Revision as of 09:49, 10 August 2012 editJustBeCool (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users1,609 editsNo edit summary← Previous edit | Revision as of 23:36, 13 August 2012 edit undoOhyeahman7 (talk | contribs)10 editsNo edit summaryNext edit → | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}} | {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2012}} | ||
] in ], Indonesia]] | ] in ], Indonesia]] | ||
'''Poverty''' |
'''Poverty''' the act of being weatlthy (well off).<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook on Poverty and Inequality|author=Jonathan Haughton and Shahidur Khandker|isbn=978-0-8213-7613-3|url=http://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/9780821376133}}</ref> It is the inability to satisfy one's basic needs because one lacks income to buy services or from lack of access to services. | ||
] or '''destitution''' refers to the state of severe deprivation of ], which commonly includes food, ], sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care, education and information. ] refers to as being below some relative income threshold, where this threshold differs for each society or country. One may be relatively poor, without being in the state of absolute poverty; relative poverty is often considered as an indirect measure of income inequality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Measuring Inequality|publisher=The World Bank|year=2011|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Poverty and its measurement - The presentation of a range of methods to obtain measures of poverty|author=Instituto Nacional de Estadistica|year=2009|page=2-3|url=http://www.ine.es/en/daco/daco42/sociales/pobreza_en.pdf}}</ref> For most of history poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as traditional modes of production were insufficient to give an entire population a comfortable standard of living.<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473136/poverty|title=Poverty (sociology)|publisher=britannica.com|accessdate=2010-10-24}}</ref><ref name="macroeconomics1">Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. Macroeconomics. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.</ref> After the ], ] in factories made wealth increasingly more inexpensive and accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of ], such as ]s, in order to provide enough yield to feed the population.<ref name=Obama>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/09/world/europe/09food.html|title=Obama enlists major powers to aid poor farmers with $15 billion|work=The New York Times |accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> People who practise ] intentionally live in economic poverty so as to attain spiritual wealth. | ] or '''destitution''' refers to the state of severe deprivation of ], which commonly includes food, ], sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care, education and information. ] refers to as being below some relative income threshold, where this threshold differs for each society or country. One may be relatively poor, without being in the state of absolute poverty; relative poverty is often considered as an indirect measure of income inequality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Measuring Inequality|publisher=The World Bank|year=2011|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20238991~menuPK:492138~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Poverty and its measurement - The presentation of a range of methods to obtain measures of poverty|author=Instituto Nacional de Estadistica|year=2009|page=2-3|url=http://www.ine.es/en/daco/daco42/sociales/pobreza_en.pdf}}</ref> For most of history poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as traditional modes of production were insufficient to give an entire population a comfortable standard of living.<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473136/poverty|title=Poverty (sociology)|publisher=britannica.com|accessdate=2010-10-24}}</ref><ref name="macroeconomics1">Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. Macroeconomics. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.</ref> After the ], ] in factories made wealth increasingly more inexpensive and accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of ], such as ]s, in order to provide enough yield to feed the population.<ref name=Obama>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/09/world/europe/09food.html|title=Obama enlists major powers to aid poor farmers with $15 billion|work=The New York Times |accessdate=2011-05-27}}</ref> People who practise ] intentionally live in economic poverty so as to attain spiritual wealth. |
Revision as of 23:36, 13 August 2012
Poverty the act of being weatlthy (well off). It is the inability to satisfy one's basic needs because one lacks income to buy services or from lack of access to services.
Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the state of severe deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care, education and information. Relative poverty refers to as being below some relative income threshold, where this threshold differs for each society or country. One may be relatively poor, without being in the state of absolute poverty; relative poverty is often considered as an indirect measure of income inequality. For most of history poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as traditional modes of production were insufficient to give an entire population a comfortable standard of living. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made wealth increasingly more inexpensive and accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, in order to provide enough yield to feed the population. People who practise asceticism intentionally live in economic poverty so as to attain spiritual wealth.
The World Bank estimated 1.29 billion people were living in absolute poverty in 2008. Of these, about 400 million people in absolute poverty lived in India and 173 million people in China. In terms of percentage of regional populations, sub-Saharan Africa at 47% had the highest incidence rate of absolute poverty in 2008. Between 1990 and 2010, about 663 million people moved above the absolute poverty level. Still, extreme poverty is a global challenge; it is observed in all parts of the world, including the developed economies.
The supply of basic needs can be restricted by constraints on government services such as corruption, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedom, and providing financial services. Today, poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank.
Etymology
The word poverty comes from old French poverté (Modern French: pauvreté), from Latin paupertās, from pauper (poor).
The English word "poverty" via Anglo-Norman povert. There are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation in is placed in and the views of the person giving the definition.
Measuring poverty
See also: List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty and Poverty thresholdDefinitions
United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.
World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life.
Copenhagen Declaration: Absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to social services. The term 'absolute poverty' is sometimes synonymously referred to as 'extreme poverty.'
Absolute poverty
Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative poverty (the latter being actually an index of income inequality). Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries.
For a few years starting 1990, The World Bank anchored absolute poverty line as $1 per day. This was revised in 1993, and through 2005, absolute poverty was $1.08 a day for all countries on a purchasing power parity basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 U.S. dollar. In 2005, after extensive studies of cost of living across the world, The World Bank raised the measure for global poverty line to reflect the observed higher cost of living. Now, the World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US$1.25 (PPP) per day, and moderate poverty as less than $2 or $5 a day (but note that a person or family with access to subsistence resources, e.g. subsistence farmers, may have a low cash income without a correspondingly low standard of living – they are not living "on" their cash income but using it as a top up). It estimates that "in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day." A dollar a day, in nations that do not use the U.S. dollar as currency, does not translate to living a day on the amount of local currency as determined by the exchange rate. Rather, it is determined by the purchasing power parity, which would look at how much local currency is needed to buy the same things that a dollar could buy in the United States. Usually, this would translate to less local currency than the exchange rate in poorer countries as the United States is a more expensive country.
The poverty line threshold of $1.25 per day, as set by The World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four), while in India it was US$ 1.0 per day and in China the absolute poverty line was US$ 0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010. These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation's official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that The World Bank method sets the bar too high, others argue it is low. Still others suggest that poverty line misleads as it measures everyone below the poverty line the same, when in reality someone living on $1.2 per day is in a different state of poverty than someone living on $0.2 per day. In other words, the depth and intensity of poverty varies across the world and in any regional populations, and $1.25 per day poverty line and head counts are inadequate measures.
The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001. Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia. In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent , down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990." In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41 percent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001, which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million.
In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income. The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the trough year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result poverty rates also increased although in subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6% The World Bank issued a report predicting that between 2007 and 2027 the populations of Georgia and Ukraine will decrease by 17% and 24% respectively.
World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world since 1990:
Region | $1 per day | $1.25 per day | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1990 | 2002 | 2004 | 1981 | 2008 | ||
East Asia and Pacific | 15.40% | 12.33% | 9.07% | 77.2% | 14.3% | |
Europe and Central Asia | 3.60% | 1.28% | 0.95% | 1.9% | 0.5% | |
Latin America and the Caribbean | 9.62% | 9.08% | 8.64% | 11.9% | 6.5% | |
Middle East and North Africa | 2.08% | 1.69% | 1.47% | 9.6% | 2.7% | |
South Asia | 35.04% | 33.44% | 30.84% | 61.1% | 36% | |
Sub-Saharan Africa | 46.07% | 42.63% | 41.09% | 51.5% | 47.5% | |
World | 52.2% | 22.4% |
According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.9 billion people lived below $1.25 per day in 1981. The world's population increased over the next 25 years. In 2005, about 4.09 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below $1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on inflation adjusted basis). Some scholars caution that these trends are subject to various assumptions, and not certain. Additionally, they note that the poverty reduction is not uniform across the world; economically prospering countries such as China, India and Brazil have made more progress in absolute poverty reduction than countries in other regions of the world.
The absolute poverty measure trends noted above are supported by human development indicators, which have also been improving. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and is starting to close the gap to the developed world. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world. The proportion of the world's population living in countries where per-capita food supplies are less than 2,200 calories (9,200 kilojoules) per day decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.
Relative poverty
Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index.
Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates in several developed countries. As such these poverty statistics measure inequality rather than material deprivation or hardship. The measurements are usually based on a person's yearly income and frequently take no account of total wealth. The main poverty line used in the OECD and the European Union is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.
Mobility
Poverty levels are snapshot picture in time that omits the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statistics supply additional information about the fraction who leave the poverty level. For example, one study finds that in a sixteen year period (1975 to 1991 in the U.S.) only 5% of those in the lower fifth of the income level were still in that level while 95% transitioned to a higher income category. Poverty levels can remain the same while those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The transient poor and chronic poor differ in each society. In a nine year period ending in 2005 for the U.S., 50% of the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile.
Other aspects
Economic aspects of poverty focus on material needs, typically including the necessities of daily living, such as food, clothing, shelter, or safe drinking water. Poverty in this sense may be understood as a condition in which a person or community is lacking in the basic needs for a minimum standard of well-being and life, particularly as a result of a persistent lack of income.
Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished "capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of access to information, education, health care, or political power.
Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society. Such social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of relational care to those who are experiencing poverty.
The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor," based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include:
- Precarious livelihoods
- Excluded locations
- Physical limitations
- Gender relationships
- Problems in social relationships
- Lack of security
- Abuse by those in power
- Dis-empowering institutions
- Limited capabilities
- Weak community organizations
David Moore, in his book The World Bank, argues that some analysis of poverty reflect pejorative, sometimes racial, stereotypes of impoverished people as powerless victims and passive recipients of aid programs.
Ultra-poverty, a term apparently coined by Michael Lipton, connotes being amongst poorest of the poor in low-income countries. Lipton defined ultra-poverty as receiving less than 80 percent of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food. Alternatively a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute defined ultra-poverty as living on less than 54 cents per day.
Characteristics
The effects of poverty may also be causes, as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle" operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global.
Health
Main article: Diseases of povertyOne third of deaths – some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day – are due to poverty-related causes: in total 270 million people, most of them women and children, have died as a result of poverty since 1990. Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease. Those living in poverty suffer lower life expectancy. According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.
Hunger
See also: MalnutritionRises in the costs of living making poor people less able to afford items. Poor person spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than richer people. As a result, poor households and those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains led to food riots in some countries. The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty. Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis. Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields. Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to United Nations University's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night.
According to the Global Hunger Index, South Asia has the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions. Nearly half of all Indian children are undernourished, one of the highest rates in the world and nearly double the rate of Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, more than half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth. Almost 90% of maternal deaths occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.
Women who have born children into poverty may not be able to nourish the children efficiently and provide adequate care in infancy. The children may also suffer from disease that has been passed down to the child through birth. Asthma and rickets are common problems children acquire when born into poverty.
Education
See also: Impact of health on intelligenceResearch has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This often is a process that begins in primary school for some less fortunate children. Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in most other countries, tends to be geared towards those students who come from more advantaged backgrounds. As a result, these children are at a higher risk than other children for retention in their grade, special placements during the school's hours and even not completing their high school education. There are indeed many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy, and the economic dependency upon their low income parent or parents. Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are majorly important issues to address since education from preschool to high school are both identifiably meaningful in a life.
Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not these students are at a disadvantage in the school and most importantly the classroom. Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds. These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or student's focus and concentration.
Housing
See also: Slums and OrphanagesPoverty increases the risk of homelessness. Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing world, according to a report by the United Nations. There are over 100 million street children worldwide.
Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty. Experts and child advocates maintain that orphanages are expensive and often harm children's development by separating them from their families. It is speculated that, flush with money, orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died.
Violence
See also: Slavery and Human traffickingAccording to experts, many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is prostitution, as a means of survival and economic desperation. Deterioration of living conditions can often compel children to abandon school in order to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited, according to ECPAT International, an NGO designed to end the commercial sexual exploitation of children. For example, in Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning to prostitution for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.
In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide. 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).
Poverty reduction
Main article: Poverty reduction See also: Aid and Development aidVarious poverty reduction strategies are broadly categorized here based on whether they make more of the basic human needs available or increase the disposable income needed to purchase those needs. Some basic needs, such as improving access to education, may also help increase income.
Increasing the supply of basic needs
Before the Industrial Revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce. Geoffrey Parker wrote that "In Antwerp and Lyon, two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis." The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed world.
Food and other goods
Agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides and new irrigation methods have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern times by boosting yields past previous constraints.
Mass production of goods in places such as rapidly industrializing China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them.
Health care and education
See also: Health care system and Primary educationInfectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3–1.5% annually. Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health. For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today. It reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to .06% today while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not. Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia. Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive and educational measures have been made to disseminate what works, such as the Copenhagen Consensus.
Strategies to provide education cost effectively include deworming children, which costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fifth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing schools. A study by Oxford University shows that schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half by providing free sanitary towels. Also, when women are given more capabilities and opportunities, they seem more altruistic in helping the family and more likely to prioritize education.
Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of aid known as conditional cash transfers. In Mexico, for example, dropout rates of 16–19 year olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height. Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program.
Water and energy utilities
Because of poor targeting of utility water subsidies, only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is covered. Lack of incentive to maintain delivery systems lead to the loss from leaks annually that is enough for 200 million people. Lack of incentive to expand delivery means the poor have to pay about five to 16 times the metered price.
The poorest fifth receive 0.1% of the world’s lighting but pay a fifth of total spending on light, accounting for 25 to 30 percent of their income. Indoor air pollution from burning fuels kills 2 million, almost half the deaths are from pneumonia in children under 5. Fuel from Bamboo burns more cleanly and also matures much faster than wood, thus reducing deforestation. Additionally, the use of solar panels are cheaper over their lifetime.
Removing constraints on government services
See also: Political corruption, Developing countries' debt, Debt relief, and ConditionalityGovernment revenue can be diverted away from basic services by corruption. Preventive measures, according to UNODC, include requiring public officials to disclose earnings and assets and stricter rules on funding to political parties and electoral campaigns. Funds from aid and natural resources are often sent by individuals to overseas banks which insist on bank secrecy, resulting in money laundering. A Global Witness report asked for more action from Western banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism.
Illicit capital flight from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays. About 60 per cent of illicit capital flight from Africa is from transfer mispricing, where a subsidiary in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or shell company in a tax haven at an artificially low price in order to pay less tax. An African Union reports estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africa's GDP has been moved to tax havens. Solutions include corporate “country-by-country reporting” where corporations disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs.
Developing countries' debt to banks and governments from richer countries are often more than a country can generate per year on profits from exports. If poor countries do not have to spend so much on debt payments, they can use the money instead for basic services such as health-care and education. For example, Zambia spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997. One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief.
The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as primary holders of developing countries' debt, attach structural adjustment conditionalities to loans which generally include the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices. In the case of Malawi, almost five million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid. However, after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as production leaped to 3.4 million in 2007 from 1.2 million in 2005, making Malawi a major food exporter. In the former Soviet states, the reconfiguration of public financing in their transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply increasing poverty.
A major proportion of aid from donor nations is tied, mandating that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise originating only from the donor country. US law requires food aid be spent on buying food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on transport.
Reversing brain drains
Main articles: Reverse brain drain and Human capital flightThe loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect. For example, an estimated 100,000 Philippine nurses emigrated between 1994 and 2006. As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia. Proposals to mitigate the problem by the World Health Organization include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools and creating career-advancing programs to retain personnel.
Controlling overpopulation
Some argue that overpopulation and lack of access to birth control leads to population increase to exceed food production and other resources. The world's population is expected to reach nearly 9 billion in 2040. However, the reverse is also true, that poverty causes overpopulation as it gives women little power to control giving birth, or to have educational attainment or a career. Empowering women with better education and more control of their lives makes them more successful in bringing down rapid population growth because they have more say in family planning.
Increasing personal income
Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three quarters of the poor today are farmers. Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country’s population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors.
Income grants
Main articles: Guaranteed minimum income, Social security, and WelfareA guaranteed minimum income ensures that every citizen will live be able to purchase a desired level of basic needs. A more specific policy, called a basic income (or negative income tax) is a system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on. In parts of Namibia, where such a program pays only $13 a month, people were able to pay tuition fees, raising the proportion of children going to school by 92%, while child malnutrition rates fell from 42% to 10% and economic activity grew by 10%. Proponents argue that a basic income is more economically efficient than a minimum wage and unemployment benefits, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency.
In 1968, James Tobin, Paul Samuelson, John Kenneth Galbraith and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system of income guarantees. Winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics, with often diverse political convictions, who support a basic income include Herbert A. Simon, Friedrich Hayek, Robert Solow, Milton Friedman, Jan Tinbergen, James Tobin and James Meade.
The famine relief model increasing used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.
Economic freedoms
See also: Economic freedom and Red tapeIn Canada, it takes two days, two registration procedures, and $280 to open a business, while an entrepreneur in Bolivia must pay $2,696 in fees, wait 82 business days, and go through 20 procedures to do the same. Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created. Often, businesses have to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which is, in effect, a tax on business. Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the ending of the central planning model known as the License Raj in India, where GDP grew slower in the 1970s than the preceding 100 years. South Korea adapted an export-oriented economic strategy. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2008 it was 17 times as high as Ghana's.
The unwillingness of governments and feudal elites to give full-fledged property rights in land to their tenants is cited as one of the chief obstacles to development. The business environment can be further worsened by the failure of governments to provide essential infrastructure.
Financial services
See also: MicrocreditAnother form of aid is microloans, made famous by the Grameen Bank, where small amounts of money are loaned to farmers or villages, mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to increase their economic rewards. For example, the Thai government's People's Bank, makes loans of $100 to $300 to help farmers buy equipment or seeds, help street vendors acquire an inventory to sell, or help others set up small shops. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprofits off the poor even from its founder, Muhammad Yunus and in India which has seen a growing wave of defaults and suicides.
Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans. Also, a large part of microfinance loans are spent on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account. Lack of financial services, as a result of restrictive regulations, such as the requirements for banking licenses, makes it hard for even smaller microsavings programs to reach the poor. Mobile banking addresses the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts. Mobile financial services in the developing world, ahead of the developed world in this respect, could be worth $5 billion by 2012. Safaricom’s M-Pesa launched one of the first systems where a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.
Remittances
Main article: RemittanceThe World Bank says foreign workers sent $328 billion from richer to poorer countries last year, more than double the $120 billion in official aid flows from OECD members. India got $52 billion from its diaspora, more than it took in foreign direct investment.
.
Cultural factors to productivity
See also: Protestant work ethicCultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping, gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination.
Max Weber and the modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic success. However, researchers have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.
Voluntary poverty
See also: Simple living and Evangelical counselsAmong some individuals, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism (only for monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism, whilst in Roman Catholicism it is one of the evangelical counsels.
Benedict XVI distinguishes “poverty chosen” (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and “poverty to be fought” (unjust and imposed poverty). He considers that the moderation implied in the former favors solidarity, and is a necessary condition so as to fight effectively to eradicate the abuse of the latter.
See also
Nations
Theology
Organizations and campaigns
In documentary photography and film
|
|
References
- Jonathan Haughton and Shahidur Khandker. Handbook on Poverty and Inequality. ISBN 978-0-8213-7613-3.
- "Measuring Inequality". The World Bank. 2011.
- Instituto Nacional de Estadistica (2009). "Poverty and its measurement - The presentation of a range of methods to obtain measures of poverty" (PDF). p. 2-3.
- ^ Poverty (sociology). britannica.com. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. Macroeconomics. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.
- "Obama enlists major powers to aid poor farmers with $15 billion". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "World Bank Sees Progress Against Extreme Poverty, But Flags Vulnerabilities". The World bank. February 29 2012.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - Poverty and Equity - India, 2010 World Bank Country Profile
- Walter Skeat (2005). An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486440521.
- "Indicators of Poverty & Hunger" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Poverty and Inequality Analysis". worldbank.org. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- World Summit for Social Development 1995 (see Annex II, Section 19)
- Mozambique: ACTION PLAN FOR THE REDUCTION OF ABSOLUTE POVERTY, 2001-2005, The World Bank
- Martin Ravallion, Shaohua Chen and Prem Sangraula (2008). "Dollar a Day Revisited" (PDF). The World Bank.
- ^ "The World Bank, 2007, Understanding Poverty". Web.worldbank.org. 19 April 2005. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Devichand, Mukul (2 December 2007). "When a dollar a day means 25 cents". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "Poverty Definitions". US Census Bureau. 2011.
- ^ "World Bank's $1.25/day poverty measure- countering the latest criticisms". The World Bank. 2010.
- "New Progress in Development-oriented Poverty Reduction Program for Rural China (1,274 yuan per year = US$ 0.55 per day)". The Government of China. 2011.
{{cite web}}
: Missing pipe in:|title=
(help) - "Poverty Measures" (PDF). The World Bank. 2009.
- Amartya Sen (March, 1976). "Poverty: An Ordinal Approach to Measurement". Econometrica. 44 (2): 219–231. JSTOR 1912718.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - "How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?" Table 3, p. 28". worldbank.org. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "East Asia Remains Robust Despite US Slow Down". worldbank.org. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science, 12/e. Pearson Education. p. 548. ISBN 978-81-317-3066-9.
- ^ "Birth rates must be curbed to win war on global poverty". The Independent. London. 31 January 2007. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
- "Worldbank.org reference". Web.worldbank.org. 19 April 2005. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "World Bank, Data and Statistics, WDI, GDF, & ADI Online Databases". World Bank. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries". The New York Times. 12 October 2000. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "East: 'If Countries Don't Act Now, It's Going To Be Too Late'". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 2007. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
- "World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data". World Bank. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.
- "Regional aggregation using 2005 PPP and $1.25 per day poverty line". The World Bank. 2011.
- Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallioniz (August 2008). "The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty" (PDF).
- "Fighting poverty in emerging markets - the gloves go on; Lessons from Brazil, China and India". The Economist. November 26 2009.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - Reddy & Miniou (September 2007). "HAS WORLD POVERTY REALLY FALLEN?" (PDF). Review of Income and Wealth. 53 (3).
- Librado F. Cano, P. E. (2010). Transformation of an Individual Family Community Nation and the World. Trafford Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-4269-4765-0.
- "Levels and Trends in Child Mortality" (PDF). UNICEF, World Health Organization, The World Bank and UN Population Division. 2011.
- "World Development Volume 33, Issue 1 , January 2005, pages 1–19, Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging". Sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Michael Blastland (31 July 2009). "Just what is poor?". BBC NEWS. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
- W. Michael Cox; Richard Alm (1995). By Our Own Bootstraps (PDF) (Report). Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. p. 6.
- Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005 (PDF) (Report). Department of the Treasury. Nov. 13, 2007.
{{cite report}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - "A Glossary for Social Epidemiology". World Health Organization. March 2002. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "Journal of Poverty". Journal of Poverty. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and social solidarity, in International Labour Review, 133 5–6
- G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13
- P Townsend, 1979, Poverty in the UK, Penguin
- Chapter on Voices of the Poor in David Moore's edited book The World Bank: Development, Poverty, Hegemony (University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2007)
- Lipton, Michael (1986), 'Seasonality and ultra-poverty', Sussex, IDS Bulletin 17.3
- International Food Policy Research Institute, The World's Most Deprived. Characteristics and Causes of Extreme Poverty and Hunger, Washington: IFPRI Oct 2007
- "The World Health Report, World Health Organization (See annex table 2)". Who.int. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Rising food prices curb aid to global poor". Csmonitor.com. 24 July 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "The Starvelings". The Economist. 24 January 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "The cost of food: Facts and figures". BBC News. 16 October 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Jonathan Watts in Beijing (4 December 2007). "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008). "Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?". The Times. London. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- Julian Borger, diplomatic editor (26 February 2008). "Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
{{cite news}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - "100 million at risk from rising food costs". Australia: ABC. 14 April 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion". Planetark.com. 5 June 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Exploitation and Over-exploitation in Societies Past and Present, Brigitta Benzing, Bernd Herrmann
- "The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization". Earth-policy.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Ian Sample in science correspondent (31 August 2007). "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
{{cite news}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - "Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025". News.mongabay.com. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "1.02 billion people hungry". fao.org. 19 June 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "2008 Global Hunger Index Key Findings & Facts". 2008.
- "Half of India's children malnourished, says NGO report". calcuttanews.net. 15 October 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "India: Undernourished Children: A Call for Reform and Action". World Bank.
- "Maternal mortality ratio falling too slowly to meet goal". World Health Organization. 17 October 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "The causes of maternal death". BBC News. 23 November 1998. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Huston, A. C. (1991). Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Solley, Bobbie A. (2005). When Poverty's Children Write: Celebrating Strengths, Transforming Lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, Inc.
- "Study: 744,000 homeless in United States". USA Today. 10 January 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Report reveals global slum crisis". BBC News. 16 June 2006. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Street Children". Portal.unesco.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Aid gives alternatives to African orphanages
- "Experts encourage action against sex trafficking". .voanews.com. 15 May 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Child sex boom fueled by poverty". Globalpost.com. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Thomson, Mike (12 June 2009). "Zimbabwean girls trade sex for food". BBC News. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Atkins, M. S., McKay, M., Talbott, E., & Arvantis, P. (1996). "DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams," School Psychology Review, 25, 274–283. Citing: Bell, C. C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1991). "Traumatic stress and children," Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 2, 175–185.
- Atkins, M. S., McKay, M., Talbott, E., & Arvantis, P. (1996). "DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams," School Psychology Review, 25, 274–283. Citing: Osofsky, J. D., Wewers, S., Harm, D. M., & Fick, A. C. (1993). "Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children?," Psychiatry, 56, 36–45; and, Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P (1993).
- Geoffrey Parker (2001). "Europe in crisis, 1598–1648". Wiley–Blackwell. p.11. ISBN 0-631-22028-3
- "Forgotten benefactor of humanity". Theatlantic.com. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Justin Rowlatt (24 March 2009). "BBC Ethical Man". BBC. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Fuller, Thomas (27 December 2007). "In Laos, Chinese motorcycles change lives". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "China boosts African economies, offering a second opportunity". Csmonitor.com. 25 June 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Economic costs of AIDS". Globalpolicy.org. 23 July 2003. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "The economic and social burden of malaria". Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 3 September 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Poverty Issues Dominate WHO Regional Meeting". Wpro.who.int. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Disease Control Priorities Project". dcp2.org. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Brown, David (3 April 2006). "Saving millions for just a few dollars". The Washington Post. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "India's Tata launches water filter for rural poor". BBC News. 7 December 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "Millions mark UN hand washing day". BBC News. 15 October 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "How can we help the world's poor". NYTimes. 20 November 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "Sanitary pads help Ghana girls go to school". BBC News. 29 January 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ World Bank. 2001. Engendering Development—Through Gender Equality in Right, Resources and Voice. New York: Oxford University Press.
- "Brazil becomes antipoverty showcase". csmonitor.com. 13 November 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Latin America makes dent in poverty with 'conditional cash' programs". csmonitor.com. 21 September 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
-
Kristin Komives, Vivien Foster, Jonathan Halpern and Quentin Wodon (2005). Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who benefits from utility subsidies? (PDF). Washington D.C: The World Bank. ISBN 9780821363423. Retrieved 2012-July-26.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) -
Bill Kingdom, Roland Liemberger, Philippe Marin (2006). The challenge of reducing non revenue water (NRW) in developing countries. How the private sector can help: A look at performance based service contracting (PDF). Water supply and sanitation board discussion paper series. Washington D.C: The World Bank. Retrieved 2012-July-26.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) -
Marianne Kjellen and Gordon McGranahan (2006). Informal Water Vendors and the Urban Poor (PDF). Human settlements discussion paper series. London: IIED. ISBN 9781843695868. Retrieved 2012-July-26.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help) - ^ Pope, Carl (2012-February-16). "Solar power: Cheap electricity for the world's poor". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2012-July-26.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
and|date=
(help) - ^ Rosenberg, Tina (2012-March-13). "In Africa's vanishing forests, the benefits of bamboo". New York Times. Retrieved 2012-July-26.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
and|date=
(help) - ^ "Anti-Corruption Climate Change: it started in Nigeria". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 13 November 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "Nigeria: the Hidden Cost of Corruption". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 14 April 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Banks, graft and development". The Economist. 12 March 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
-
Kristina Froberg and Attiya Waris (2011). "Introduction". Bringing the billions back: How Africa and Europe can end illicit capital flight (PDF). Stockholm: Forum Syd Forlag. ISBN 9789189542594. Retrieved 2012-July-26.
{{cite book}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help) - ^ Sharife, Khadija (2011-June-18). "='Transparency' hides Zambia's lost billions". Al-Jazeera. Retrieved 2011-July-26.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
and|date=
(help) - Mathiason, Nick (21 January 2007). "Western bankers and lawyers 'rob Africa of $150bn every year'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, Progress Report. Retrieved from Worldbank.org.
- Walker, Andrew (11 June 2005). "African debt relief". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Third World Debt". worldcentric.org. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Zambia overwhelmed by free health care". bbcnews.com. 7 April 2006. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Dugger, Celia W. (2 December 2007). "Ending famine simply by ignoring the experts". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Transition: The First Ten Years – Analysis and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, The World Bank, Washington, DC, 2002, p. 4.
- "Child poverty soars in eastern Europe". BBC News. 11 October 2000. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Tied aid strangling nations, says UN". ispnews.net. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Let them eat micronutrients". Newsweek. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis". voanews.com. 3 May 2006. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Blomfield, Adrian (2 November 2004). "Out of Africa – health workers leave in droves". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Population growth driving climate change, poverty: experts". Agence France-Presse. 21 September 2009.
- "Another Inconvenient Truth: The World's Growing Population Poses a Malthusian Dilemma". Scientific American. 2 October 2000. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "World Population Clock – Worldometers".
- "overpopulation?". Henrygeorge.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Dugger, Celia W. (20 October 2007). "World Bank report puts agriculture at core of antipoverty effort". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Climate Change: Bangladesh facing the challenge". The World Bank. 8 September 2008. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- "A new approach to aid: How a basic income program saved a Namibian village". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "Namibians line up for free cash". bbcnews.com. 23 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- Economists' Statement on Guaranteed Annual Income, 1/15/1968-4/18/1969 folder, General Correspondence Series, Papers of John Kenneth Galbraith, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Cited in: Jyotsna Sreenivasan, "Poverty and the Government in America: A Historical Encyclopedia." (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009), page 269
- ^ Guy Standing (2005). "1. About Time: Basic Income Security As A Right". In Guy Standing (ed.). Promoting Income Security as a Right: Europe and North America (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-84331-174-4.
Among those who have become convinced of the virtues of the basic income approach are several Nobel Prize-winning economists of surprisingly diverse political convictions: Milton Friedman, Herbert Simon, Robert Solow, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin (besides, of course, James Meade who was an advocate from his younger days).
- Hayek, Friedrich (1973). Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy. Vol. 2. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 0-7100-8403-X.
- Friedman, Milton (1990). Free to Choose: A Personal Statement. Harcourt. pp. 120–3. ISBN 0-15-633460-7.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Steensland, Brian (2007). The failed welfare revolution. Princeton University Press. pp. 70–78. ISBN 0-691-12714-X, 9780691127149.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: invalid character (help) - "Is a Negative Income Tax Practical?", James Tobin, Joseph A. Pechman, and Peter M. Mieszkowski, Yale Law Journal 77 (1967): 1–27.
- Fettig, David (2011 ). "Interview with James Tobin – The Region – Publications & Papers | The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis". minneapolisfed.org. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
I would pursue my recommendations of years ago for a negative income tax.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|year=
(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - "UN aid debate: give cash not food?". csmonitor.com. 4 June 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "Cash roll-out to help hunger hot spots". World Food Program. 8 December 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- Dipak Das Gupta; Mustapha K. Nabli; World Bank (2003). Trade, Investment, and Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Engaging With the World. World Bank Publications. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-8213-5574-9.
- "Ending mass poverty". cato.org. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Doyle, Mark (4 October 2006). "Can aid bring an end to poverty". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "India:the economy". bbcnews.com. 3 December 1998. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- "Poor Little Rich Country". foreignpolicy.com. 24 June 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- Leading article: Africa has to spend carefully. The Independent. July 13, 2006.
- Data refer to the year 2008. $26,341 GDP for Korea, $1513 for Ghana. World Economic Outlook Database-October 2008. International Monetary Fund.
- Fareed Zakaria (20 September 2008). "How to spread democracy". Newsweek. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Land rights help fight poverty". Time. 30 August 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "[[Global Competitiveness Report]] 2006, World Economic Forum". weforum.org. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
{{cite web}}
: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - "Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction: Cross-country Evidence". abdi.org. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- Bajaj, Vikas (5 January 2011). "Microlenders, honored with Nobel, are struggling". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Polgreen, Lydia; Bajaj, Vikas (17 November 2010). "India microcredit faces collapse from defaults". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Yunus, Muhammad (14 January 2011). "Sacrificing microcredit for megaprofits". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Kiviat, Barbara (30 August 2009). "Microfinance's next step: deposits". Time. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
- Kristof, Nicholas D. (31 December 2009). "Sparking a savings revolution". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Africa pioneers mobile bank push". bbcnews.com. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- Greenwood, Louise (12 August 2009). "Africa's mobile banking revolution". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- "Migration and development: The aid workers who really help". The Economist. 8 October 2009. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- "Ending Poverty in Community (EPIC)". Usccb.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- Moore, Wilbert. 1974. Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- Parsons, Talcott. 1966. Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- Kerbo, Harold. 2006. Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective, 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- "World Peace Day Address 2009". The Vatican. 1 January 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- "Campaign to Reduce Poverty in America". Catholiccharitiesusa.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "transforming slums". Homeless International. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "The ONE Campaign". One.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "United Nations Millennium Campaign". Endpoverty2015.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- "Stand Against Poverty". Stand Against Poverty. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
Further reading
- Adato, Michelle & Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, eds. Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press, [http://www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-poverty International Food Policy Research Institute
- Anzia, Lys "Educate a Woman, You Educate a Nation" – South Africa Aims to Improve its Education for Girls WNN – Women News Network. 28 Aug. 2007.
- Atkinson, Anthony. Poverty in Europe 1998
- Babb, Sarah (2009). Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-03365-5.
- Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011)
- Bergmann, Barbara. "Deciding Who's Poor", Dollars & Sense, March/April 2000
- Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty." American Economic Review 88:348–51. 1998. in JSTOR
- Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" Social Forces 81#3 2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse. Abstract: Reviews shortcomings of the official U.S. measure; examines several theoretical and methodological advances in poverty measurement. Argues that ideal measures of poverty should: (1) measure comparative historical variation effectively; (2) be relative rather than absolute; (3) conceptualize poverty as social exclusion; (4) assess the impact of taxes, transfers, and state benefits; and (5) integrate the depth of poverty and the inequality among the poor. Next, this article evaluates sociological studies published since 1990 for their consideration of these criteria. This article advocates for three alternative poverty indices: the interval measure, the ordinal measure, and the sum of ordinals measure. Finally, using the Luxembourg Income Study, it examines the empirical patterns with these three measures, across advanced capitalist democracies from 1967 to 1997. Estimates of these poverty indices are made available.
- Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115–42.
- Cox, W. Michael & Alm, Richard. Myths of Rich and Poor 1999
- Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty." Pp. 18–50 in Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994.
- Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." American Journal of Sociology (2000) 104:1597–1630. in JSTOR
- Frank, Ellen, Dr. Dollar: How Is Poverty Defined in Government Statistics? Dollars & Sense, January/February 2006
- Gans, Herbert J., "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All", Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20–24
- George, Abraham, Wharton Business School Publications – Why the Fight Against Poverty is Failing: a contrarian view
- Gordon, David M. Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives. 1972.
- Haveman, Robert H. Poverty Policy and Poverty Research. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1987 ISBN 0-299-11150-4
- Iceland, John Poverty in America: a handbook University of California Press, 2003
- McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600–1850 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers, and almshouse dwellers.
- O'Connor, Alice "Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era" Annual Review of Sociology, 2000
- Osberg, Lars & Xu, Kuan. "International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and bootstrap inference." The Journal of Human Resources 2000. 35:51–81.
- Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view." Pp. 41–62 in The Future of European Welfare, edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998.
- Philippou, Lambros (2010) "Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty", Philosophical Inquiry, Vol. 32, No. 1–2 pp. 103–115.
- Pressman, Steven, Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994 ISBN 0-8108-2833-2
- Rothman, David J., (editor). The Almshouse Experience (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. ISBN 0-405-03092-4Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Court's Committee on Pauper Laws (published in , 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901).
- Sen, Amartya Poverty and Famines: an essay on entitlement and deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981
- Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. New York: Knopf, 1999
- Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective. Urban Institute Press 1990.
- Smith, Stephen C., Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005
- Triest, Robert K. "Has Poverty Gotten Worse?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 1998. 12:97–114.
- Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. The Spirit Level, London: Allen Lane, 2009
- World Bank: "Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?"
- World Bank, "World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People", 2004.
External links
- Disease control priorities project Studies the cost effectiveness of health care interventions
- Islamic Development Bank
- Luxembourg Income Study Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data.
- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Contains reports on economic development as well as relations between rich and poor nations.
- OPHI Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI)] Research to advance the human development approach to poverty reduction.
- Transparency International Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world.
- United Nations Hundres of free reports related to economic development and standards of living in countries around the world, such as the annual Human Development Report.
- European Commissioner: There is a tendency to evict the poor
- U.S. Agency for International Development USAID is the primary U.S. government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries.
- World Bank Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the annual World Development Report.
- World Food Program Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world.
Poverty in Africa | |
---|---|
Sovereign states |
|
States with limited recognition | |
Dependencies and other territories |
|
Poverty in Europe | |
---|---|
Sovereign states |
|
States with limited recognition | |
Dependencies and other entities |
Poverty in Oceania | |
---|---|
Sovereign states | |
Associated states of New Zealand | |
Dependencies and other territories |