ref>Freely, John (2000). Blue Guide Istanbul. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-32014-6.</ref> Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans continued to make an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces. These grand imperial mosques include ] (the Blue Mosque), ], and ], all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. | |||
| In the following centuries, and especially after the ] reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles. In contrast to the traditional elements of ] and the mosques on the historic peninsula, ], ], and ] in ], and ] across the Bosphorus in ] are clearly of ] style. At the same time, the areas around ] were filled with grandiose European embassies and rows of buildings in European (mostly ] and, later, ]) style started to appear along the avenue. Istanbul was one of the major centers of the Art Nouveau movement in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, with famous architects of this style building palaces and mansions in the city. | |||
| ==Administration== | |||
| ] | |||
| Since 2004, Istanbul, the capital of the ], has been one of only two cities in Turkey (the other being ]) whose city boundaries are concurrent with the boundaries of its province.<ref>{{cite web|title=Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kanunu|trans_title=Metropolitan Municipal Law|url=http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/kanunlar/k5216.html|accessdate=30 November 2010|quote='Bu Kanunun yürürlüğe girdiği tarihte; büyükşehir belediye sınırları, İstanbul ve Kocaeli ilinde, il mülkî sınırıdır.'' (On the date this law goes in effect, the metropolitan city boundaries, in the provinces of İstanbul and Kocaeli, are those of the province.)|work=Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi|date=10 Jul 2004|language=Turkish}}</ref> The city is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (MMI), which oversees the ] of the city-province.<ref group="note" name="city-area"/> Also included within the MMI's jurisdiction are seventeen designated towns, up to {{convert|52|km2|mi2|sp=us}} in size.<ref name="mmi-towns">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Jurisdiction/Pages/Towns.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Towns|accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> | |||
| The current municipal structure has its origins in the ], which called for special administrative structures for Turkey's largest cities. Just one year earlier, Public Act 2591 had expanded the breadth of the country's metropolitan municipalities, which were first established in 1930; small towns adjacent to major population centers were converted to suburbs and neighborhoods and merged into the municipalities. With the 1984 implementation of Public Act 3030, derived from the Constitution of 1982, two-tier governments (comprising metropolitan municipalities and districts) were established for these amalgamated municipalities, including Istanbul.<ref name="mmi-history"/> | |||
| The main decision-making body of the city is the Municipal Council, headed by the metropolitan mayor. Members of the council are drawn from Istanbul's districts, which have their own councils and mayors.<ref name="mmi-council">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/BelediyeMeclisi/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=The Municipal Council|accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> The Municipality Council addresses citywide issues and promotes unity across Istanbul, passing laws that are binding on all of the city's constituent districts. In pursuit of these goals, the council's responsibilities include reviewing contracts, setting the fares on public transport, and regulating taxes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/BelediyeMeclisi/Pages/LegalFrame.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Legal Frame|accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Meanwhile, district councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the Municipality Council reserves the right to review and modify their budgets and certain other district decisions. One fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their district in the Municipal Council.<ref name="mmi-districts"/> All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms.<ref name="mmi-council"/> Representing the ], ]—now in his second term—is the current ] since March 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Baskan/Pages/Baskan.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=The Mayor's Biography|accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> | |||
| Working alongside the Municipal Council is the Metropolitan Executive Committee. The Committee serves in an advisory role to the council, examining budgets, sales, and other issues, on which the Council will have the final say. The Committee also has the authority to execute and make decisions on some minor issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/EN-US/ORGANIZATION/ENCUMEN/Pages/DutiesOfTheCommitte.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Duties of the Committee – Functions of the Committee|accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> The mayor, or someone the mayor appoints, serves as head of the Committee. The remaining members comprise a secretary-general and people in charge of particular departments, including public works, and legal matters. All representatives on the Metropolitan Executive Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/en-US/Organization/Encumen/Pages/AnaSayfa.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Metropolitan Executive Committee|accessdate=21 Dec 2011}}</ref> | |||
| With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and the Istanbul Province, having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Similar to the MMI, the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor, a democratically elected decision-making body—the Provincial Parliament—and an appointed Executive Committee. Similar to the Municipal Executive Committee, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments, including health, education, and agricultural departments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioi.gov.tr/index.php?yol=0_1_124|publisher=Istanbul Special Provincial Administration|title=Organizasyon|trans_title=Organization|accessdate=21 Dec 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref> The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and natural conservation. These functions are particularly important to the restoration and preservation of Istanbul's historical sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioi.gov.tr/index.php?yol=0_1_30|publisher=Istanbul Special Provincial Administration|title=Birimler|trans_title=Units|accessdate=21 Dec 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref> The Provincial Administration also determines whether towns meeting a minimum population of 2,000 have sufficient funds to carry out the duties of a municipality. Seventeen such towns exist within the jurisdiction of the MMI and the Istanbul Province and have their own popularly elected town councils with functions similar to district councils.<ref name="mmi-towns"/> Hüseyin Avni Mutlu is the current ] of the ] since May 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioi.gov.tr/encumen_baskani.php|publisher=Istanbul Special Provincial Administration|title=Encümen Başkanı|trans_title=Head of the Council|accessdate=21 Dec 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| {{See also|Demographics of Turkey}} | |||
| {{Historical populations of Istanbul}} | |||
| The Turkish Statistic Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul was 13,483,052 on 31 December 2011, making it the largest city in Turkey, with eighteen percent of the country's population.<ref name="tuik"/> Because of its vast land area, Istanbul is among the five ], even though its ], roughly equivalent to the city proper's population, ranks below twentieth.<ref name="citypop-agg" /> | |||
| Istanbul experienced explosive growth in the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000.<ref>{{harvnb|Turan|2010}}</ref> This growth in population comes, in part, from an expansion of city limits—particularly between 1980 and 1985, when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled.<ref name="mmi-history"/> However, the remarkable growth was, and still is, largely fueled by migrants from eastern Anatolia seeking employment and improved living conditions. The number of residents of Istanbul originating from seven northern and eastern provinces is greater than the populations of their entire respective provinces; notably, ] and ] each account for more than half a million residents of Istanbul.<ref name="ecoc-popdem" /> By comparison, the city's small expatriate population amounts to only 42,228 residents, based on 2007 official estimates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-201695-starting-up-in-turkey-expats-getting-organized.html|publisher=Today's Zaman|last=Kamp|first=Kristina|date=17 February 2010|accessdate=27 March 2012|title=Starting Up in Turkey: Expats Getting Organized}}</ref> | |||
| Present population growth is placed at an average of {{nowrap|3.45 percent}} annually, due to the influx of people from the surrounding rural areas; this ranks as the highest among the seventy-eight largest ] metropolises.<ref name="oecd" /> During the first seven years of the 21st century, the city's population grew by {{nowrap|2.5 million}}. Istanbul's population density of 1,700 people per square kilometer (2,700/mi<sup>2</sup>) far exceeds Turkey's 81 people per square kilometer (130/mi<sup>2</sup>).<ref name="urge">{{cite web|url=http://www.urge-project.ufz.de/istanbul/general.htm|title=Presentation of Reference City: Istanbul|publisher=Urban Green Environment|year=2001|accessdate=30 December 2011}}</ref> The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest, west, or southwest of the city center, on the European side. The most densely populated district on the Asian side is ].<ref name="ecoc-popdem" /> | |||
| Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has been among the largest cities in the world. Its geographically strategic location, at the intersection of Europe and the Middle East, combined with its Byzantine and Ottoman political and cultural significance, quickly fostered a large, diverse population. By 500 AD, less than two centuries after ] made the city his empire's capital, Constantinople had somewhere between 400,000 and 500,000 people, edging out its predecessor ] for ].<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2010|p=113}}</ref> By some accounts, it had even achieved that title by 360 AD.<ref name="cha463">{{harvnb|Chandler|1987|pp=463–505}}</ref> Prior to the ] and the arrival of the ] in the 13th century, Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as ] and ], for the position of world's most populous city. Following the ] in 1453, Istanbul quickly regained—and arguably exceeded—its previous prosperity and diversity. While it never returned to being the world's largest, it remained Europe's largest city until the start of the 19th century.<ref name="cha463"/> Today, it is ], after ].<ref name="citypop-agg"/> | |||
| === Religious and ethnic groups === | |||
| {{main|Religion in Istanbul}} | |||
| {{further|Religion in Turkey|Armenians in Turkey|Greeks in Turkey|Jews in Turkey}} | |||
| ] is colloquially known as the Blue Mosque.]] | |||
| Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, being at the crossroads of two continents and having been the heart of two world religions. Most of the religious and ethnic minorities that exist in Turkey are concentrated in Istanbul. | |||
| The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, consider themselves ], and more specifically members of the ] branch of ]. Of the Sunnis, most follow the ] school of Islamic thought, although approximately ten percent of Sunni Muslims follow the ] school. The largest non-Sunni Muslim sect, accounting for {{nowrap|4.5 million}} Turks, is the ]s; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul. Today, there are around three thousand active mosques across Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/37355320/Social-structure-survey-2006-KONDA-Research|publisher=KONDA Research|title=Social Structure Survey 2006|year=2006|accessdate=27 March 2012}} (Note: Accessing KONDA reports directly from 's own website requires registration.)</ref> | |||
| Istanbul served as the seat of the ] from 1517 to 1924, when it was dissolved and its powers were handed over to the ].<ref name="fre296" /> In September 1925, the '']s'' (Sufi gathering places) and '']'' (Sufi religious orders) were banned, as their activities were deemed incompatible with the characteristics of the new, ] republic. Most followers of ] and other forms of Islamic mysticism practiced clandestinely (as "cultural associations") afterward, and some of these sects still boast numerous followers.<ref>{{cite web|author=U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title=Turkey: International Religious Freedom Report 2007|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ], the seat of the ].]] | |||
| The ] has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the 5th century. The Ecumenical Patriarch is widely regarded as the leader of the world's {{nowrap|300 million}} Orthodox Christians (although this role has been disputed by the ]). Since 1600, the ] has been based in Istanbul's ]. Istanbul's Orthodox Christians are members of the ]. However, the Christian population today is much lower than it used to be, having dropped from 450,000 to 240,000 between 1914 and 1927, as a series of wars plagued the outgoing empire and the new republic.<ref>{{harvnb|Keyder|1999|p=10}}</ref> | |||
| Greeks have been living continuously in Istanbul since the city's founding in antiquity. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were over 100,000 Greeks living in Istanbul,<ref name="www1.mfa.gr">{{cite web|url=http://www1.mfa.gr/en/issues-of-greek-turkish-relations/relevant-documents/the-greek-minority-and-its-foundations-in-istanbul-gokceada-imvros-and-bozcaada-tenedos.html |title=The Greek Minority and its foundations in Istanbul, Gokceada (Imvros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos) |date=21 March 2011 |accessdate=15 September 2011}}</ref> especially in the ] and ] quarters, and over {{nowrap|1.5 million}} living in ] as a whole.<ref>Kilic, Ecevit (7 September 2008). "Sermaye nasıl el değiştirdi?" (in Turkish). Sabah. Retrieved 25 December 2008. "6–7 Eylül olaylarından önce İstanbul'da 135 bin Rum yaşıyordu. Sonrasında bu sayı 70 bine düştü. 1978'e gelindiğinde bu rakam 7 bindi."</ref> Due to their role in the Turkish economy, the ] of Istanbul living in the city before 30 October 1918 (the ''etablis'') were excluded from the ]. However, because of the 1942 ], the 1955 ], the 1964 expulsions<ref name="www1.mfa.gr"/> and the 1974 ], the number of Greeks in Istanbul diminished enormously, and is today estimated to comprise between 2,000 and 4,000, mostly elderly, citizens.<ref name="todayszaman.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=161291|accessdate=15 December 2008|title=Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey|date=15 December 2008|work=]}}</ref> | |||
| ] is the last remaining place of worship built by the city's small Ashkenazi population]] | |||
| Istanbul used to have a sizable ] population, especially in the ] district, dating back to Byzantine times. Only during the 20th century did the population begin to decline, although immigrants from ] have recently caused it to rebound. In 2008, Istanbul's Armenian minority was numbered at 85,000, comprising 45,000 Armenian citizens of Turkey and 40,000 Armenian citizens who have immigrated to the city since 1991.<ref name="todayszaman.com"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8173275 |title=Armenians in Turkey |work=The Economist |date=16 November 2006 |accessdate=28 May 2009}}</ref> A number of places reflect past immigration of different communities into Istanbul; most notable among them are ] (Albanian village), ] (Polish village), and Yenibosna (New Bosnia). What is now the ] district also used to be home to Italians and ], but these minority groups have virtually disappeared, having emigrated or moved to other districts. | |||
| ] have lived in the city, especially in the ] district, for over five hundred years, after fleeing the ] during the ]. More than {{nowrap|200,000 Jews}} fled first to North Africa and Italy before arriving in Istanbul, while an additional 93,000 were rescued at the behest of Sultan, ] ({{abbr|r.|reigned}} 1481–1512). Another large group of Sephardic Jews came from southern Italy, which was under Spanish control. ] resided in Istanbul before the Sephardim, but today their numbers are very small; today, just four percent of Turkey's {{nowrap|23,000 Jews}} are Ashkenazi. The vast majority of the Jews—Sephardi or Ashkenazi—that remain in the country reside in Istanbul, which has about twenty synagogues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musevicemaati.com/index.php?contentId=33 |title=Türkiye Hahambaşılığı |publisher=Musevi Cemaati |accessdate=15 September 2011}}</ref> | |||
| The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is represented by the ], originating from eastern and southeastern Anatolia. Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period,<ref>{{harvnb|Houston|2008|pp=1-2}}</ref> the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the ] with the ] (i.e. since the late 1970s).<ref>{{harvnb|Wedel|2000|p=182}}</ref> Currently, some sources estimate that three million residents of Istanbul—a quarter of the city's population—is Kurdish,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jürgens|first=Jule|date=19 June 2005|title=Kurdish Question in Turkey|page=3|publisher=GRIN|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0tYTUx6DgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/print.asp?type=2&id=15|publisher=The Journal of Turkish Weekly|title=The Ideological And Historical Roots Of Kurdist Movements In Turkey: Ethnicity Demography, Politics|accessdate=28 March 2012|}}</ref> That means about one fifth of all ] live in Istanbul. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims, but some are ] or ]. | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{main|Economy of Istanbul}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Apart from being the largest city and former political capital of the country, Istanbul has always been the center of Turkey's economic life because of its location at the junction of international land and sea trade routes. | |||
| With a GDP of {{nowrap|US$182 billion}} in 2008, Istanbul ranked 34th among the world's urban areas in terms of ], according to a survey by ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562|publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers|title=III – Which are the largest city economies in the world and how might this change by 2025?|year=2008|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> Istanbul is responsible for {{nowrap|27 percent}} of Turkey's GDP, with {{nowrap|20 percent}} of the country's industrial labor force residing in the city.<ref name="oecd" /><ref name="urge" /> Its GDP per capita and ] are greater than their national averages by seventy percent and fifty percent, respectively, owing in part to the focus on high-] activities. With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy, Istanbul is responsible for two fifths of the nation's tax revenue.<ref name="oecd" /> That includes the taxes of {{nowrap|30 billionaires}} based in Istanbul, the 5th-highest number among global cities, according to '']''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/calebmelby/2012/03/16/moscow-beats-new-york-london-in-list-of-billionaire-cities/|last=Melby|first=Caleb|publisher=Forbes|title=Moscow Beats New York, London In List Of Billionaire Cities|date=16 March 2012|accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ] was Istanbul's financial center during the Ottoman period.|alt=A city street, with several parked vans, flanked by stone buildings alongside]] | |||
| As expected for a city of its size, Istanbul has a diverse industrial economy, producing commodities as varied as olive oil, tobacco, transport vehicles, and electronics.<ref name="urge" /> Despite having a focus on high-value-added work, its low-value-added manufacturing sector is substantial, representing just 26% of Istanbul's GDP, but four fifths, of the city's total exports.<ref name="oecd" /> In 2005, companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth US$41.4 billion and received imports totaling US$69.9 billion; these figures were equivalent to 57% and 60%, respectively, of the national totals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/361031.asp|publisher=NTV-MSNBC|title=Dış Ticaretin Lokomotifi İstanbul|trans_title=Istanbul is the Locomotive of Foreign Trade|language=Turkish|date=13 February 2006|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Istanbul is home to Turkey's only ], the ]. Although it was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866, its importance declined after the ] in the 1930s. It was ultimately reorganized into its current form at the start of 1986, following a series of governmental financial liberalization programs.<ref>{{harvnb|Odabaşı|Aksu|Akgiray|2004|p=510}}</ref> In 1995, the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to its current building in the ] quarter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ise.org/aboutus/History.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Stock Exchange|title=Milestones in ISE History|year=2012|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| During the 19th century and early 20th century, ] (Banks Street) in ] was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located. The Ottoman central bank also had its headquarters along the street; it was established as the ''Bank-ı Osmanî'' (Ottoman Bank) in 1856 before being renamed as the ''Bank-i-ı Osmani Şahane'' (Imperial Ottoman Bank) in 1863.<ref name="OBM">{{cite web|url=http://www.obarsiv.com/english/history.html|publisher=The Ottoman Bank Archives and Research Centre|title=History of the Bank|accessdate=28 March 2012}}</ref> Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul's main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of ] and ]. In 1995, the ] moved to its current building in the ] quarter of the ] district.<ref></ref> | |||
| ===Tourism=== | |||
| ] in Istanbul's cosmopolitan Beyoğlu district, an area frequented by tourists|alt=A busy street lined with shops in historic stone buildings]] | |||
| Because of its rich and long history reflected in its plethora of sites and monuments, and its location at the threshold of the Middle East, Istanbul is a major tourist destination. In 2010, when Istanbul was named a ], the city received {{nowrap|7 million}} foreign tourists, down from {{nowrap|7.5 million}} in the previous year but up from the mere {{nowrap|2.4 million}} it received in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-sre.wu-wien.ac.at/ersa/ersaconfs/ersa06/papers/237.pdf|publisher=Vienna University of Economics and Business|title=Urban Tourism: An Analysis of Visitors to Istanbul|last=Kerimoğlu|first=Ebra|last2=Ciraci|first2=Hale}}</ref><ref name="iv&c">{{cite web|url=http://www.igd.com.tr/Upload/file_4d9f1f3815b2d.pdf|publisher=Istanbul Valuation and Consulting|title=Istanbul '10|work=Turkey Tourism Market Research Reports|year=2010|accessdate=29 March 2012}}</ref> Istanbul is Turkey's second-largest international gateway, after ], receiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Accounting for fifteen percent of tourists from abroad, Germany (which has the largest Turkish population outside Turkey) is the most common source of international tourists to Istanbul. While most of these tourists enter Istanbul through one of its two international airports, half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea, as its a popular destination for cruise ships.<ref name="iv&c" /> | |||
| In 2009, Istanbul had approximately {{nowrap|365 hotels}} licensed by the Turkish Ministry of Tourism, ninety percent of which are located on the European side. Low- and mid-range hotels, including locally-licensed (rather than nationally-licensed) hotels, tend to be located in ] and around Sultanahmet Square (originally the ]) on the historic peninsula, while higher-end hotels are primarily located in ], ], ], and other areas north of the Golden Horn. The city has sixty-nine museums (comparable to London's seventy-six), with its most visited being the ] Museum. The Topkapı Palace Museum, visited by three million people annually, accounts for about half of the {{nowrap|55 million ]}} ({{nowrap|US$30 million}}) taken in by Istanbul museums each year. Istanbul's second-most-visited museum is the nearby ] Museum, earning {{nowrap|21.5 million TL}} ({{nowrap|US$12 million}}) from {{nowrap|2.5 million}} visitors each year. The city's environmental master plan also notes there are {{nowrap|17 palaces}}, {{nowrap|64 mosques}}, and {{nowrap|49 churches}} of historical significance.<ref name="iv&c" /> | |||
| == Culture == | |||
| Istanbul has long been known as a cultural hub due to its historical position as capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. However, when the Turkish Republic turned its focus away from Istanbul and toward ], its cultural scene throughout the mid-20th century laid relatively stagnant, seeing limited success on the international, and even national, level. The government of the new republic established programs that served to engender Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artist were primarily centered in the new capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Reisman|2006|p=88}}</ref> Although much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, it was not until the 1980s and 1990s that Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory. | |||
| === Fine arts === | |||
| ] is one of several contemporary art museums that opened during the 2000s in ], Istanbul's artistic and cultural heart.]] | |||
| Traditional visual art forms in Istanbul date back to the Ottoman era, when European and Ottoman painters began to depict the city's landscape in their work.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=221-2}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century, Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center, with Turkish, European, and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul's Fine Arts Academy (now the ]) remained the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=223}}</ref> Since then, Istanbul has reemerged as the country's artistic center, as artists formerly based in Ankara moved in, taking advantage of universities and art journals founded during the 1980s. Art in Istanbul began to be seen as having an analytical role, rather than just being an elitist culture concerned only with aesthetics.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=223-4}}</ref> Turkish artists continue to depict ] themes for an international audience, but art in the city now also addresses Turkish political themes or simply resembles Western ]. ] has been transformed into the artistic center of the city, with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there. Exhibition spaces, auction houses, and museums of modern art, including ], have further contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the district.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/12/magazine/istanbul-art-boom-bubble.html?pagewanted=all|publisher=The New York Times|title=The Istanbul Art-Boom Bubble|last=Hansen|first=Suzy|date=10 February 2012|accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Still, Istanbul's contemporary arts have struggled to pique the interest of visitors. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism estimated that, in 2009, there were {{nowrap|]}} in Istanbul, comparable to ] seventy-six and ] fifty-one. The city's most popular—the ] and ], with ] a distant third—are of a historical nature, buildings stripped of their religious and political functions and converted to museums.<ref name="iv&c" /> While not as profitable, the ] are among the most significant in Turkey, regarded as ushering in the era of modern museums in the country; established in 1891 in a purpose-built structure, the set of three museums together hold a collection of a million artifacts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-19958/istanbul---archaeology-museum.html|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=İstanbul - Archaeology Museum|accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref> Istanbul's most popular gallery dedicated to the visual arts is the ], although its exhibits also feature works prior to the 20th century. İstanbul Modern, the ], and ] are among the museums that opened north of the Golden Horn during the 2000s in an effort to fill that void but, while they have received acclaim, they have yet to receive the number of visitors their predecessors on the historic peninsula have.<ref name="iv&c" /> | |||
| ] hosted Turkey's first movie screening in 1896.]] | |||
| Cinema has a long history in Istanbul, with the first screening in the country at ] in 1896, just a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=130-1}}</ref> Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|pp=133-4}}</ref> Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey's nascent film industry, although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=146}}</ref> Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=165}}</ref> In the interim, movie theaters primarily showed foreign films from the most-profitable American and European markets. While the Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, it was not until the 2002 film '']'', set and filmed in Istanbul, that the nation's films saw substantial international success. Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for a number of American and European films, including '']'' (1963), '']'' (1978), '']'' (1999), '']'' (2009), and '']'' (2011).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/search/title?locations=Istanbul,%20Turkey|publisher=IMDb|title=Most Popular Titles with Location Matching "Istanbul, Turkey"|accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref> ] have also recently discovered Istanbul's cinematic allure, with '']'' (2007) and '']'' (2008) filmed there.<ref>{{harvnb|Göktürk|Soysal|Türeli|2010|p=193}}</ref> | |||
| Coinciding with this reemergence on the cultural scene was the establishment of number of festivals now organized by the Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts. The oldest of these was the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art—music, dance, visual art, and film—from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the ] and the ] in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the ] since 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muzik.iksv.org/en/thefestival/history|publisher=The Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts|title=History|accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref> The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the ], held every two years since 1987. While its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to become among the elite ]s, alongside the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2011/sep/21/istanbul-biennial-2011-modern-art|publisher=The Guardian|last=Gibbons|first=Fiachra|title=10 of the Best Exhibitions at the Istanbul Biennial|date=21 September 2011|accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref> Live shows and concerts are hosted in a number of purpose-built venues across the city, including ], ], and the ], but cultural events are sometimes held at historical sites (such as the ], ], ], and even the courtyard of ]). | |||
| === Leisure and entertainment === | |||
| ]s, or ''hamams'', were a staple of Ottoman society, and although some have since been converted to cafes or stand as unused, historic relics, they still have a place in modern Istanbul. Popular among Turks and tourists alike, many Turkish baths, such as ], have been continuously operated for hundreds of years.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|2000|p=22}}</ref> For those opting to cool off instead, the city has recently reopened many of its beaches along the Sea of Marmara and the Bosphorus; ], ], and ] are among the most frequented beachside locations in the city today. | |||
| Istanbul does not have a primary ], unlike other large cities, but it does have green areas in different parts of the city. ] and ] were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul's palaces—Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace—but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyar|Fleet|2010|p=247}}</ref> Across from Yıldız Palace, adjacent to the ], ] resides on a hillside on the Anatolian side of the Bosphorus. Along the European side of the Bosphorus, and closer to the ], is ]; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders, the {{convert|47|ha|acre|adj=on}} park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005.<ref>{{harvnb|Taylor|2007|p=241}}</ref> Popular during the summer among Istanbulites escaping the city is ], expanding across a vast {{convert|5500|ha|acre|adj=on}} area at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city, remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times can still be observed within.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/belge/2-14846/water-supply-systems-reservoirs-charity-and-free-founta-.html|publisher=Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism|title=Water Supply Systems, Reservoirs, Charity and Free Fountains, Turkish Baths|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Time Out Guides|2010|p=212}}</ref> | |||
| ] is one of the largest covered markets in the world.]] | |||
| Istanbul has ], from the historic to the modern. The ] is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets, having been in operation since 1461.<ref>{{harvnb|Hensel|Sungurogl|Ertaş|p=6}}</ref><ref name="kos9192">{{harvnb|Köse|2009|pp=91-2}}</ref> ], established a year later, extends between the Grand Bazaar and the ], which has been Istanbul's major spice market since 1660. ] ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987.<ref>{{harvnb|Taşan-Kok|2004|p=166}}</ref> Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. ] was awarded the title of Europe's best shopping mall by the ], while ] has been among the continent's largest since opening in 2005.<ref name="kos9192" /> ] in ] and ] on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high-end shopping districts,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=abdi-ipekci-street-to-be-the-new-champs-elysee-2010-09-03|publisher=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Abdi İpekçi Avenue to be new Champs Elysee|date=3 September 2010|last=Emeksiz|first=İpek|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/shop/mystery-shoppers-rank-worlds-best-shopping-avenues-060108|publisher=CNN|title=Shopping in Singapore is Better than Paris|date=6 January 2012|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref> while İstiklal Avenue forms the backbone of Beyoğlu.<ref name="key34">{{harvnb|Keyder|1993|p=34}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Aside from typical ] like ], Istanbul is also famous for its historic seafood restaurants. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosphorus, while the ] neighborhood along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=managing-the-difficult-balance-between-tourism-and-authenticity-kumkapi-2008-07-26|publisher=Hürriyet Daily News|title=Managing the Difficult Balance Between Tourism and Authenticity|last=Schäfers|first=Marlene|date=26 July 2008|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> The ], {{convert|15|km|mi|sp=us|0}} from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free atmospheres, the Princes' Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/travel/buyukada-near-istanbul-is-an-island-idyll.html?pagewanted=all|publisher=The New York Times|title=A Turkish Idyll Lost in Time|last=Schillinger|first=Liesl|date=8 July 2011|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Restaurants featuring foreign cuisine also thrive in the city, especially in the Beyoğlu district. Residing along İstiklal Avenue is the ], originally built by Greek philanthropist ] as apartment building and shopping center known as Cité de Pera. In the mid-20th century, the building's focus shifted toward nightlife, the Çiçek Pasajı has been to home to upscale winehouses (known as ''meyhanes''), pubs, and restaurants.<ref>{{harvnb|Freely|2011|p=429}}</ref> While the focus of İstiklal Avenue, originally famous for its taverns, has shifted the other direction—away from nightlife and toward shopping—the nearby Nevizade Street still retains its repuation for being lined with winehouses and pubs.<ref name="key34" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Kugel|first=Seth|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E00E4DB1030F934A25754C0A9679D8B63&pagewanted=all|title=The $100 Istanbul Weekend|publisher=The New York Times|date=17 July 2011|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife; Cezayir Sokağı ("Algeria Street") is at the center of such a transformed area, as it is now lined with pubs, cafés, and restaurants playing live music.<ref>{{harvnb|Knieling|Othengrafen|2009|p=228-34}}</ref> | |||
| Other focal points for Istanbul's nightlife are the high-end neighborhoods of ] and ], as well as, to a lesser extent, ] on the other side of the Bosphorus. Open-air seaside nightclubs, popular during the summertime, primarily line the European side of the Bosphorus, between Beyoğlu and the ] neighborhood by the Bosphorus Bridge.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tomasetti|first=Kathryn|last2=Rutherford|first2=Tristan|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/2012/mar/23/istanbul-nightlife-bars-breakfast-brunch|publisher=The Guardian|title=A Big Night Out in Istanbul – And a Big Breakfast the Morning After|date=23 March 2012|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| == Sports == | |||
| {{See also|List of sport facilities in Istanbul}} | |||
| ] is Turkey's largest multi-purpose stadium. It hosted the ].]] | |||
| During the Roman and Byzantine periods, the most important sporting events in Constantinople were the ] ] that were held at the ], which had a capacity of more than 100,000 spectators.<ref>{{harvnb|Bakirtzis|2009|p=377}}</ref> Today, sports remain very popular in Istanbul, which has been named the 2012 European Capital of Sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aces-europa.eu/Home/EuropeanCapitals/tabid/56/Default.aspx|publisher=Federation for the Associations of the European Capitals and Cities of Sport|title=European Capitals|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Its sports prowess is known across Turkey for being home to the country's oldest—and by some measures, most successful—]s. | |||
| ], established in 1903, is considered the oldest of these sports clubs; due to its initial status as Turkey's only club, it occasionally played as the national team.<ref name="fifa-bes" /> Its football team has seen several periods of dominance in national competition, particularly in the 1940s and early 1990s,<ref name="fifa-bes" /> but Istanbul's ] (est. 1905) and ] (est. 1907) tie for the honor of winning the most national championships.<ref name="fifa-gal">{{cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/clubs/club=31018/index.html|publisher=FIFA|title=Galatasaray: The Lions of the Bosporus|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have also excelled at the international level, with the former having won the ] and the latter having reached the quarterfinals of the ].<ref name="fifa-gal" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=2008/clubs/club=52692/matches/index.html|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|title=UEFA Champions League 2007/08 – History – Fenerbahçe|date=8 October 2011|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> The two clubs have a long-standing rivalry across the Bosphorus, with Galatasaray based in European Istanbul and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city.<ref name="fifa-gal" /> The basketball teams for ], ] and ], along with ], have also enjoyed success while Fenerbahçe, ], and ] have performed well in volleyball. | |||
| Many of Istanbul's sports facilities were built or upgraded during the 2000s in an effort to bolster the city's bids for the ]. ], the largest multi-purpose stadium in Turkey, was completed in 2002 as a five-star (now ]) UEFA stadium{{#tag:ref|While UEFA does not apparently keep a list of Category 4 stadiums, regulations stipulate that only Category 4 (formerly five-star) stadiums are eligible to host UEFA Champions League Finals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/uefa/Others/91/48/36/914836_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|format=pdf|page=14|title=Regulations of the UEFA European Football Championship 2010–12|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> which Atatürk Olympic Stadium did in 2005, and UEFA Europa League (formerly UEFA Cup) Finals,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/competitions/Regulations/01/48/48/90/1484890_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|format=pdf|page=17|title=Regulations of the UEFA Europa League 2010/11|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> which Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium did in 2009.|group="note"|name="uefa-category"}} and an ] first-class venue for ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/06/02/67/60267_PDF_English.pdf|publisher=The International Association of Athletics Federations|title=List of Certified Athletics Facilities|date=1 April 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> The stadium hosted the ] and remains the home field of ]. ], Fenerbahçe's home field, is also a five-star UEFA stadium, completed in 2006;<ref group="note" name="uefa-category"/> it hosted the ], the only UEFA Cup final to take place outside the European continent and the last before the Cup was replaced by the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.archive.uefa.com/competitions/uefacup/history/season=2009/intro.html|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|title=2008/09: Pitmen strike gold in Istanbul|date=20 May 2009|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> ] also opened in 2011 to replace ] as Galatasaray's home turf; the arena, alongside Atatürk Olympic Stadium, served as the centerpiece of Turkey's unsuccessful bid for ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/MediaRelease/uefaorg/MediaReleases/01/48/83/27/1488327_DOWNLOAD.pdf|publisher=The Union of European Football Associations|format=pdf|page=3|title=UEFA European Football Championship Final Tournament 2016: Bid Evaluation Report|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ], completed in 2012, is the new home court of ]'s basketball teams.]] | |||
| The ], among the largest indoor arenas in Europe, hosted the final of the ], the ], and the ] Final Four.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/10/fwcm/event-guide/cities/istanbul/p/arena.html|publisher=FIBA|title=2010 FIBA World Championship Istanbul: Arenas|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, ] (completed in 1986) was Istanbul's primary indoor arena; it hosted the finals of the 1991–92 FIBA European Championship and ]. Several other indoor arenas, including the ] (which opened in 2004), have also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seat ], which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams. | |||
| ] hosted the ] each year between 2005 and 2011.]] | |||
| Despite the construction boom, Istanbul's four consecutive bids for the Summer Olympics—in ], ], ], and ]—have all ended unsuccessfully. The ] opted to forgo a bid for the ] to concentrate on ] for the ].<ref name="sunzaman">{{cite web|url=http://www.sundayszaman.com/sunday/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=012B0C089FF01A236FB18E571F4D868B?newsId=253690|publisher=Sunday's Zaman|title=İstanbul Hopes It's Fifth Time Lucky in Bid to Host Summer Olympic Games|date=14 August 2011|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> The ] selected Istanbul as a Candidate City to host city of the 2020 Olympics in May 2012<ref></ref>. The IOC will vote to elect the host city in September 2013. | |||
| Since opening in 2005, ] has hosted the annual ]. The {{convert|5.34|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} track was a stop on the ] circuit and the ] in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of those competitions since then. The future of Istanbul Park remains uncertain, as financial issues caused the track to be dropped from the Turkish Grand Prix in 2012. Istanbul was also an occasional stop on the ] circuit, with the Championship's last appearance in the Bosphorus being in 2000. | |||
| Established in 1952, Istanbul Sailing Club (''İstanbul Yelken Kulübü'', İYK) is the primary organizer of Olympic class national and international ] races in Istanbul and the Sea of Marmara;<ref></ref> while ] are organized by the Open Seas Racing Club of Turkey (''Türkiye Açıkdeniz Yarış Kulübü'', TAYK)<ref></ref> and by the ] which organizes the annual Navy Cup Open Seas Yacht Race (''Deniz Kuvvetleri Kupası Açık Deniz Yat Yarışı''.) Personal, non-competitive yachting and sailing are also common on the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara, while ] races periodically occur on the ] between the teams of the leading universities (including the ], ] and ])<ref></ref> and sports clubs in the city, namely Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe, and Beşiktaş. The airspace above the Golden Horn also hosted legs of the ] in 2006 and 2007. | |||
| == Media == | |||
| ]'' is one of Turkey's most circulated newspapers]] | |||
| While most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, Istanbul—with nearly one fifth of the country's population—is the primary hub of Turkish media. The history of the Turkish media industry finds its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper,''Takvim-i Vekayi'' (Calendar of Affairs), was established in 1831. The ] street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn.<ref>{{harvnb|Brummett|2000|pp=11,35,385-6}}</ref> | |||
| Today, Istanbul hosts a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions.<ref name="loc-pro">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf|publisher=The Library of Congress Federal Research Division|title=Country Profile: Turkey|date=August 2008|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Istanbul-based '']'', although only founded in 1986, is Turkey's most widely circulated paper, with a weekly distribution of more than one million. '']'', '']'', '']'', and '']'', which round out the country's top five papers, are all headquartered in Istanbul, boasting more than 200,000 weekly sales each. ''Hürriyet'''s English-language edition, '']'', has been printed since 1961, but '']'', first published by ''Zaman'' in 2007, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including well-regarding publications like '']'' and '']'', are also based in Istanbul, with weekly circulations less than 100,000, are also based in the city.<ref name="loc-pro" /><ref>{{cite web|publisher=http://www.medyatava.com/tiraj.asp|title=Gazete Net Satışları|trans_title=Net Sales of Newspapers|language=Turkish|publisher=Medyatava|date=|accessdate=8 May 2012|date=30 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927, when Turkey's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü. Control of this transmission, and other radio stations established in the following decades, ultimately came under the control of the state-run ] (TRT). Born out of the ], the TRT held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 until 1990.<ref name="trt-radio">{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=bc738c28-15c7-4f98-8793-8d75c4a15cba&dil=en|publisher=The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|title=TRT – Radio|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Today, the TRT runs four national radio stations; while these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over ninety percent of the country's population, only one—{{nowrap|Radio 2}}—is based in Istanbul. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, {{nowrap|Radio 2}} is the most popular radio station in Turkey.<ref name="trt-radio" /><ref>{{harvnb|Sterling|2004|pp=162-3}}</ref> Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the rare exceptions, offering both, is ] (94.9 FM). Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's ] (97.2 FM). The state-run {{nowrap|Radio 3}}, although based in Ankara, also features English-language popular music, while English-language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo (102.8 FM).<ref>{{harvnb|Time Out Guides|p=224}}</ref> | |||
| With the exception of TRT-Children (based in Istanbul), TRT's television stations are all based in Ankara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trt.net.tr/Generic/SayfaTasarimiGoster.aspx?TaslakKodu=a7de2f34-dc4f-475e-840f-54812bc5b567&dil=en|publisher=The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|title=TRT – Television|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> Regardless, Istanbul is home to the headquarters of a number of Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. Istanbul-based ] was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly, and it, alongside ] (also based in Istanbul), remain highly popular throughout the country, airing Turkish and American series.<ref>{{harvnb|Norris|2010|p=184}}</ref> ], ], and] are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series, while ] (partnered with U.S. media outlet ]) and ]—both based in the city—are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish. The ] has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, while American news channel ] established the Turkish-language ] there in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/aboutbbcnews/hi/profiles/newsid_3660000/3660911.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Chris Morris|accessdate=8 May 2012}}</ref> ] and NTV have collaborated since 2000 to provide ], a station showing Turkish and English series, from the city. Other Turkish versions of U.S. networks, including ] and ], have their headquarters in Istanbul. | |||
| ==Education== | |||
| {{further|Education in Turkey}} | |||
| {{see also|List of schools in Istanbul}} | |||
| ], the city's oldest Turkish university]] | |||
| Istanbul has some of the finest institutions of higher education in Turkey, including more than ]. Most of the reputable universities are public, but, in recent years, there has been an upsurge in the number of private universities, with more than a dozen founded since 2006. | |||
| ], founded as an Islamic school in 1453, is the oldest Turkish educational institution in the city,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Istanbul University|url=http://www.istanbul.edu.tr/english/history.php|title=History |accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> while ] (founded in 1773) is the world's third-oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering sciences.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.best.eu.org/student/education/universityProfile.jsp?universityPtr=7h066pc|publisher=Board of European Students of Technology|title=University Profile: Istanbul Technical University, Turkey|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> These public universities are two of just eight across the city; other prominent state universities in Istanbul include ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/content/view/761/lang,tr/|publisher=The Turkish Council of Higher Education|title=State Universities|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> ], founded in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medeniyet.edu.tr/General_Information.html|publisher=Istanbul Medeniyet University|location=Ankara|title=General Information|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> is the newest public university. Private universities have a very short history, going back to just the early 1990s, with the establishment of ], ], and ];<ref>{{cite web|last=Doğramacı|first=İhsan|url=http://www.intconfhighered.org/Dogramaci-final.doc|format=DOC|title=Private Versus Public Universities: The Turkish Experience|publisher=International Conference on Higher Education|location=Ankara|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> today, there are at least thirty private universities in the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yok.gov.tr/en/content/view/762/lang,tr/|publisher=The Turkish Council of Higher Education|title=Private Universities|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| In 2007, there were about 4,350 schools, about half of which were ]; on average, each school had 688 students. In recent years, Istanbul's educational system has expanded substantially; from 2000 to 2007, the number of classrooms and teachers nearly doubled and the number of students increased by more than sixty percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul.gov.tr/Modules/SayilarlaIst2/tabloizleme2.aspx?id=83|publisher=Governorship of Istanbul|title=2007 Yılına Ait Veriler|language=Turkish|trans_title=Data for 2007|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/60e31AvfM|archivedate=2 August 2011|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ] is the oldest American school outside the United States.]] | |||
| ], established in 1481 as the Galata Palace Imperial School, is the oldest high school in Istanbul and the second-oldest educational institution in the city. It was built at the behest of Sultan ], who sought to bring students with diverse backgrounds together as a means of further strengthening his growing empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gsu.edu.tr/fr/universite/tarihce|publisher=Galatasaray University|title=Historique|language=French|trans_title=History|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> It is one of Turkey's eighty-three ]s, elite public high schools that admit students based on examination. As they were originally furnished for Turkish children who returned home from foreign countries, they place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages. Galatasaray, for example, offers instruction in French, while other Anatolian High Schools primarily teach in English or German alongside Turkish.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/45.html|publisher=|title=Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Anadolu Liseleri Yönetmeliği|language=Turkish|trans_title=Ministry of Education Regulation on Anatolian High Schools|publisher=Ministry of Education|date=5 November 1999|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> The city also has many foreign high schools, such as ] and ], that were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners. | |||
| A few of Istanbul's other high schools are notable for their styles of teaching or entrance requirements. ], located along the shores of the Bosphorus in ], and ], located on one of the ], | |||
| are military high schools, complemented by three ]—the ], ], and ] Academies. Another important school in Turkey is ], which provides free education to children across the country without fathers. Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade, providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade, a second foreign language—German or French.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darussafaka.k12.tr/tr/index.php/english/238-history-of-darussafaka|publisher=Darüşşafaka High School|title=The History Of Darüşşafaka|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darussafaka.k12.tr/tr/index.php/english/242-academic-life|publisher=Darüşşafaka High School|title=Academic Life|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> Other prominent high schools in Istanbul include ] (founded in 1908)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kabataserkeklisesi.k12.tr/|publisher=Kabataş Erkek Lisesi|title=Kabataş Erkek Lisesi|language=Turkey|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> and ] (founded in 1955).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kalev.org.tr/MenuContent.aspx?id=77|publisher=Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi|title=KAL Uygulamalı Yabancı Dil Laboratuvarı|language=Turkish|trans_title=KAL Applied Foreign Language Lab|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| == Public services == | |||
| {{main|Utilities in Istanbul}} | |||
| {{further|Telecommunications in Turkey}} | |||
| ] in Istanbul is the largest of several hundred cisterns that lie beneath Istanbul.]] | |||
| Istanbul's first ] systems date back to the city's early history, during the Byzantine era. The two greatest ]s from the Roman period are the Mazulkemer Aqueduct and the ]. These were built to channel water from the Halkalı area at the western edge of the city to the Beyazıt district in the city center, which was then known as the ''Forum Tauri''.<ref name=iskitarihce>{{cite web|url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_1.phtm|title=Istanbul and the History of Water in Istanbul|publisher=Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration|accessdate=11 March 2006 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070929003533/http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_1.phtm|archivedate= 29 September 2007}}</ref> After reaching the city center, the water was collected in the city's numerous ]s, including the ] and the ]. In the mid-16th century, Ottoman Sultan ] commissioned ], his chief architect and engineer, to improve the water infrastructure of the city. This resulted in the Kırkçeşme ], which, by 1563, provided {{convert|4200|m3|ft3|sp=us}} of water to {{nowrap|158 sites}} each day.<ref name=iskitarihce/> In later years, with the aim of responding to the ever-increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the ], by means of supply lines.<ref>{{harvnb|Tigrek|Kibaroğlu|2011|pp=33-4}}</ref> Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a ] system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_2.phtm|title=İSKİ Administration|publisher=Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration|accessdate=31 March 2012|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070929003514/http://www.iski.gov.tr/en-US/arasayfalar.php?sayfa=0-1&dosya=tarihce_2.phtm |archivedate= 29 September 2007}}</ref> | |||
| ], in operation between 1914 and 1983, has been transformed into ], a fine arts gallery and cultural center.]] | |||
| The ], a ] along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952.<ref name="silah">{{cite web|url=http://www.santralistanbul.org/pages/index/silahtaraga-elektrik-santrali/en|title=Silahtarağa Power Plant|publisher=SantralIstanbul|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> Following the founding of the Republic, the plant underwent a number of renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from {{nowrap|23 ]}} in 1923 to a peak of {{nowrap|120 megawatts}} in 1956.<ref name="silah" /><ref name="teias">{{cite web|url=http://www.teias.gov.tr/istatistikler/tarihce(ing).htm|year=2001|title=Short History of Electrical Energy in Turkey|publisher=Turkish Electricity Transmission Company|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> Capacity had declined, to {{nowrap|100 megawatts}} by the 1970s and in 1983, cooling water around the power station became insufficient to continue operation. As a result, the Silahtarağa Power Station was forced to shut down.<ref>{{harvnb|Kıraç|Kaptı|Ökten|2003|pp=1239-41,47}}</ref> After years of renovations, the plant was reopened in 2007 as ], an arts and cultural center.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.santralistanbul.org/pages/index/about/en|title=About|publisher=SantralIstanbul|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> The state-run Turkish Electrical Authority (TEK) briefly—between its founding in 1970 and 1984—held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity, but now the authority—since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company (TEAŞ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company (TEDAŞ)—competes with private ].<ref name="teias" /> | |||
| ] | |||
| The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840; the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of Istanbul's ]. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast ] had been established. Money transfer and cargo services were added at the start of the 20th century, in 1901.<ref name="PTT">{{cite web|url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1|publisher=The Post and Telegraph Organization|title=About Us | Brief History|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> ] received his first-ever patent for the ] in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present ] was built 1861–1865 on the same location). The patent was issued by Sultan ], who, enthralled by innovation like ], personally tested the new invention.<ref>{{harvnb|Özendes|1987|p=14}}</ref><ref name="maag557">{{harvnb|Masters|Ágoston|2009|p=557}}</ref> Construction of the first telegraph line—between Istanbul and ]—followed thereafter, with the project finished in time to announce the end of the ] in 1856.<ref name="maag557" /> In the meantime, in 1855, the Directorate of the Telegraph was established.<ref name="PTT" /> A nascent telephone circuit emerged in Istanbul in 1881, as the Imperial Post Office was linked with a post office in ].<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977|p=230}}</ref> After the first manual ] became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.<ref name="PTT" /> Of course, Istanbul's telephone infrastructure has developed substantially in the century since. ] cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994, with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service.<ref name="turkt">{{cite web|url=http://www.turktelekom.com.tr/tt/portal/About-TT/Company-Profile/History/|title=About Türk Telekom: History|publisher=Türk Telekom|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> Today, ] and ] service is provided by a number of private companies, after ], which split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized in 2005.<ref name="PTT" /><ref name="turkt" /> Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization (retaining the initialism PTT).<ref name="PTT" /> | |||
| In 2000, Istanbul had {{nowrap|137 hospitals}}, of which one hundred were private.<ref>{{harvnb|Sanal|2011|p=85}}</ref> All Turkish citizens, as well as those paying government insurance, are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals. As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them and their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade; the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from {{nowrap|6 percent}} to {{nowrap|23 percent}} between 2005 and 2009.<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=197}}</ref> Many of these private hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including ] machines, or associated with medical research centers.<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=198}}</ref> Turkey has more hospitals accredited by ] than any other country in the world, with most concentrated in its big cities; the high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in ] to Turkey (with a forty percent increase between just 2007 and 2008 alone).<ref>{{harvnb|Connell|2010|pp=52-3}}</ref> Laser ] is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure.<ref>{{harvnb|Papathanassis|2011|p=63}}</ref> | |||
| == Transportation == | |||
| {{Main|Public transport in Istanbul}} | |||
| ] is one of two ]s on the Bosphorus.|alt=A docked sailboat floats in front of a suspension bridge, under twilight.]] | |||
| Istanbul's primary motorways are the {{TUR-O|1}}, {{TUR-O|2}}, {{TUR-O|3}}, and {{TUR-O|4}}. The O-1 forms Istanbul's inner ], extending from ] to ], across the ]. Its western terminus is the O-3, which continues west to ], while its eastern terminus is the O-4, which continues east to ]. The O-2 forms Istanbul's outer ring road, crossing the ] on the ].<ref name="googma">{{Google maps|url=http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=41.036118,29.047165&spn=0.147611,0.292168&t=m&z=12|title=Istanbul Overview|accessdate=1 April 2012|link=no}}</ref> The O-2, O-3, and O-4 are coterminous with European route ] throughout their entire lengths, although the E-80 (also known as the ''Trans European Motorway'') continues west to Portugal and east to the Turkish–Iranian border. | |||
| The two Bosphorus Bridges form the only road connections between the Asian and European sides of Turkey, although a ] has been proposed due to the high volume of traffic both existing bridges experience; together, the two Bosphorus Bridges carry {{nowrap|150 million}} vehicles each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/the-usual-turkish-style-in-the-second-bid-for-third-bridge--.aspx?pageID=238&nID=14037&NewsCatID=396|last=Münir|first=Metin|publisher=Hürriyet|title=The Usual Turkish Style in the Second Bid for Third Bridge|date=18 February 2012|accessdate=1 April 2012}}</ref> The O-2 is more commonly used for intercity and through traffic, while the O-1 is better suited for local traffic. The ] is, from north to south, spanned by the ] (which carries the O-1), the ], and the ].<ref>{{Google maps|url=http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=41.030679,28.958931&spn=0.036906,0.073042&t=m&z=14|title=The Golden Horn|accessdate=1 April 2012|link=no}}</ref> Istanbul is also traversed by a number of arterial ]s that do not follow an apparent systematic layout.<ref name="googma" /> | |||
| === Local travel === | |||
| {{further|Trams in Istanbul|Ferries in Istanbul}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Istanbul's local transportation system is a complex network of ]s, ]s, ] lines, ] lines, buses, ], and even ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using the ] ], introduced in 2009, or the older ] electronic ticket device.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazokoglu|2009}}</ref> | |||
| Trams date back to 1872, when they were horse-drawn, but Istanbul's original trams were decommissioned in the 1960s. Istanbul experimented with ]es afterward, but they were also taken out of service, in 1984.<ref name="iett-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=8|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management|title=Chronological History of IETT|accessdate=1 April 2012}}</ref> Operated by Istanbul Electricity, Tramway, and Tunnel (IETT), trams slowly returned to the city beginning in 1990, with the reopening of ] along ].<ref name="iett-history" /> Faster, more modern trams (the ]) were first put into service in 1992, and service across the Golden Horn was restored for the first time in {{nowrap|44 years}} in 2005. Today, Istanbul's modern tram line, which goes between ] and ], has a daily ridership of {{nowrap|265,000 people}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/default.asp?page=raylisistemler&category=t1|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Hattı|language=Turkish|trans_title=T1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Line|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] (F2) opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line (after London's ]); it still carries passengers between ] and ] along a steep {{convert|573|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} track.<ref name="iett-history" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=46|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel|title=Tunnel|accessdate=3 April 2012}} (Note: It is apparent this is merely a machine translation of the original .)</ref> Another funicular, the Kabataş-Taksim Funicular, is much newer, having recently entered service in 2006; this {{convert|600|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} line (F1) links Taksim Square with the T1 terminus at Kabataş.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/default.asp?page=raylisistemler&category=f1|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=F1 Taksim–Kabataş Funikuler|language=Turkish|trans_title=F1 Bağcılar–Kabataş Funicular|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> The ] is a light rail system consisting of two lines—the ], which terminates at ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istanbul-ulasim.com.tr/default.asp?page=raylisistemler&category=m1|publisher=İstanbul Ulaşım A.Ş. (Istanbul Transport Corporation)|title=M1 Aksaray–Havalimani Hattı|language=Turkish|trans_title=M1 Aksaray–Airport Line|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> and the ]. Both lines are completely segregated from other traffic and free from ]s. The ], first opened in 2000, currently has just one line—the ]—contained northeast of the Golden Horn. However, construction of an extension across the Golden Horn, as well as of another line—the ]—on the Asian side, is underway; the M4 is expected to open in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/tr-TR/SubSites/raylisistemler/Pages/taksim-yenikapi.aspx|title=Taksim–Yenikapı Metro Hattı|language=Turkish|trans_title=Taksim–Yenikapı Metro Line|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibb.gov.tr/tr-TR/SubSites/raylisistemler/Pages/kadikoy-kartal.aspx|publisher=Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality|title=Kadıköy–Kartal Metro Hattı|language=Turkish|trans_title=Kadıköy–Kartal Metro Line|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> The two sides of Istanbul's metro will ultimately be connected under, the Bosphorus when the ] tunnel, the first rail connection of any kind between Thrace and Anatolia, is completed in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/turkey-connecting-continents|publisher=Oxford Business Group|title=Turkey: Connecting Continents|work=Economic Updates|date=7 March 2012|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Until then, ferries compose the primary mode of public transportation between the European and Asian halves of the city. ] (Istanbul Seabuses) runs a combination of all-passenger ferries and car-and-passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus, as far north as the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ido.com.tr/en/hrt2/index.html|publisher=İDO|title=Interactive Map of Timetables | Inner-City Lines|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ido.com.tr/en/hrt1/index.html|publisher=İDO|title=Interactive Map of Timetables | Inter-City Lines|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> With additional destinations around the Sea of Marmara, İDO runs the largest municipal ferry operation in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebrd.com/pages/news/press/2011/110927.shtml|last=Grytsenko|first=Sergiy|publisher=The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|title=EBRD Supports Privatisation of Ferry Operations in Istanbul|date=26 September 2011|accessdate=4 April 2012}}</ref> Buses also provide transportation between the two halves of Istanbul, and across shorter distances within each side, accommodating {{nowrap|2.2 million}} passenger-trips each day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=38|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management|title=Public Transportation in Istanbul|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> The ], a form of bus rapid transit, also traverses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini on either side; the Metrobus accounts for a third of all passenger-trips by bus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iett.gov.tr/en/metin.php?no=58|publisher=Istanbul Electricity, Tramway and Tunnel General Management|title=Metrobus|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| === Intercity travel === | |||
| As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than {{nowrap|200 million}} ]s of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Oxford Business Group|2009|p=112}}</ref> As a result, proposals have been made to build a canal, known as ], parallel to the Bosphorus, on the European side of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/27/istanbul-new-bosphorus-canal|publisher=The Guardian|title=Istanbul's new Bosphorus canal 'to surpass Suez or Panama'|author=Jones, Sam, and agencies|date=27 April 2011|accessdate=29 April 2012}}</ref> The city's main cargo port, the ], is Turkey's third-largest, with an annual cargo capacity of {{nowrap|5.9 million}} tonnes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.lse.ac.uk/LSECities/citiesProgramme/pdf/Haydarpasa%20Summary.pdf|publisher=London School of Economics|last=Cavusoglu|first=Omer|title=Summary on the Haydarpasa Case Study Site|year=2010|month=March|work=Cities Programme|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Cruise liners brought {{nowrap|450,000 foreign}} tourists to Istanbul in 2009, docking at ports in Karaköy or Pendık.<ref name="iv&c" /> | |||
| ], which closed in 2012, once served as the terminus of rail service to ], ] and ].]] | |||
| International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between ] and Istanbul's ], which ultimately became famous as the eastern ] of the ] between ] and Istanbul.<ref name="ha251" /> Regular service to Bucharest and ] continued until the early 2010s, when the former was suspended and the latter was interrupted due to construction of the ] tunnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/tcdding/avrupa_ing.html|publisher=Turkish State Railways|title=Connections to Europe|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/home/detail/?id=599|publisher=Turkish State Railways|language=Turkish|title=Bölgesel Yolcu Trenleri|trans_title=Regional Passenger Trains|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> After Istanbul's ] opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the ] and an extension of the ]; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/building/haydarpasatrainstation-istanbul-turkey|publisher=Emporis GmbH|title=Haydarpasa Train Station|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8518109.stm|publisher=BBC|last=Head|first=Jonathan|date=16 February 2010|accessdate=3 April 2012|title=Iraq – Turkey railway link re-opens}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdd.gov.tr/tcdding/ortadogu_ing.html|publisher=Turkish National Railways|title=Transports to Middle-Eastern Countries|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Service to ] and other points across Turkey is normally offered by ], but construction of Mamaray and the ] forced the station to close in February 2012.<ref name="akay">{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?newsId=270498|last=Akay|first=Latifa|publisher=Today's Zaman|title=2012 Sees End of Line for Haydarpaşa Station|date=5 February 2012|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project in 2015; until then, Istanbul is left without intercity rail service.<ref name="akay" /> | |||
| ] is the city's main airport; it served {{nowrap|37 million}} passengers in 2011.]] | |||
| Private bus companies operate routes along, but also well beyond, those offered by the rail network. Istanbul's main bus station is the largest in Europe, with a capacity of {{nowrap|15,000 buses}} and {{nowrap|600,000 passengers}} each day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.otogaristanbul.com/index.php?sayfa=otogar1|publisher=Avrasya Terminal İşletmeleri A.Ş. (Eurasian Terminal Management, Inc.)|title=İstanbul Otogarı|language=Turkish|trans_title=Istanbul Bus Station|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Direct bus service is available to as far as ], {{convert|1870|km|mi|sp=us}} away.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touring.de/index.php?id=2&L=1|publisher=Touring GmbH|title=Eurolines Germany–Deutsche Touring GmbH–Europabus|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Even prior to the closure of Haydarpaşa, intercity travel by coach was the most popular mode of domestic travel. | |||
| Istanbul has two international airports, the larger of which is ]. Atatürk International, located {{convert|24|km|mi|sp=us}} west of the city center, handled {{nowrap|37.4 million}} passengers in 2011; this ranks it the ] and among the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airports.org/cda/aci_common/display/main/aci_content07_c.jsp?zn=aci&cp=1-5-212-218-222_666_2__|publisher=Airports Council International|title=Year to Date Passenger Traffic Dec-11|date=19 March 2012|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> ] opened on the Asian side of the city, {{convert|45|km|mi|0|spell=us}} east of the European city center, to relieve Atatürk International. Sabiha Gökçen is dominated by ]s, with destinations in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Istanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular among travelers in the ten years since it opened, in 2001; the airport handled {{nowrap|12.7 million}} passengers in 2011, two years after a new international terminal opened, and was named the world's fastest growing airport by ] the same year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhmi.gov.tr/getBinaryFile.aspx?Type=13&dosyaID=3&IstatistikID=54|publisher=General Directorate of State Airports Authority|title=Yolcu Trafiği (Gelen-Giden)|language=Turkish|trans_title=Passenger Traffic (Incoming-Outgoing)|accessdate=3 April 2012|format=pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action;jsessionid=80B2A61513A6823BCDA930B0513BCC04?newsId=254217|publisher=Today's Zaman|title=Sabiha Gökçen Named World's Fastest Growing Airport|date=18 August 2011|accessdate=4 April 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist|group="note"}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist|colwidth=27em}} | |||
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| *{{Cite book|author=Oxford Business Group|year=2009|title=The Report: Turkey 2009|publisher=Oxford Business Group|location=Oxford|isbn=1-902339-13-4|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Özendes|first=Engin|year=1987|title=Photography in the Ottoman Empire, 1839-1919|publisher=Haşet Kitabevi|location=Istanbul|isbn=975-470-451-1|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Papathanassis|first=Alexis|year=2011|title=The Long Tail of Tourism: Holiday Niches and Their Impact on Mainstream Tourism|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|isbn=3-8349-3062-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.288.5466.661|last=Parsons|first=Tom|last2=Toda|first2=Shinji|last3=Stein|first3=Ross S.|last4=Barka|first4=Aykut|last5=Dieterich|first5=James H.|year=2000|title=Heightened Odds of Large Earthquakes Near Istanbul: An Interaction-Based Probability Calculation |journal=Science|pmid=10784447 |volume=288|issue=5466 |pages=661–5 |ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Reinert|first=Stephen W.|editor-last=Mango|editor-first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-814098-3|chapter=Fragmentation (1204–1453)|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Reisman|first=Arnold|title=Turkey's Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk's Vision|year=2006|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|location=Washington, DC|isbn=0-9777908-8-6|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Room|first=Adrian|title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites|year=2006|publisher=McFarland & Company|location=Jefferson, North Carolina|edition=2nd|isbn=0-7864-2248-3|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Sanal|first=Aslihan|editor-last=Fischer|editor-first=Michael M. J.|editor2-last=Dumit|editor2-first=Joseph|year=2011|title=New Organs Within Us: Transplants and the Moral Economy|series=Experimental Futures|edition=illustrated|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina|isbn=0-8223-4912-4|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Shaw|first=Stanford J.|last2=Shaw|first2=Ezel K.|title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey|volume=2|year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-29166-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=William|title=A Smaller History of Greece, From the Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest|year=1897|publisher=Harper & Brothers|location=New York|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Sterling|first=Christopher|title=Encyclopedia of Radio|year=2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=New York|isbn=1579582494|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Tigrek|first=Sahnaz|last2=Kibaroğlu|first2=Ayșegül|year=2011|editor-last=Kibaroğlu|editor-first=Ayșegül|editor2-last=Scheumann|editor2-first=Waltina|editor3-last=Kramer|editor3-first=Annika|title=Turkey's Water Policy: National Frameworks and International Cooperation|chapter=Strategic Role of Water Resources for Turkey|publisher=Springer|location=London & New York|isbn=3-642-19635-7|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Taşan-Kok|first=Tuna|title=Budapest, Istanbul, and Warsaw: Institutional and Spatial Change|publisher=Eburon Uitgeverij B.V.|location=Delft, the Netherlands|year=2004|isbn=90-5972-041-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jane|title=Imperial Istanbul: A Traveller's Guide: Includes Iznik, Bursa and Edirne|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|location=New York|year=2007|isbn=1-84511-334-9|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|editor=Time Out Guides|title=Time Out Istanbul|publisher=Time Out Guides|location=London|year=2010|isbn=1-84670-115-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Turan|first=Neyran|editor1-last=Sorensen|editor1-first=André|editor2-last=Okata|editor2-first=Junichiro|title=Megacities: Urban Form, Governance, and Sustainability|series=Library for Sustainable Urban Regeneration|publisher=Springer|location=London & New York|year=2010|pages=223–42|chapter=Towards an Ecological Urbanism for Istanbul|isbn=4-431-99266-9|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|author=WCTR Society; Unʼyu Seisaku Kenkyū Kikō|title=Urban Transport and the Environment: An International Perspective|year=2004|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|isbn=0-08-044512-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Wedel|first=Heidi|year=2000|editor1-last=Ibrahim|editor1-first=Ferhad|editor2-last=Gürbey|editor2-first=Gülistan|title=The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|location=Berlin|isbn=3-8258-4744-6|pages=181-93|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{Cite book|last=Wheatcroft|first=Andrew|title=The Ottomans: Dissolving Images|year=1995|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|isbn=0-14-016879-6|ref=harv}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
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| {{Sister project links|Istanbul}} | |||
| *{{Wikitravel}} | |||
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| {{Coord|41.01224|28.976018|type:city|display=title}} | |||
| {{navboxes|list= | |||
| {{Districts of Turkey |provname=Istanbul}} | |||
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Revision as of 14:17, 30 May 2012
{{pp-sfdogphj fdsopugofhsdo fpgh