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The islands are among the ]: They are located approximately {{convert|4099|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of ], ],<ref></ref> {{convert|3845|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of ], ], {{convert|4200|km|mi|abbr=on}} southeast of ], {{convert|3830|km|mi|abbr=on}} southeast of ], {{convert|1630|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Antarctica, and {{convert|450|km|mi|abbr=on}} southeast of ].<ref></ref> The islands are currently uninhabited. The islands are among the ]: They are located approximately {{convert|4099|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of ], ],<ref></ref> {{convert|3845|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of ], ], {{convert|4200|km|mi|abbr=on}} southeast of ], {{convert|3830|km|mi|abbr=on}} southeast of ], {{convert|1630|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Antarctica, and {{convert|450|km|mi|abbr=on}} southeast of ].<ref></ref> The islands are currently uninhabited.

== Geography ==
{{See also|Heard Island glaciers}}

]

Heard Island, by far the largest of the group, is a {{convert|368|km2|sqmi|adj=on}} bleak and mountainous island located at {{coord|53|06|00|S|73|31|00|E|}}. Its mountains are covered in glaciers (the island is 80% covered with ice<ref name="CIA World Factbook.">''CIA World Factbook.''</ref>) and dominated by ], a {{convert|2745|m|ft|0|adj=on}} high ] which forms part of the ] ]. A July 2000 satellite image from the ]'s Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alert Team, University of Hawai'i showed an active {{convert|2|km|mi|adj=on}} long (and {{convert|50|-|90|m|ft|0|adl=on|disp=or}} wide) lava flow trending south-west from the summit of Big Ben.<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref>

Mawson Peak is one of only 2 active volcanoes in Australian territory, the other being McDonald Island. It is also one of the highest Australian mountains (higher than ]); surpassed only by peaks in the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html|publisher=]|title=Highest Mountains|accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> A long thin sand and gravel ] named "]" extends from the eastern end of the island. There is a small group of islets and rocks about {{convert|10|km|mi|0}} north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet, Sail Rock, Morgan Island and Black Rock. They total about {{convert|1.1|km2|sqmi|1}} in area.

The McDonald Islands are located {{convert|44|km|mi|}} to the west of ] at {{coord|53|02|20|S|72|36|04|E|}}. The islands are small and rocky. In 1980 they consisted of McDonald Island ({{convert|186|m|ft}} high), Flat Island ({{convert|55|m|ft}} high) and Meyer Rock ({{convert|170|m|ft}} high). They totalled approximately {{convert|2.5|km2|sqmi|1}} in area, where McDonald Island was {{convert|1.13|km2|sqmi|1}} large. Like Heard Island, they were surface exposures of the ].

The volcano on McDonald Island, after being dormant for 75,000&nbsp;years, became active in 1992 and has erupted several times since. A satellite image taken in 2004 showed that recent volcanic activity had joined McDonald Island and Flat Island into one island and generally doubled the land size of the resultant island.<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref> As a result of volcanic activity between November 2000 and the end of 2001 the area of McDonald Island increased to {{convert|2.45|km2|sqmi|1}} and the highest summit now was at least {{convert|230|m|ft}} high.<ref name=wondermondo>{{cite web|url=http://www.wondermondo.com/Countries/Au/AU/Heard/McDonald.htm|title=McDonald Islands|publisher=Wondermondo}}</ref> However, the volcanic activity destroyed nearly all the vegetation on the island.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.heardisland.aq/about/location-geography
|title= Heard Island & McDonald Islands, Location & Geography
|publisher= Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Australian Antarctic Division.
|accessdate=30 October 2010}}</ref> The most recent eruption is thought to have been on 10 August 2005.<ref>{{Cite news
| url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200508/s1434466.htm
| title=Volcanic eruption causes Australian island to grow
| work=News Online
| publisher=Australian Broadcasting Commission
| date=10 August 2005
| accessdate=5 April 2007}}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref>
Currently there is on-going regeneration of vegetation.<ref name=wondermondo/>

Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbours; ships must anchor offshore. The coastline is {{convert|101.9|km|mi|}}, and a {{convert|12|nmi|km mi|adj=on}} territorial sea and {{convert|200|nmi|km mi|adj=on}} exclusive fishing zone are claimed.<ref name="CIA World Factbook."/>

The ] to the central Mawson Peak of Heard Island is located less than {{convert|70|km|mi|}} west by south of ], ], ].

=== Climate ===
The islands have an Antarctic climate, tempered by their maritime setting. The weather is marked by low seasonal and daily temperature ranges, persistent and generally low cloud cover, frequent precipitation and strong winds. Snowfall occurs throughout the year. Monthly average temperatures at Atlas Cove (at the northwestern end of Heard Island) range from {{convert|0.0|°C|°F}} to {{convert|4.2|°C|°F}}, with an average daily range of {{convert|3.7|°C|°F}} to {{convert|5.2|°C|°F}} in summer and {{convert|-0.8|°C|°F}} to {{convert|0.3|°C|°F}} in winter. The winds are predominantly westerly and persistently strong. At Atlas Cove, monthly average wind speeds range between around {{convert|26|to|33.5|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. Gusts in excess of {{convert|180|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} have been recorded. Annual precipitation at sea level on Heard Island is in the order of {{convert|1300|to|1900|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}; rain or snow falls on about 3 out of 4 days.<ref>HIMI official website.</ref>

Meteorological records at Heard Island are incomplete, but there is evidence that the local climate is changing. Observations at Atlas Cove indicate an increase in average annual air temperature of almost 1°C between the periods 1948-1954 and 1997-2001.<ref></ref>

=== Flora ===

==== Constraints ====
The islands are part of the ] ] that includes several ] islands. In this cold climate plant life is mainly limited to grasses and ]es. Low plant diversity reflects the islands’ isolation, small size, severe climate, the short, cool growing season and, for Heard Island, substantial permanent ice cover. The main environmental determinants of vegetation on subantarctic islands are wind exposure, water availability, parent soil composition, salt spray exposure, nutrient availability, disturbance by trampling (from seabirds and seals) and, possibly, altitude. At Heard Island, exposure to salt spray and the presence of breeding and moulting seabirds and seals are particularly strong influences on vegetation composition and structure in coastal areas
.

==== History ====
Evidence from microfossil records indicates that ferns and woody plants were present on Heard Island during the ] (a period with a cool and moist climate.) Neither group of plants is present today, although potential Tertiary survivors include the vascular plant ''Pringlea antiscorbutica'' and six moss species. Volcanic activity has altered the distribution and abundance of the vegetation. The vascular flora covers a range of environments and, although only six species are currently widespread, glacial retreat and the consequent connection of previously separate ice-free areas is providing opportunities for further distribution of vegetation into adjacent areas.

==== Flowering plants and ferns ====
Low-growing ] flowering plants and ]s are the major vegetation components. The vascular flora comprises the smallest number of species of any major subantarctic island group, reflecting its isolation, small ice-free area and severe climate. Twelve vascular species are known from Heard Island, of which five have also been recorded on McDonald Island. None of the vascular species is endemic, although '']'', '']'', and '']'' occur only on subantarctic islands in the southern Indian Ocean.
The plants are typically subantarctic, but with a higher abundance of the cushion-forming '']'' than other subantarctic islands. Heard Island is the largest subantarctic island with no confirmed human-introduced plants. Areas available for plant colonisation on Heard Island are generally the result of retreating glaciers or new ice-free land created by lava flows. Today, substantial vegetation covers over 20&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of Heard Island, and is best developed on coastal areas at elevations below 250&nbsp;m.

==== Mosses and liverworts ====
Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) contribute substantially to the overall biodiversity of Heard Island, with 43 mosses and 19 liverworts being recorded, often occupying habitats unsuitable for vascular plants, such as cliff faces. Bryophytes are present in most of the major vegetation communities including several soil and moss-inhabiting species. A 1980 survey of McDonald Island found lower diversity than that on Heard Island; four mosses and a number of algal species are recorded from there.

==== Algae ====
At least 100 species of terrestrial algae are known from Heard Island, commonly in permanently moist and ephemeral habitats. Forests of the giant Antarctic kelp '']'' occur at a number of sites around Heard Island and at least 17 other species of seaweed are known, with more to be added following the identification of recent collections. Low seaweed diversity is due to the island's isolation from other land masses, unsuitable beach habitat, constant abrasion by waves, tides and small stones, and the extension of glaciers into the sea in many areas.

==== Vegetation communities ====
Heard Island has a range of terrestrial environments in which vegetation occurs. Seven general vegetation communities are currently recognised, although vegetation composition is considered more of a continuum than discrete units:

* ] vegetation is the most widespread and abundant vegetation type on Heard Island. It is characterised by '']'' cushions interspersed with bryophytes, small vascular species and bare ground with 20–75% cover, and found mainly at altitudes between 30–70m asl.

* ] describes vegetation with abundant bare ground and less than 50% plant cover. Fellfield may occur as a result of harsh climatic and/or edaphic factors, or recent ] which has exposed bare ground.

* ]y ] is a community with high species richness and consists of bryophytes and small ''Azorella selago'' cushions. It is found at altitudes between 30–150 m in areas with intermediate exposure.

* ] occurs on moist substrate, mostly on moraines and moist lee slopes (often in association with burrowing petrels colonies) at low altitude (< 40 m) where the water table is at or close to the surface. Species richness is highest here of all the communities, with dominant species being '']'', ''Azorella selago'', '']'', '']'', and '']''.

* ] vegetation is dominated by ''Poa cookii'' and ''Azorella selago'', occurring mainly on coastal sites of moderate exposure and in areas subject to significant influence from seals and seabirds.

* ] is dominated by the salt-tolerant moss '']'' and limited in extent, being found at low elevations on lavas in exposed coastal sites.

* ] is found on moraines and sand at altitudes mostly below 60&nbsp;m, and is dominated almost entirely by ''Azorella selago'' cushions that often grow together to form continuous carpets which can be subject to burrowing by seabirds.

==== Outlook ====
One of the most rapidly changing physical settings in the subantarctic has been produced on Heard Island by a combination of rapid glacial recession and climate warming. The consequent increase in habitat available for plant colonisation, plus the coalescing of previously discrete ice-free areas, has led to marked changes in the vegetation of Heard Island in the last 20 years or so. Other species and vegetation communities found on subantarctic islands north of the ] now absent from the Heard Island flora may colonise the island if climate change produces more favourable conditions.

Some plant species are spreading and modifying the structure and composition of communities, some of which are also increasing in distribution. It is likely that further changes will occur, and possibly at an accelerated rate. Changes in population numbers of seal and seabird species are also expected to affect the vegetation by changing nutrient availability and disturbance through trampling.

One plant species on Heard Island, '']'', a cosmopolitan grass native to Europe, was possibly introduced by humans, though is more likely to have arrived naturally, probably by ]s from the Kerguelen Islands where it is widespread. It was initially recorded in 1987 in two recently deglaciated areas of Heard Island not previously exposed to human visitation, while being absent from known sites of past human habitation. Since 1987 ''Poa annua'' populations have increased in density and abundance within the original areas and have expanded beyond them. Expeditioner boot traffic during the Australian Antarctic program expedition in 1987 may be at least partly responsible for the spread, but it is probably mainly due to dispersal by wind and the movement of seabirds and seals around the island.

The potential for introducing additional plant species (including invasive species not previously found on subantarctic islands) by both natural and human-induced means is high. This is due to the combination of low species diversity and climatic amelioration. During the 2003/04 summer a new plant species, '']'', was recorded. Only one small specimen was found growing on a coastal river terrace that had experienced substantial development and expansion of vegetation over the past decade. The species has a circumantarctic distribution and occurs on many subantarctic islands.

=== Fungi ===
71 species of ] have been recorded from Heard Island and they are common on exposed rock, dominating the vegetation in some areas. As with plants, a 1980 survey of McDonald Island found lower diversity there, with just eight lichen species and a number of non-lichenized fungi recorded.

=== Fauna ===
The main indigenous animals are insects along with large populations of ocean-going ]s, ] and ]s.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra|id=an1104}}</ref>

==== Mammals ====
] at Heard Island came to an end in the late 19th century, after the seal populations there had either become locally extinct or reduced to levels too low to exploit economically. Since then the populations have generally increased and are protected. Seals breeding on Heard include the ], the ] and the ]. ]s visit regularly in winter to ] though they do not breed on the islands. ], ] and ]s are occasional visitors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heardisland.aq/nature/animals-of-himi/seals |title=Seals |accessdate=2011-02-23 |work=Heard Island and McDonald Islands: Seals |first= |last= |publisher=Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Australia |date= }}</ref>

==== Birds ====
{{Further|List of birds of Heard and McDonald Islands}}

Heard Island and the McDonald Islands are free from introduced predators and provide crucial breeding habitat in the middle of the vast Southern Ocean for a range of birds. The surrounding waters are important feeding areas for birds and some scavenging species also derive sustenance from their co-habitants on the islands. The islands have been identified by ] as an ] because they support very large numbers of nesting seabirds.<ref>BirdLife International. (2011). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Heard and McDonald Islands. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 2011-12-23.</ref>

Nineteen species of birds have been recorded as breeding on Heard Island<ref>Woehler, E.J. & Croxall, J.P. 1991. ‘Status and conservation of the seabirds of Heard Island and the McDonald Islands’, in Seabird – status and conservation: a supplement, ICBP Technical Publication 11. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge. pp 263–277.</ref> and the McDonald Islands, although recent volcanic activity at the McDonald Islands in the last decade is likely to have reduced vegetated and un-vegetated nesting areas.<ref name="Woehler, E.J. 2006">Woehler, E.J. (2006). ‘Status and trends of the seabirds of Heard Island, 2000’, in Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel. ed. Green, K. & Woehler, E. Surrey Beattie.</ref>

Penguins are by far the most abundant birds on the islands, with four breeding species present, comprising ], ], ] and ]s. The penguins mostly colonise the coastal tussock and grasslands of Heard Island, and have previously been recorded as occupying the flats and gullies on McDonald Island.

Other seabirds recorded as breeding at Heard Island include three species of albatross (], ] and ]es, ]s, ]s, four species of burrowing petrels ] and ]s, ] and ]s), ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and the ].<ref>Woehler, E.J. (2006) ‘Status and trends of the seabirds of Heard Island, 2000’, in Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel. ed. Green, K. & Woehler, E.(Surrey Beattie.</ref> Although not a true seabird, the Heard Island subspecies of the ] also breeds on the island. Both the shag and the sheathbill are endemic to Heard Island.

A further 28 seabird species are recorded as either non-breeding visitors or have been noted during 'at-sea surveys' of the islands. All recorded breeding species, other than the Heard Island Sheathbill, are listed marine species under the Australian Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Act (1999, four are listed as threatened species and five are listed migratory species. Under the EPBC Act a recovery plan has been made for albatrosses and giant petrels, which calls for ongoing population monitoring of the species found at HIMI, and at the time of preparing this Plan a draft recovery plan has also been made for the ] and Antarctic tern.

The recorded populations of some seabird species found in the Reserve have shown marked change. The King Penguin population is the best studied seabird species on Heard Island and has shown a dramatic increase since first recorded in 1947/48, with the population doubling every five years or so for more than 50 years.

A paper reviewing population data for the Black-browed Albatross between 1947 and 2000/01 suggested that the breeding population had increased to approximately three times that present in the late 1940s,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Woehler |first=E. J. |last2=Auman |first2=H. J. |last3=Riddle |first3=M. J. |year=2002 |title=Long-term population increase of black-browed albatrosses ''Thalassarche melanophrys'' at Heard Island, 1947/1948–2000/2001 |journal=Polar Biology |volume=25 |issue=12 |pages=921–927 |doi=10.1007/s00300-002-0436-1 }}</ref> although a Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CCAMLR) Working Group was cautious about the interpretation of the increasing trend given the disparate nature of the data,<ref>SC–CAMLR 2002. Report of the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment. Report of the Twenty-First Meeting of the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Hobart, Australia.</ref> as discussed in the paper. The discovery of a large, previously unknown, colony of Heard Shags in 2000/01 at Cape Pillar raised the known breeding population from 200 pairs to over 1000 pairs.<ref name="Woehler, E.J. 2006"/> On the other hand, the breeding population of Southern Giant Petrels decreased by more than 50% between the early 1950s and the late 1980s.

==== Terrestrial, freshwater and coastal invertebrates ====
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2012}}

Heard Island supports a relatively low number of terrestrial invertebrate species compared to other Southern Ocean islands, in parallel with the low species richness in the flora–that is, the island's isolation and limited ice-free area. Endemism is also generally low and the invertebrate fauna is exceptionally pristine with few, if any, (successful) human-induced introductions of alien species.
Two species, including the thrip ''Apterothrips apteris'' and the mite ''Tyrophagus putrescentiae'' are thought to be recent, possibly natural, introductions. An exotic species of earthworm ''Dendrodrilus rubidus'' was also collected in 1929 from a dump near Atlas Cove, and has recently been collected from a variety of habitats including wallows, streams and lakes on Heard Island.

The arthropods of Heard Island are comparatively well known with 54 species of mite and tick, one spider and eight springtails recorded. A study over summer at Atlas Cove in 1987/88 showed overall densities of up to 60 000 individual springtails per square metre in soil under stands of ''Pringlea antiscorbutica''. Despite a few recent surveys, the non-arthropod invertebrate fauna of Heard Island remain poorly known.

Beetles and flies dominate Heard Island's known insect fauna, which comprises up to 21 species of ectoparasite (associated with birds and seals) and up to 13 free-living species. Approximately half of the free-living insects are habitat-specific, while the remainder are generalists found in a variety of habitats, being associated with either supralittoral or intertidal zones, ''Poa cookii'' and ''Pringlea antiscorbutica'' stands, bryophytes, lichen-covered rocks, exposed rock faces or the underside of rocks. There is a pronounced seasonality to the insect fauna, with densities in winter months dropping to a small percentage (between
0.75%) of the summer maximum. Distinct differences in relative abundances of species between habitats has also been shown, including a negative relationship between altitude and body size for Heard Island weevils.

The fauna of the freshwater pools, lakes, streams and mires found in the coastal areas of Heard Island are broadly similar to those on other subantarctic islands of the southern Indian Ocean. Many species reported from Heard Island are found elsewhere. Some sampling of freshwater fauna has been undertaken during recent expeditions and records to date indicate that the freshwater fauna includes a species of Protista, a gastrotrich, two species of tardigrade, at least four species of nematode, 26 species of rotifer, six species of annelid and 14 species of arthropod.

As with the other shore biota, the marine macro-invertebrate fauna of Heard Island is similar in composition and local distribution to other subantarctic islands, although relatively little is known about the Heard Island communities compared with the well-studied fauna of some other islands in the subantarctic region, such as ] and Kerguelen.

Despite Heard Island's isolation, species richness is considered to be moderate, rather than depauperate, although the number of endemic species reported is low. The large macro-alga ''Durvillaea antarctica'' supports a diverse array of invertebrate taxa and may play an important role in transporting some of this fauna to Heard Island.

The rocky shores of Heard Island exhibit a clear demarcation between fauna of the lower kelp holdfast zone and the upper shore zone community, probably due to effects of desiccation, predation and freezing in the higher areas. The limpet ''Nacella kerguelensis'' is abundant in the lower part of the shore, being found on rock surfaces and on kelp holdfasts. Other common but less abundant species in this habitat include the chiton ''Hemiarthrum setulosum'' and the starfish ''Anasterias mawsoni''. The amphipod ''Hyale'' sp. and the isopod ''Cassidinopsis'' sp. are closely associated with the kelp. Above the kelp holdfast zone, the littornid ''Laevilitorina (Corneolitorina) heardensis'' and the bivalve mollusc ''Kidderia bicolor'' are found in well-sheltered situations, and another bivalve ''Gaimardia trapesina trapesina'' has been recorded from immediately above the holdfast zone. Oligochaetes are also abundant in areas supporting porous and spongy layers of algal mat.

==== Wetlands ====
Heard Island has a number of small wetland sites scattered around its coastal perimeter, including areas of wetland vegetation, lagoons or lagoon complexes, rocky shores and sandy shores, including the Elephant Spit. Many of these wetland areas are separated by active glaciers. There are also several short glacier-fed streams and glacial pools. Some wetland areas have been recorded on McDonald Island but, due to substantial volcanic activity since the last landing was made in 1980, their present extent is unknown.

The HIMI wetland is listed on the Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia and, in a recent analysis of Commonwealth-managed wetlands, was ranked highest for nomination under the ] as an internationally important wetland.

Six wetland types have been identified from HIMI covering approximately 1860 ha: coastal ‘pool complex’ (237 ha); inland ‘pool complex’ (105 ha); vegetated seeps mostly on recent glaciated areas (18 ha); glacial lagoons (1103 ha); non-glacial lagoons (97ha); Elephant Spit (300 ha) plus some coastal areas. On Heard Island, the majority of these types suites are found below 150m asl. The wetland vegetation occurs in the ‘wet mixed herbfield’ and ‘coastal biotic vegetation’ communities described above.

The wetlands provide important breeding and feeding habitat for a number of Antarctic and subantarctic wetland animals. These include the southern elephant seal and macaroni, gentoo, king and southern rockhopper penguins, considered to be wetland species under the Ramsar Convention. Non-wetland vegetated parts of the islands also support penguin and other seabird colonies.


== See also == == See also ==

Revision as of 00:28, 14 May 2013

Heard Island
Nickname: HIMI
Geography
LocationIndian Ocean
Coordinates53°06′00″S 73°31′00″E / 53.10000°S 73.51667°E / -53.10000; 73.51667
ArchipelagoHeard Island and McDonald Islands
Area368 km (142 sq mi)
Highest elevation2,745 m (9006 ft)
Administration
 Australia
Demographics
Population0
Pop. density0/km (0/sq mi)

The Heard Island and McDonald Islands (abbreviated as HIMI) are an Australian external territory and volcanic group of barren Antarctic islands, about two-thirds of the way from Madagascar to Antarctica. The group's overall size is 372 square kilometres (144 sq mi) in area and it has 101.9 km (63 mi) of coastline. Discovered in the mid-19th century, they have been territories of Australia since 1947 and contain the only two active volcanoes in Australian territory, the summit of one of which, Mawson Peak, is higher than any mountain on the Australian mainland. They lie on the Kerguelen Plateau in the Indian Ocean.

The islands are among the most remote places on Earth: They are located approximately 4,099 km (2,547 mi) southwest of Perth, Western Australia, 3,845 km (2,389 mi) southwest of Cape Leeuwin, Australia, 4,200 km (2,600 mi) southeast of South Africa, 3,830 km (2,380 mi) southeast of Madagascar, 1,630 km (1,010 mi) north of Antarctica, and 450 km (280 mi) southeast of Kerguelen. The islands are currently uninhabited.

See also

Notes

  1. CIA World Factbook. Accessed 2009.01.04.
  2. Commonwealth of Australia. "About Heard Island – Human Activities". Retrieved 21 October 2006.
  3. Cocky Flies, Geoscience Australia
  4. Distance Between Cities Places On Map Distance Calculator

References

Further reading

  • Australian Government. (2005) "Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan". Australian Antarctic Division: Kingston (Tas). ISBN 1-876934-08-5.
  • Green, Ken and Woehler Eric. (2006) Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons.
  • Scholes, Arthur. (1949) Fourteen men; story of the Australian Antarctic Expedition to Heard Island. Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire.
  • Smith, Jeremy. (1986) Specks in the Southern Ocean. Armidale: University of New England Press. ISBN 0-85834-615-X

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53°00′S 73°30′E / 53.000°S 73.500°E / -53.000; 73.500
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