| Revision as of 20:44, 24 August 2012 editLysozym (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users1,944 editsm →Etymology← Previous edit | Revision as of 21:04, 24 August 2012 edit undoاردیبهشت (talk | contribs)303 edits Rv:Next edit → | ||
| Line 8: | Line 8: | ||
| *"''Abaev considers this word (lacking in a Turco-Mongolian etymology), as well Old Hungarian tarchan “olim judex”, borrowing from Scythians (Alans) *tarxan “judge” -> Ossetian. Taerxon “argument, trial”; cf. the Ossete idioms taerxon kaenyn “to judge” (+ kӕnyn “to do”) and tӕrxon lӕg “judge” (+l ӕg man). Iron ævzag''"</ref> or ]<ref name="Turkic1"></ref><ref name="Marcel Erdal, Mongol">Marcel Erdal, , BRILL, 2004, p.128, ISBN 978-900-4102-94-1</ref>. | *"''Abaev considers this word (lacking in a Turco-Mongolian etymology), as well Old Hungarian tarchan “olim judex”, borrowing from Scythians (Alans) *tarxan “judge” -> Ossetian. Taerxon “argument, trial”; cf. the Ossete idioms taerxon kaenyn “to judge” (+ kӕnyn “to do”) and tӕrxon lӕg “judge” (+l ӕg man). Iron ævzag''"</ref> or ]<ref name="Turkic1"></ref><ref name="Marcel Erdal, Mongol">Marcel Erdal, , BRILL, 2004, p.128, ISBN 978-900-4102-94-1</ref>. | ||
| Although ] reports that the word "was probably foreign to Sogdian", hence considered to be a loanword from Turkic, G. Doerfer points out that even in Turkic languages, its ] is not Turkic (sing. ''tarxan'' --> plur. ''tarx'''at'''''), suggesting a non-Turkic origin.<ref name="Doerfer">G. Doerfer, ''Mongolo-Tungusica'', O. Harrassowitz, 1985, University of Virginia.</ref> L. Ligeti comes to the same conclusion, saying that ''"tarxan and tegin form the wholly un-Turkish plurals tarxat and tegit"'' and that the word was unknown to medieval western Turkic languages, such as ].<ref>L. Ligeti, ''Researches in Altaic languages'', e. A. Kiadó, 1975, University of Michigan, p. 48</ref> However ] argues that there is a resemblance between the dominant plural suffix '''-t''' and the Old Turkic plural suffix '''-tı''' (''oglı'''tı'''''/''kulu'''tı'''''), or '''-tar''' (''kırgıt'''tar'''''), as attested in the ]. In post-inscriptional Uyghur, ''tegi'''t'''-'''lär''''' was also attested.<ref>Marcel Erdal, Old Turkic Word Formation: A Functional Approach to the Lexicon, Vol. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1991, pp.78, ISBN 978-344-703-084-7</ref> Taking this in consideration, the word is most likely derived from medieval Mongolian ''darqat'' (Mongolian plural suffix '''-at'''),<ref name="Marcel Erdal, Mongol"></ref> itself perhaps derived from the earlier Sogdian word ''*tarxa'''n'''t'' ("free of taxes").<ref name="Doerfer" /> In contrast L. Rogers argues that the Mongolian ''darxan'' is an ancient loan word from the Turkic ''tarqan'', and likely originated from the ] and ] (where it was associated with a title for nobility),<ref name="Leland Liu Rogers"></ref> whereas ] suggests the well-known Turkic title ''tarqan'' and Mongolian ''darxan''/''daruyu'', both preserving an original Xiongnu word.<ref name="Universität Bonn.">Universität Bonn. Seminar für Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft Zentralasiens: Zentralasiatische Studien, Vol. 24-26, p.21</ref> Abaev |
Although ] reports that the word "was probably foreign to Sogdian", hence considered to be a loanword from Turkic, G. Doerfer points out that even in Turkic languages, its ] is not Turkic (sing. ''tarxan'' --> plur. ''tarx'''at'''''), suggesting a non-Turkic origin.<ref name="Doerfer">G. Doerfer, ''Mongolo-Tungusica'', O. Harrassowitz, 1985, University of Virginia.</ref> L. Ligeti comes to the same conclusion, saying that ''"tarxan and tegin form the wholly un-Turkish plurals tarxat and tegit"'' and that the word was unknown to medieval western Turkic languages, such as ].<ref>L. Ligeti, ''Researches in Altaic languages'', e. A. Kiadó, 1975, University of Michigan, p. 48</ref> However ] argues that there is a resemblance between the dominant plural suffix '''-t''' and the Old Turkic plural suffix '''-tı''' (''oglı'''tı'''''/''kulu'''tı'''''), or '''-tar''' (''kırgıt'''tar'''''), as attested in the ]. In post-inscriptional Uyghur, ''tegi'''t'''-'''lär''''' was also attested.<ref>Marcel Erdal, Old Turkic Word Formation: A Functional Approach to the Lexicon, Vol. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1991, pp.78, ISBN 978-344-703-084-7</ref> Taking this in consideration, the word is most likely derived from medieval Mongolian ''darqat'' (Mongolian plural suffix '''-at'''),<ref name="Marcel Erdal, Mongol"></ref> itself perhaps derived from the earlier Sogdian word ''*tarxa'''n'''t'' ("free of taxes").<ref name="Doerfer" /> In contrast L. Rogers argues that the Mongolian ''darxan'' is an ancient loan word from the Turkic ''tarqan'', and likely originated from the ] and ] (where it was associated with a title for nobility),<ref name="Leland Liu Rogers"></ref> whereas ] suggests the well-known Turkic title ''tarqan'' and Mongolian ''darxan''/''daruyu'', both preserving an original Xiongnu word.<ref name="Universität Bonn.">Universität Bonn. Seminar für Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft Zentralasiens: Zentralasiatische Studien, Vol. 24-26, p.21</ref> Abaev gives the additional elaboration that the related East Iranian Scythian (and ]) word ''*tarxan'' (from ] ''*tarkāna'', "judgment")<ref>Lars M. Hoffmann, Anuscha Monchizadeh, Zwischen Polis, Provinz und Peripherie: Beiträge Zur Byzantinischen Geschichte und Kultur, Otto Harrassowitz, 2005, p.378: | ||
| *"''V.I. Abaev , der das ossetische Wort tærxon >>Gericht<< nicht als eine Entlehnung aus dem türkischen tarqan * tarxan oder dem mongolischen darxan ansieht, sondert das Wort aus dem indoiranischen ''*tarkāna''- (vgl. altindisch tarkana - >>Urteil; Annahme, Mutmaßung<<) ableitet.''" <small>'''Reference:'''<small> (see below) | *"''V.I. Abaev , der das ossetische Wort tærxon >>Gericht<< nicht als eine Entlehnung aus dem türkischen tarqan * tarxan oder dem mongolischen darxan ansieht, sondert das Wort aus dem indoiranischen ''*tarkāna''- (vgl. altindisch tarkana - >>Urteil; Annahme, Mutmaßung<<) ableitet.''" <small>'''Reference:'''<small> (see below) | ||
| **</small> (V.I. Abaev, Tarxan, in: Saenatmecniero krebuli. Tbilisi 1979, p.21-25)</small> | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | </ref> still survives in ] ''tærxon'' ("argument, trial") and ''tærxon kænyn'' ("to judge").<ref name="Ossetic" /> ] also proposes an Iranian (]) root for the word.<ref>Bailey, H W. 1985. . Cambridge Univ. Press. (Reviewed )</ref> | ||
| In the Kyrgyz ], Tarkhan occurs too meaning 'a blacksmith', which is probably borrowed from Mongolian ''darxan''. In Mongolian, the meaning 'a blacksmith' is more original than the Sogdian meaning "''a person who is exempt from taxes''". The word ''darxan'' also is used as adjective meaning 'sacred or celebrated'. According to Han-Woo Choi, this implies that the word has something to do with a certain ancient religion or ] which has long tradition in the Altaic peoples, i.e. ] and ]. Regarding this point, Choi is referring to an Yakut proverb that Yakuts in Siberia believe that smiths and shamans have their roots from the same place. Additionally, in Eurasia there widely spreaded the concept of the celestial smith <small>></small>''Tarqan ]''<small><</small>. Beside this, from Turkic legends (e.g. ]), it can be understand how the smith played an important role as a spiritual leader in the ancient Turkic community.<ref name="Turkic1"></ref> | |||
| A further trace of this smith-shamanism is also found in the Korean ]. In Korean, there appears a word which is spposed to be originally related to the title Tarkhan; In ] there is a ] which has two different meanings with the same form: '''''tarho-''''' ('to heat' a piece of iron) and '''''tarku-''''' ('to deal with'). According to Choi the former one 'to heat' is original, while the meaning 'to deal with' is secondary. This change of the meaning probably is closely related to the shamanistic feature of a ] which was originated from the ancient Turkic or ]. Choi comes to the conclusion that Korean ''tarho-''/''tarku-'', Turkic ''tarqan'' and Mongolian ''darxan'' are of the same origin. This manifests that there were a close cultural relationship between Central Asia and Korean peninsular in the ancient period.<ref>Han-Woo Choi, , Handong University, pp.2-6</ref> | |||
| According to D. Theodoridis it should not be ignored that since the beginning of the ] British scientists have developed the assertion that the word ''tarqan'' and the ] personal name ] (]) could be attributed to one and the same etymon.<ref> Lars M. Hoffmann, Anuscha Monchizadeh, Zwischen Polis, Provinz und Peripherie: Beiträge Zur Byzantinischen Geschichte und Kultur, chapt. by Dimitri Theodoridis: Tarhānīyāt, Otto Harrassowitz, 2005, pp.378: | |||
| *"''Es darf in diesem Zusammenhang nicht außer acht gelassen werden britische Forscher die kühne Behauptung aufgestellt haben, wonach das Wort tarxan und der etruskische Personenname Tarquinus auf ein und dassselbe Etymon zurückzuführen wären.''" <small>'''References:'''<small> (see below) | |||
| **], The Mongol title tarkhan, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1917), p.834: | |||
| ***"''And I do not suppose that there can be any doubt that the names Tarchon, Tarquin and Tarkhan are identical.''" | |||
| **], Tarkhan and Tarquinus, in: Ebenda (1918), pp.122-123; and H. Beveridge, pp.314-316 | |||
| </ref> | |||
| What is certain is that ''Tarkhan'' is not related to the Turco-Mongol royal title '']''/'']''.<ref name="Qarib" /><ref name="Turkic1"></ref> | What is certain is that ''Tarkhan'' is not related to the Turco-Mongol royal title '']''/'']''.<ref name="Qarib" /><ref name="Turkic1"></ref> | ||
Revision as of 21:04, 24 August 2012
Tarkhan (Old Turkic Tarqan; Mongolian: Darkhan; Template:Lang-fa; Chinese: 達干; Template:Lang-ar; alternative spellings Tarkan, Tarkhaan, Tarqan, Tarchan, Tarxan, Tarcan, Targan) is an ancient Central Asian title used by various Indo-European (i.e. Iranian and Tokharian), Turkic, Hun, Xiongnu and Mongol peoples, especially in the medieval era, and prominent among the successors of the Mongol Empire.
Etymology
The word Tarkhan has been studied by many scholars. Tarqan has generally been interpreted as “a title of nobility”, but no complete consensus has been reached on its analysis, therefore the origin of the word is uncertain. Various historians identify the word as either Turkic, Iranian or Mongolian.
Although R. Frye reports that the word "was probably foreign to Sogdian", hence considered to be a loanword from Turkic, G. Doerfer points out that even in Turkic languages, its plural is not Turkic (sing. tarxan --> plur. tarxat), suggesting a non-Turkic origin. L. Ligeti comes to the same conclusion, saying that "tarxan and tegin form the wholly un-Turkish plurals tarxat and tegit" and that the word was unknown to medieval western Turkic languages, such as Bulgar. However M. Erdal argues that there is a resemblance between the dominant plural suffix -t and the Old Turkic plural suffix -tı (oglıtı/kulutı), or -tar (kırgıttar), as attested in the Yakut language. In post-inscriptional Uyghur, tegit-lär was also attested. Taking this in consideration, the word is most likely derived from medieval Mongolian darqat (Mongolian plural suffix -at), itself perhaps derived from the earlier Sogdian word *tarxant ("free of taxes"). In contrast L. Rogers argues that the Mongolian darxan is an ancient loan word from the Turkic tarqan, and likely originated from the Xiongnu and Huns (where it was associated with a title for nobility), whereas Edwin G. Pulleyblank suggests the well-known Turkic title tarqan and Mongolian darxan/daruyu, both preserving an original Xiongnu word. Abaev gives the additional elaboration that the related East Iranian Scythian (and Alanic) word *tarxan (from Indo-Iranian *tarkāna, "judgment") still survives in Ossetic tærxon ("argument, trial") and tærxon kænyn ("to judge"). Harold Walter Bailey also proposes an Iranian (Khotanese Saka) root for the word.
In the Kyrgyz Epic of Manas, Tarkhan occurs too meaning 'a blacksmith', which is probably borrowed from Mongolian darxan. In Mongolian, the meaning 'a blacksmith' is more original than the Sogdian meaning "a person who is exempt from taxes". The word darxan also is used as adjective meaning 'sacred or celebrated'. According to Han-Woo Choi, this implies that the word has something to do with a certain ancient religion or Altaic smith-shamanism which has long tradition in the Altaic peoples, i.e. Turkic and Mongolian. Regarding this point, Choi is referring to an Yakut proverb that Yakuts in Siberia believe that smiths and shamans have their roots from the same place. Additionally, in Eurasia there widely spreaded the concept of the celestial smith >Tarqan Tengri<. Beside this, from Turkic legends (e.g. Ergenekon), it can be understand how the smith played an important role as a spiritual leader in the ancient Turkic community.
A further trace of this smith-shamanism is also found in the Korean Legend of Tangun. In Korean, there appears a word which is spposed to be originally related to the title Tarkhan; In Middle Korean there is a homonym which has two different meanings with the same form: tarho- ('to heat' a piece of iron) and tarku- ('to deal with'). According to Choi the former one 'to heat' is original, while the meaning 'to deal with' is secondary. This change of the meaning probably is closely related to the shamanistic feature of a blacksmith which was originated from the ancient Turkic or Proto-Altaic. Choi comes to the conclusion that Korean tarho-/tarku-, Turkic tarqan and Mongolian darxan are of the same origin. This manifests that there were a close cultural relationship between Central Asia and Korean peninsular in the ancient period.
According to D. Theodoridis it should not be ignored that since the beginning of the 1920's British scientists have developed the assertion that the word tarqan and the Etruscan personal name Tarquin (Tarquinius) could be attributed to one and the same etymon.
What is certain is that Tarkhan is not related to the Turco-Mongol royal title Khan/Khaqan.
The word was borrowed into many languages, including Armenian tʿarxan, Georgian t’arxani and Russian тархан.
History
It was used among the various Iranian (Sogdians, Khotanese, and Hephthalites), Mongol and Turkic peoples of Central Asia and other steppe people, and was a high rank in the army of Tamerlane. Tarkhans commanded military contingents (roughly of regimental size under the Khazar khan) and were, roughly speaking, generals. They could also be assigned as military governors of conquered regions.
The Göktürks probably adopted the title of Darqan (Mongolian spelling) from the Mongol-speaking Rourans or Avars. The Tarkhan were cited in inscription of Kul Tigin (d. c.731 CE). They were given high honors such as entering the ger of Khagan without any prior appointment and shown unusual ninefold pardon to the 9th generation from any crime they committed. Although, the etymology of the word is unknown, it is attested under the Khitans who ruled most of Mongolia and North China between 916 and 1125.
Like many titles, Tarkhan (Turkic spelling) also occurs as a personal name, independent of a person's rank, which makes some historical references confusing. For example, Arab texts refer to a "Tarkhan, king of the Khazars" as reigning in the mid ninth century. Whether this is a confused reference to a military official or the name of an individual Khazar khagan remains unclear. The name is occasionally used today in Turkish and Arabic speaking countries.
In the Mongol Empire, the Darkhan were exempted from taxation, socage and requisitioning. Genghis Khan made those who helped his rise Darkhans in 1206. The families of the Darkhan played crucial roles later when the succession crisis occurred in Yuan Dynasty and Ilkhanate. Abaqa Khan (1234–1282) made an Indian Darkhan after he had led his mother and her team all the way from Central Asia to Persia safely. A wealthy merchant of Persia was made of Darkhan by Ghazan (1271–1304) for his service during the early defeat of the Ilkhan. In Russia, the Khans of the Golden Horde assigned important tasks to the Darkhan. A jarliq of Temur Qutlugh (ca. 1370–1399) which authorized rights of the Tarkhan found in Crimea.
During the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), the title was bestowed mainly on the late Darkhans' families and the government officials.
After suppressing the rebellion of the right three tumens in Mongolia, Dayan Khan exempted his soldiers, who participated the battle of Dalan-Terqin, from imposts and made them Darkhan in 1513. Even after the collapse of the Northern Yuan with the death of Ligdan Khan, the title of Darkhan was bestowed on religious dignitaries, sometimes on persons of low-birth. For example, in 1665, the Khotgoid Altan Khan Lubsan bestowed the title on a Russian interpreter and requested the Russian Tsar to exempt the interpreter from all tax obligations.
The word refers the Blacksmith and is still used in Mongolia as privilege.
A Tarkhan established the Turkic Tarkhan Dynasty, ruling the Sindh region in modern-day Pakistan from 1554 to 1591 AD.
The town of Tutrakan (Тутракан) in Nort-East Bulgaria is said to have been found by the noble Turu Tarkan from the First Bulgarian Empire and still bears, slightly modified, his name.
See also
In fiction
- In C. S. Lewis' Chronicles of Narnia series of novels, the apparent spelling variation Tarkaan is the title of a Calormen nobleman, tarkheena that of a noble woman.
- Also in Age of Empires II: The Conquerors, the tarkan is the Hun's unique unit with the appearance of a horsemen with a torch in place of sword.
Notes
- ^ A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN", Han-Woo Choi, Handong University
- Leland Liu Rogers – The Golden Summary of Cinggis Qayan: Cinggis Qayan-u Altan Tobci, p.80
- ^ Paul Ratchnevsky – Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.82
- ^ Qarīb, Badr-az-Zamān. 1995. Sogdian dictionary: Sogdian – Persian – English. Tehran: Farhangan Publ.
- Jonathan Karam Skaff, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800, Oxford University Press, 2012, p.396
- ^ Leland Liu Rogers, The Golden Summary of Cinggis Qayan: Cinggis Qayan-u Altan Tobc, Otto Harrassowitz, 2009, p.80
- ^ Universität Bonn. Seminar für Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft Zentralasiens: Zentralasiatische Studien, Vol. 24-26, p.21
- Murat Ocak in: Hasan Celāl Güzel, Cem Oğuz, Osman Karatay, The Turks: Early ages, Yeni Türkiye, 2002, p.86 , ISBN 9756782552, 9789756782552, University of Michigan
- Frye, Richard N., "Tarxun-Turxun and Central Asian History", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1/2 pp. 105–129
- A.S. Amanjolov, History of Ancient Türkic Script: Chapter 10: Genesis of Türkic Runic Alpabet, Mektep Publishing, Almaty, 2003, p.293:
- "The Türkic-linguality of the dynastic tribe of the Usun (As-Sün - Türk. As' Hun) union was stated by F.Hirt, K.Siratori, N.A.Aristov and other researchers after analysis of the Chinese transcriptions of the Usun words (kün beg, uluγ, tarqan, etc.). "The presence of Türkic words in the language of ancient Usuns in the 3rd - 1st cc. BC, - noted Yu.A.Zuev, - makes questionable the standard in the Soviet historical literature point of view about so-called "Türkifation" of the local population in Kazakhstan and Central Asia by the Huns (Chinese: Sünnu), beguning in the 1st century BC"."
- Central Asiatic Journal, O. Harrassowitz, 1993, v. 37, University of Michigan
- ^ Agustí Alemany, Sources on the Alans, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000:
- "Abaev considers this word (lacking in a Turco-Mongolian etymology), as well Old Hungarian tarchan “olim judex”, borrowing from Scythians (Alans) *tarxan “judge” -> Ossetian. Taerxon “argument, trial”; cf. the Ossete idioms taerxon kaenyn “to judge” (+ kӕnyn “to do”) and tӕrxon lӕg “judge” (+l ӕg man). Iron ævzag"
- ^ Marcel Erdal, A Grammar Of Old Turkic, BRILL, 2004, p.128, ISBN 978-900-4102-94-1
- ^ G. Doerfer, Mongolo-Tungusica, O. Harrassowitz, 1985, University of Virginia.
- L. Ligeti, Researches in Altaic languages, e. A. Kiadó, 1975, University of Michigan, p. 48
- Marcel Erdal, Old Turkic Word Formation: A Functional Approach to the Lexicon, Vol. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1991, pp.78, ISBN 978-344-703-084-7
- Lars M. Hoffmann, Anuscha Monchizadeh, Zwischen Polis, Provinz und Peripherie: Beiträge Zur Byzantinischen Geschichte und Kultur, Otto Harrassowitz, 2005, p.378:
- "V.I. Abaev , der das ossetische Wort tærxon >>Gericht<< nicht als eine Entlehnung aus dem türkischen tarqan * tarxan oder dem mongolischen darxan ansieht, sondert das Wort aus dem indoiranischen *tarkāna- (vgl. altindisch tarkana - >>Urteil; Annahme, Mutmaßung<<) ableitet." Reference: (see below)
- (V.I. Abaev, Tarxan, in: Saenatmecniero krebuli. Tbilisi 1979, p.21-25)
- "V.I. Abaev , der das ossetische Wort tærxon >>Gericht<< nicht als eine Entlehnung aus dem türkischen tarqan * tarxan oder dem mongolischen darxan ansieht, sondert das Wort aus dem indoiranischen *tarkāna- (vgl. altindisch tarkana - >>Urteil; Annahme, Mutmaßung<<) ableitet." Reference: (see below)
- Bailey, H W. 1985. Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts, VII. Cambridge Univ. Press. (Reviewed here)
- Han-Woo Choi, A Study of the Ancient Turkic "TARQAN", Handong University, pp.2-6
- Lars M. Hoffmann, Anuscha Monchizadeh, Zwischen Polis, Provinz und Peripherie: Beiträge Zur Byzantinischen Geschichte und Kultur, chapt. by Dimitri Theodoridis: Tarhānīyāt, Otto Harrassowitz, 2005, pp.378:
- "Es darf in diesem Zusammenhang nicht außer acht gelassen werden britische Forscher die kühne Behauptung aufgestellt haben, wonach das Wort tarxan und der etruskische Personenname Tarquinus auf ein und dassselbe Etymon zurückzuführen wären." References: (see below)
- H. Beveridge, The Mongol title tarkhan, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1917), p.834:
- "And I do not suppose that there can be any doubt that the names Tarchon, Tarquin and Tarkhan are identical."
- F. W. Thomas, Tarkhan and Tarquinus, in: Ebenda (1918), pp.122-123; and H. Beveridge, pp.314-316
- H. Beveridge, The Mongol title tarkhan, in: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1917), p.834:
- "Es darf in diesem Zusammenhang nicht außer acht gelassen werden britische Forscher die kühne Behauptung aufgestellt haben, wonach das Wort tarxan und der etruskische Personenname Tarquinus auf ein und dassselbe Etymon zurückzuführen wären." References: (see below)
- Pelliot – Neuf Notes, p.250
- Eberhard – Conquerors and Rulers, p.98
- Wittfogel et al – Liao dynasty, p.433
- http://reff.net.ua/26327-YArlyki_hanov_Zolotoiy_Ordy_kak_istochnik_prava_i_kak_istochnik_po_istorii_prava.html
- Paul Ratchnevsky – Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.243
- Michael Kohn – Mongolia, p.126
External links
| Mongol Empire | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Timeline of the Mongol Empire | |||||||||||
| Northern Yuan (1368–1635) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||