| Revision as of 21:35, 6 June 2013 view source208.255.105.61 (talk) →Military use← Previous edit | Revision as of 23:54, 7 June 2013 view source The Meth Expert (talk | contribs)2 edits I make the change.Tag: blankingNext edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| Meth makes you happy. | |||
| {{Redirect4|Meth|Tik}} | |||
| It may be bad, but you happy. | |||
| {{pp-pc1}} | |||
| Meth illegal. | |||
| {{refimprove|date=May 2013}} | |||
| Do not buy if want to stay out jail. | |||
| {{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}{{Drugbox | |||
| But makes you happy. | |||
| | Verifiedfields = changed | |||
| Smoke it. | |||
| | Watchedfields = changed | |||
| Eat it. | |||
| | verifiedrevid = 477169898 | |||
| Snort it. | |||
| | IUPAC_name = ''N''-methyl-1-phenylpropan-2-amine | |||
| Shove it up you pee hole. | |||
| | image = Methamphetamine.svg | |||
| Do whatever happy. | |||
| | image2 = Methamphetamine-3d-CPK.png | width=200 | |||
| Makes happy. | |||
| | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | |||
| The End. | |||
| | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | |||
| <ref>My Dealer</ref> | |||
| | UNII = 44RAL3456C | |||
| | InChI = 1/C10H15N/c1-9(11-2)8-10-6-4-3-5-7-10/h3-7,9,11H,8H2,1-2H3 | |||
| | InChIKey = MYWUZJCMWCOHBA-UHFFFAOYAT | |||
| | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}} | |||
| | StdInChI = 1S/C10H15N/c1-9(11-2)8-10-6-4-3-5-7-10/h3-7,9,11H,8H2,1-2H3 | |||
| | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}} | |||
| | StdInChIKey = MYWUZJCMWCOHBA-UHFFFAOYSA-N | |||
| | CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}} | |||
| | CAS_number=537-46-2 | |||
| | ATC_prefix=N06 | |||
| | ATC_suffix=BA03 | |||
| | ATC_supplemental= | |||
| | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | |||
| | ChEBI = 6809 | |||
| | PubChem=1206 | |||
| | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | |||
| | ChEMBL = 1201201 | |||
| | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|changed|chemspider}} | |||
| | ChemSpiderID = 1169 | |||
| | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | |||
| | DrugBank=DB01577 | |||
| | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | |||
| | KEGG = D08187 | |||
| | C=10 | H=15 | N=1 | |||
| | molecular_weight = 149.2337 g/mol | |||
| | smiles = N(C(Cc1ccccc1)C)C | |||
| | synonyms = Desoxyephedrine<br>Methamfetamine<br>Pervitin<br>Anadrex<br>Methedrine<br>Methylamphetamine<br>Syndrox<br>Desoxyn | |||
| | bioavailability= 62.7% oral; 79% nasal; 90.3% smoked; 99% rectally; 100% IV | |||
| | metabolism = ] | |||
| | elimination_half-life= 9–12 hours<ref name="Schep"/> | |||
| | excretion = ] | |||
| | pregnancy_AU = | |||
| | pregnancy_US = C | |||
| | pregnancy_category = | |||
| | dependency_liability = High | |||
| | legal_AU = S8 | |||
| | legal_CA = Schedule I | |||
| | legal_UK = | |||
| | legal_US = Schedule II | |||
| | legal_status = Class A<small>(])</small><br>Schedule 5<small>(])</small><br>Injectable: Class A, Oral: A<small>(])</small> | |||
| | routes_of_administration= ''Medical'': Ingestion<br><br>''Recreational'': Ingestion, Intravenous, Insufflation, Inhalation, Suppository | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Methamphetamine''' (]) {{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɛ|θ|æ|m|ˈ|f|ɛ|t|əm|iː|n}}, also known as '''metamfetamine''' (]),<ref name="EMCDDA profile">{{cite web |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/methamphetamine |title=Methamphetamine |date=16 August 2010 |work=Drug profiles |publisher=] (EMCDDA) |accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> '''meth''', '''ice''', '''clouds''' <ref name="Ice facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/ice |title=Ice facts |date=18 January 2012 |work=Drug facts |publisher=] (ADF) |accessdate=23 November 2012}}</ref> '''crystal''',<ref name="covey">{{cite book|last=Covey|first=Herbert C. |title=The Methamphetamine Crisis: Strategies to Save Addicts, Families, And Communities |year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0-275-99322-1|page=9}}</ref> '''glass''',<ref name="covey" /> '''tik''',<ref>{{cite book|title=Amphetamines: Advances in Research and Application: 2011 Edition|year=2012|publisher=ScholarlyEditions|isbn=1-464-92805-3|page=2}}</ref> '''''N''-methylamphetamine''', '''methylamphetamine''', and '''desoxyephedrine''', is a ] of the ] and ] ] of ]. | |||
| Methamphetamine occurs in two ]s, ] and ]; dextromethamphetamine possesses the well-known psychostimulant effects of the drug, while ] is ]-inactive. Although rarely prescribed,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Castle | first1 = L | last2 = Aubert | first2 = RE | last3 = Verbrugge | first3 = RR | last4 = Khalid | first4 = M | last5 = Epstein | first5 = RS | title = Trends in medication treatment for ADHD | journal = Journal of Attention Disorders | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 335–342 | month = May | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1177/1087054707299597 | pmid = 17449832 }}</ref> methamphetamine hydrochloride is approved by the U.S. ] (FDA) for the treatment of ] and ] under the trade name '''Desoxyn'''. | |||
| Illicitly, methamphetamine may be sold either as pure dextromethamphetamine or in a ] mixture. Both dextromethamphetamine and racemic methamphetamine are ] controlled substances in the United States, and similarly the production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many ]s. Internationally, methamphetamine has been placed in Schedule II of the ] ] treaty.<ref name=incb>{{cite web|url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf |title=List of psychotropic substances under international control |accessdate=2010-05-10 |format=PDF |publisher=International Narcotics Control Board }}</ref> | |||
| Contrary to popular misconception, methamphetamine in both powder and crystal form is a ] ]. The ] form of methamphetamine (as well as amphetamine) is an oily liquid.<ref>http://www.oehha.org/public_info/pdf/TSD%20Methamphetamine%20Meth%20Labs%2010'8'03.pdf</ref> The misconception started with the fact that ] and ] are injected or snorted as salts, but they are smoked in freebase form. See also: ]. | |||
| In low dosages, methamphetamine can increase alertness, concentration, and energy in fatigued individuals. In higher doses, it can induce mania with accompanying ], feelings of self-esteem and increased ].<ref name="isbn1-59385-174-X">{{Cite book|author=Mack, Avram H.; Frances, Richard J.; Miller, Sheldon I. |title=Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders, Third Edition |publisher=The Guilford Press |location=New York |year=2005 |page= 207|isbn=1-59385-174-X}}</ref><ref name="Logan">B. K. Logan. ''Methamphetamine – Effects on Human Performance and Behavior''. Forensic Science Review, Vol. 14, no. 1/2 (2002), p. 142 {{Dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> Methamphetamine has a high potential for ] and ], activating the ] by triggering a ] of ] in the brain characterized as Amphetamine/]. | |||
| Chronic abuse may also lead to ], a result of methamphetamine-induced ] to ] ]. Post-withdrawal syndrome can persist beyond the withdrawal period for months, and sometimes up to a year.<ref name="Cruickshank-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cruickshank | first1 = CC. | last2 = Dyer | first2 = KR. | title = A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine. | journal = Addiction | volume = 104 | issue = 7 | pages = 1085–99 | month = Jul | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02564.x | pmid = 19426289 }}</ref> In addition to psychological harm, physical harm – primarily consisting of ] damage – may occur with chronic use or acute overdose.<ref name="Darke-2008"/> | |||
| == Uses == | |||
| Methamphetamine has found use as both a medicinal and recreational drug. | |||
| === Medical use === | |||
| ] | |||
| In United States, Methamphetamine has been approved by the ] (FDA) in treating ] and exogenous obesity (obesity originating from factors outside of the patient's control) in both adults and children.<ref name="desoxyn">{{cite web|url=http://www.rxlist.com/desoxyn-drug.htm |title=Desoxyn (Methamphetamine Hydrochloride) Drug Information: User Reviews, Side Effects, Drug Interactions and Dosage at |publisher=Rxlist.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| Methamphetamine is a ] drug in the United States and is sold under the name ''Desoxyn'' trademarked by the Danish pharmaceutical company ].<ref name="desoxyn" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lundbeck.com/us/products/cns-products/desoxyn|title=Desoxyn| publisher=Lundbeck| accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> | |||
| ''Desoxyn'' may be prescribed ] for the treatment of ] and ].<ref name="Mitler MM, Hajdukovic R, Erman MK 1993 306–17"/> | |||
| === Recreational use === | |||
| Methamphetamine is used as a recreational drug for its euphoric and stimulant properties. | |||
| == Effects == | |||
| === Physical === | |||
| Physical effects can include ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] (leading to "]"), ], ] heartbeat, ] heartbeat, ],<ref>{{Cite book| last = Mohler | coauthors = Townsend | title = Advanced Therapy In Hypertension And Vascular Disease | page = 469 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=sCgURxhCJ-8C&pg=PA469 | isbn = 978-1-55009-318-6 | publisher = PMPH-USA | date = 2006-04-01 }}</ref> ], ] blood pressure, ] blood pressure, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]s, dry and/or itchy skin, ], ], and – with chronic and/or high doses – ],<ref name="CenTF2">{{cite web| url=http://www.iir.com/centf/guide.htm#Are%20there%20any%20effective%20treatments%20for%20methamphetamine%20abusers |title=Are there any effective treatments for methamphetamine abusers?|year=2009|work=The Methamphetamine Problem: Question-and-Answer Guide|publisher=Institute for Intergovernmental Research|accessdate=2009-08-13 |location=Tallahassee}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.montana.edu/wwwai/imsd/rezmeth/effmethod.htm |title=Physiological Effects of a Methamphetamine Overdose | Montana State University |publisher=Montana.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> ],<ref name="Erowid"/> and ].<ref name="Erowid">{{cite web|author=|url=http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/meth/meth_effects.shtml |title=Erowid Methamphetamine Vault: Effects |publisher=Erowid.org |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref><ref name="DartToxicology">{{Cite book| last = Dart | first = Richard | title = Medical Toxicology | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | page = 1074 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=BfdighlyGiwC&pg=PA1074 | isbn = 978-0-7817-2845-4 | year = 2004 }}</ref><ref name="CenTF1">{{cite web| url=http://www.iir.com/centf/guide.htm#What%20are%20the%20signs%20that%20a%20person%20may%20be%20using%20methamphetamine |title=What are the signs that a person may be using methamphetamine?|year=2009|work=The Methamphetamine Problem: Question-and-Answer Guide|publisher=Institute for Intergovernmental Research|accessdate=2009-08-13 |location=Tallahassee}}</ref><ref name="kci">{{cite web|url=http://www.kci.org/meth_info/sites/meth_facts2.htm |title=Methamphetamine Effects: Including Long Term|publisher= KCI — The Anti-Meth Site |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref><ref name="Drugs. com">{{cite web|url=http://www.drugs.com/mtm/methamphetamine.html |title=Methamphetamine medical facts from |publisher=Drugs.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref><ref name="cesar.umd. edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/meth.asp |title=Methamphetamine | Center for Substance Abuse Research (CESAR) |publisher=Cesar.umd.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| === Psychological === | |||
| Psychological effects can include euphoria, anxiety, increased libido, alertness, concentration, increased energy, increased self-esteem, self-confidence, sociability, irritability, aggressiveness, ], ], ] (compulsive skin picking), ], delusions of grandiosity, ], excessive feelings of ] and invincibility, repetitive and ] behaviors, ], and – with chronic use and/or high doses – amphetamine ].<ref name="Erowid"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec15/ch198/ch198k.html |title=Amphetamines: Drug Use and Dependence | Merck Manual Professional |publisher=Merck.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| === Withdrawal === | |||
| Withdrawal symptoms of methamphetamine primarily consist of ], ], and increased ]. Symptoms may last for days with occasional use and weeks or months with chronic use, with severity dependent on the length of time and the amount of methamphetamine used. Withdrawal symptoms may also include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], deep ], and ].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=McGregor C, Srisurapanont M, Jittiwutikarn J, Laobhripatr S, Wongtan T, White JM |title=The nature, time course and severity of methamphetamine withdrawal |journal=Addiction |volume=100 |issue=9 |pages=1320–9 |year=2005 |month=September |pmid=16128721 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01160.x}}</ref> | |||
| === Long-term === | |||
| Methamphetamine use has a high association with ] and ] as well as serious ], amphetamine ], ], and violent behaviors. Methamphetamine also has a very high ] risk.<ref name="Darke-2008">{{Cite journal | last1 = Darke | first1 = S. | last2 = Kaye | first2 = S. | last3 = McKetin | first3 = R. | last4 = Duflou | first4 = J. | title = Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use | journal = Drug Alcohol Rev | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 253–62 | month = May | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1080/09595230801923702 | pmid = 18368606 }}</ref> | |||
| Methamphetamine is not directly ] but long-term use can have neurotoxic side-effects. Its use is associated with an increased risk of ] due to the fact that uncontrolled dopamine release is neurotoxic.<ref name="Cruickshank-2009"/><ref name="Thrash-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Thrash | first1 = B. | last2 = Thiruchelvan | first2 = K. | last3 = Ahuja | first3 = M. | last4 = Suppiramaniam | first4 = V. | last5 = Dhanasekaran | first5 = M. | title = Methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity: the road to Parkinson's disease | url = http://www.if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2009/6_966.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Pharmacol Rep | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 966–77 | month = | year = 2009| doi = | pmid = 20081231 }}</ref> Long-term dopamine upregulation occurring as a result of Methamphetamine abuse can cause neurotoxicity, which is believed to be responsible for causing persisting cognitive deficits, such as ], impaired attention, and decreased ]. Similar to the neurotoxic effects on the dopamine system, methamphetamine can also result in neurotoxicity to the ] system.<ref name="pmid19328213">{{cite journal |last=Krasnova |first=I.N. | last2=Cadet |first2 = J.L. |title=Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death |journal=Brain Res Rev |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=379–407 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19328213 |pmc=2731235 |doi=10.1016/j. brainresrev.2009.03.002 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| As a result of methamphetamine-induced ] to ] ], chronic abuse may also lead to ] which persist beyond the withdrawal period for months, and even up to a year.<ref name="Cruickshank-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cruickshank | first1 = CC. | last2 = Dyer | first2 = KR. | title = A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine. | journal = Addiction | volume = 104 | issue = 7 | pages = 1085–99 | month = Jul | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02564.x | pmid = 19426289 }}</ref> A study performed on female Japanese prison inmates suffering from methamphetamine addiction showed that 49% experienced "flashbacks" afterward and 21% experienced a ] resembling ] which persisted for longer than six months post-methamphetamine use; this ] could be resistant to traditional treatment.<ref name="Barr-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Barr | first1 = AM. | last2 = Panenka | first2 = WJ. | last3 = MacEwan | first3 = GW. | last4 = Thornton | first4 = AE. | last5 = Lang | first5 = DJ. | last6 = Honer | first6 = WG. | last7 = Lecomte | first7 = T. | title = The need for speed: an update on methamphetamine addiction | journal = J Psychiatry Neurosci | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 301–13 | month = Sep | year = 2006 | pmid = 16951733 | pmc = 1557685 }}</ref> Other studies in Japan show that those who experience methamphetamine-induced psychosis are much more likely to experience psychotic symptoms again if they use methamphetamine.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} In addition to psychological harm, physical harm – primarily consisting of ] damage – may occur with chronic use or acute overdose.<ref name="Darke-2008"/> | |||
| === Tolerance === | |||
| As with other amphetamines, tolerance to methamphetamine is not completely understood but is known to be sufficiently complex that it cannot be explained by any single mechanism. The extent of tolerance and the rate at which it develops vary widely between individuals, and even within one person. It is highly dependent on dosage, duration of use, and frequency of administration. Tolerance to the awakening effect of amphetamines does not readily develop, making them suitable for the treatment of ].<ref name="GhodseBehavior">{{Cite book| last = Ghodse | first = Hamid | title = Drugs and Addictive Behaviour: A Guide to Treatment | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 114 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=3WF79shLxB4C&lpg=PA114&pg=PA114#v=onepage | isbn = 978-0-521-00001-7 | date = 2002-08-15 }}</ref> | |||
| Short-term tolerance can be caused by depleted levels of ] within the ]s available for release into the ] following subsequent reuse (]). Short-term tolerance typically lasts until neurotransmitter levels are fully replenished; because of the toxic effects on dopaminergic neurons, this can be greater than 2–3 days. Prolonged overstimulation of ] caused by methamphetamine may eventually cause the receptors to ] in order to compensate for increased levels of ] within the synaptic cleft.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bennett |first=B.A. |last2=Hollingsworth| first2=C.K. |last3=Martin |first3 = R.S. |last4=Harp |first4= J.J. |title=Methamphetamine-induced alterations in dopamine transporter function |journal=Brain Research |volume=782 |issue=1-2 |pages=219–27 |year=1998 |month=January |pmid=9519266|doi=10.1016/S0006-8993(97)01281-X}}</ref> To compensate, larger quantities of the drug are needed in order to achieve the same level of effects. | |||
| ] or sensitization can also occur.<ref name="GhodseBehavior"/> The effect is well established, but the mechanism is not well understood. | |||
| == Adverse effects == | |||
| === Addiction === | |||
| Methamphetamine is highly ].<ref>. Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.</ref> While the withdrawal itself may not be dangerous, ] are common with heavy use and ] is common. | |||
| Methamphetamine-induced hyperstimulation of pleasure pathways can lead to ] months after use has been discontinued. Investigation of treatments targeting ] signalling such as ], or psychological treatments that raise hedonic tone, such as ] therapy, have been suggested.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Anhedonia and Amotivation in Psychiatric Outpatients with Fully Remitted Stimulant Use Disorder|author=Adam M. Leventhal|journal=Am J Addict|year=2008|volume=17|issue=3|pages=218–223|pmc=2650808|pmid=18463999| doi=10.1080/10550490802019774}}</ref> It is possible that daily administration of the amino acids <small>L</small>-] and ]/] can aid in the recovery process by making it easier for the body to reverse the depletion of dopamine, ], and ]. {{citation needed|date=January 2012}} Although studies involving the use of these amino acids have shown some success, this method of recovery has not been shown to be consistently effective. {{citation needed|date=January 2012}} | |||
| It is shown that taking ] prior to using methamphetamine may help reduce acute toxicity to the brain, as rats given the human equivalent of 5–10 grams of ascorbic acid 30 minutes prior to methamphetamine dosage had toxicity mediated,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Wagner GC, Carelli RM, Jarvis MF|title=Pretreatment with ascorbic acid attenuates the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine in rats|journal=Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=221–8|year=1985 |month=February |pmid=3992009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Wagner GC, Carelli RM, Jarvis MF|title=Ascorbic acid reduces the dopamine depletion induced by methamphetamine and the 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium ion |journal=Neuropharmacology |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=559–61 |year=1986 |month=May|pmid=3488515 |doi=10.1016/0028-3908(86)90184-X}}</ref> yet this will likely be of little avail in solving the other serious behavioral problems associated with methamphetamine use and addiction that many users experience. Large doses of ascorbic acid also lower urinary ], reducing methamphetamine's elimination ] and thus decreasing the duration of its actions.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oyler JM, Cone EJ, Joseph RE, Moolchan ET, Huestis MA |title=Duration of detectable methamphetamine and amphetamine excretion in urine after controlled oral administration of methamphetamine to humans |journal=Clinical Chemistry|volume=48 |issue=10 |pages=1703–14 |year=2002 |month=October |pmid=12324487|url=http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12324487}}</ref> | |||
| To combat addiction, doctors are beginning to use other forms of ] such as ], the dextrorotatory (right-handed) isomer of the ] molecule, to break the addiction cycle in a method similar to the use of ] in the treatment of ] addicts. There are no publicly available drugs comparable to ], which blocks opiate receptors and is therefore used in treating ] dependence, for use with methamphetamine problems.<ref>The Ice Age (See Below)</ref> However, experiments with some monoamine reuptake inhibitors such as ] have been successful in blocking the action of methamphetamine.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Carroll FI, Rice KC |title=Neurochemical neutralization of methamphetamine with high-affinity nonselective inhibitors of biogenic amine transporters: a pharmacological strategy for treating stimulant abuse |journal=Synapse |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=222–7 |year=2000 |month=March |pmid=10657029|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1098-2396(20000301)35:3<222::AID-SYN7>3.0.CO;2-K}}</ref> There are studies indicating that ], bupropion and imipramine may reduce craving and improve adherence to treatment.<ref name="pmid17990840">{{Cite journal|author=Winslow BT, Voorhees KI, Pehl KA |title=Methamphetamine abuse|journal=American Family Physician |volume=76 |issue=8 |pages=1169–74 |year=2007 |pmid=17990840 |doi=}}</ref> Research has also suggested that ] can help addicts quit methamphetamine use,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Grabowski J, Shearer J, Merrill J, Negus SS |title=Agonist-like, replacement pharmacotherapy for stimulant abuse and dependence |journal=Addictive Behaviors |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1439–64 |year=2004|month=September |pmid=15345275 |doi=10.1016/j. addbeh.2004.06.018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Sleep medicine 'can help ice addicts quit' | url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/12/01/2107027.htm |accessdate = 2007-12-02}}</ref> as can ].<ref>{{Cite web| title = Medication can help recovering meth addicts stay sober, study finds | url = http://corporate.uvahealth.com/news-room/archives/medication-can-help-recovering-meth-addicts-stay-sober-study-finds | accessdate = 2012-06-13}}</ref> | |||
| Methamphetamine addiction is one of the most difficult forms of addictions to treat. ], ], and ] have been employed to treat post-withdrawal cravings, although the success rate is low. ] is somewhat more successful, but this is a Class IV scheduled drug. ] has been used with success in Europe, where it is a Class I drug and available only for scientific research. ] has been reported useful in some small-population studies.<ref>AJ Giannini. ''Drugs of Abuse—Second Edition''. Los Angeles, Practice Management Information Company, 1997.</ref> | |||
| As the ] ] is a constitutional isomer of methamphetamine, it has been suggested that it may be effective in treating methamphetamine addiction. Phentermine is a ] stimulant that acts on dopamine and norepinephrine. When comparing (+)-amphetamine, (+/-)-ephedrine, and phentermine, one key difference among the three drugs is their selectivity for norepinephrine (NE) release vs. dopamine (DA) release. The NE/DA selectivity ratios for these drugs as determined ''in vitro'' are (+/-)-ephedrine (18.6) > phentermine (6.7) > (+)-amphetamine (3.5).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amphetamines.com/misc/baboon.html |title=Noradrenergic and dopaminergic effects of (+)-amphetamine-like stimulants in the baboon Papio anubis|publisher=Amphetamines.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| Abrupt interruption of chronic methamphetamine use results in the withdrawal syndrome in almost 90% of the cases. {{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} | |||
| The mental depression associated with methamphetamine withdrawal lasts longer and is more severe than that of ] withdrawal.<ref name="pmid17990840" /> | |||
| === Meth mouth === | |||
| {{Main|Meth mouth}} | |||
| Methamphetamine users and addicts may lose their teeth abnormally quickly, a condition informally known as ]. According to the ], meth mouth "is probably caused by a combination of drug-induced psychological and physiological changes resulting in ] (dry mouth), extended periods of poor ], frequent consumption of high-calorie, carbonated beverages and ] (teeth grinding and clenching)". Some reports have also speculated that the caustic nature of the drug is a contributing factor. Methamphetamine also has the potential to cause excessive cigarette smoking for users already smoking. This combined with the methamphetamine can perpetuate the "meth mouth".<ref name="ADA">{{cite web|url=http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp |title=Methamphetamine Use (Meth Mouth)|accessdate=2006-12-16 |publisher=American Dental Association |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20080601035323/http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp |archivedate = 2008-06-01}}</ref><ref name="snorting">{{cite web|url=http://www.mappsd.org/Meth%20Mouth.htm |title=Meth Mouth | Meth awareness and prevention project of South Dakota |publisher=Mappsd.org |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> Similar, though far less severe, symptoms have been reported in clinical use of regular amphetamine, where effects are not exacerbated by extended periods of poor oral hygiene.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hasan AA, Ciancio S |title=Relationship between amphetamine ingestion and gingival enlargement |journal=Pediatric Dentistry |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=396–400 |year=2004|pmid=15460293 |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=0164-1263&volume=26&issue=5&spage=396&aulast=Hasan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shaner JW |title=Caries associated with methamphetamine abuse |journal=The Journal of the Michigan Dental Association |volume=84 |issue=9 |pages=42–7 |year=2002 |month=September|pmid=12271905}}</ref> | |||
| === Public health issues === | |||
| ] | |||
| Short-term exposure to high concentrations of chemical vapors that may exist in black market methamphetamine laboratories can cause severe health problems or even result in death. Exposure to these substances can occur from volatile air emissions, spills, fires, and explosions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5414a3.htm |title=Acute Public Health Consequences of Methamphetamine Laboratories | Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) |publisher=Cdc.gov |date=|accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> Such methamphetamine labs are often discovered when fire fighters respond to a blaze. Methamphetamine cooks, their families, and first responders are at highest risk of acute health effects from chemical exposure, including lung damage and chemical burns to the body. Following a seizure of a methamphetamine lab, there is often a low exposure risk to chemical residues, however this contamination should be sanitized. Chemical residues and lab wastes that are left behind at a former methamphetamine lab can result in severe health problems for people who use the property, therefore local health departments should thoroughly assess the property for hazards prior to allowing it to be reinhabited, especially by children. Those seeking home ownership in heavy meth use areas should be especially careful while house hunting and be sure to have properties inspected before purchasing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://realestate.msn.com/article.aspx?cp-documentid=23154768 |title=How to avoid buying a meth house |accessdate=2011-08-16|publisher= MSN Real Estate}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/clandestine120704HC-WI/clandestine120704HC-WI.pdf |title=Health Consultation |format=PDF |accessdate=2011-01-09 |publisher= Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR)}}</ref> | |||
| === Pregnancy and breastfeeding === | |||
| Methamphetamine present in a mother's ] passes through the ] to a ], and is also secreted into ]. Infants born to methamphetamine-abusing mothers were found to have a significantly smaller ] age-adjusted head circumference and birth weight measurements. Methamphetamine exposure was also associated with ] symptoms of agitation, vomiting and ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chomchai C, Na Manorom N, Watanarungsan P, Yossuck P, Chomchai S|pmid=15272773 |title=Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy and its health impact on neonates born at Siriraj Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand. | PubMed|publisher=|date=2010-12-08|volume=35|issue=1|journal=Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health|pages=228–31}}</ref> This withdrawal syndrome is relatively mild and only requires medical intervention in approximately 4% of cases.<ref name="pmid17990840"/> | |||
| === Risk of sexually transmitted disease === | |||
| {{See also|Sexually transmitted disease|Sex and drugs|Party and play}} | |||
| Men who use methamphetamine, ], ], and ], are twice as likely to have unprotected sex than those who do not use such drugs, according to British research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-1974.html|title=Up to 20 per cent of gay men have tried crystal meth |publisher=PinkNews |date=2006-07-14|accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> American ] ] performed an analysis using data collected from community-based participants among gay and bisexual men to examine the associations between their methamphetamine use and sexual risk taking behaviors. Methamphetamine use was found to be related to higher frequencies of unprotected sexual intercourse in both HIV-positive and unknown casual partners in the study population. The association between methamphetamine use and unprotected acts were also more pronounced in HIV-positive participants. These findings suggested that methamphetamine use and engagement in unprotected anal intercourse are co-occurring risk behaviors that potentially heighten the risk of HIV transmission among gay and bisexual men.<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| | author= Halkitis PN, Pandey Mukherjee P, Palamar JJ | |||
| | title=Longitudinal Modeling of Methamphetamine Use and Sexual Risk Behaviors in Gay and Bisexual Men | |||
| | journal=AIDS and Behavior | |||
| | volume=13 | |||
| | issue=4 | |||
| | pages=783–791 | |||
| | year=2008 | |||
| | pmid=18661225 | |||
| | doi=10.1007/s10461-008-9432-y | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| Methamphetamine allows users of both sexes to engage in prolonged sexual activity, which may cause genital sores and abrasions. Methamphetamine can also cause sores and abrasions in the mouth via bruxism (teeth clenching and grinding), which can turn typically low-risk sex acts, such as oral sex, into high-risk sexual activity.<ref>{{cite web|author=Patrick Moore|url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-06-14/people/we-are-not-ok/ |title=We Are Not OK|publisher=VillageVoice |date=2005-06-14 |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users ], blood-borne diseases, such as ] or ], can be transmitted. The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug injection users.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.med.unsw.edu.au/NDARCWeb.nsf/resources/NDLERF_Methamphetamine/$file/NDLERF+USE+AND+HEALTH.pdf|title=Methamphetamine Use and Health | UNSW: The University of New South Wales – Faculty of Medicine|format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| == Pharmacokinetics == | |||
| ] terminal to the left, and the dopaminergic terminal in presence of amphetamines to the right. Note the reverse action of the dopamine transporter (DAT), the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) and the decrease of the standard vesicular neurotransmitter efflux. Amphetamine allows dopamine to transit in both directions (blue & red arrows) from the terminal, unlike ] (such as ]) which block dopamine reentry at both the terminal and at the reuptake pump, whereas ] allow reentries and exits from both.]] | |||
| Following oral administration, methamphetamine is readily absorbed into the bloodstream, with peak plasma concentrations achieved in approximately 3.13 to 6.3 hours post ingestion. The amphetamine metabolite peaks at 10 to 24 hours.<ref name="Schep"/> Methamphetamine is also well absorbed following inhalation and following intranasal administration.<ref name="Schep"/> It is ] to most parts of the body. Methamphetamine is known to produce central effects similar to the other ], but at smaller doses, with fewer ].<ref name="turningpoint.org. au">{{cite web|url=http://www.turningpoint.org.au/Media-Centre/centrepubs/GetFile.axd?oid=ed69cdd3-30b8-421d-a603-a2981a59114f |title=Properties and effects of methamphetamine | Turning Point Alcohol and Drug Centre |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> Methamphetamine's high ] also allows it to cross the ] faster than other stimulants, where it is more stable against degradation by ] (MAO).<ref name="Schep"/> | |||
| Methamphetamine is metabolized in the liver with the main metabolites being amphetamine (active) and 4-hydroxymethamphetamine (]); other minor metabolites include ], ], and 4-hydroxynorephedrine.<ref name="Schep"/><ref name=pmid12507968>{{Cite journal|author=Schepers RJ, Oyler JM, Joseph RE, Cone EJ, Moolchan ET, Huestis MA |title=Methamphetamine and amphetamine pharmacokinetics in oral fluid and plasma after controlled oral methamphetamine administration to human volunteers |journal=Clinical Chemistry |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=121–32 |year=2003 |month=January |pmid=12507968 |doi=10.1373/49.1.121}}</ref><ref name="meth_metabolites_quant">{{Cite journal|author=Hendrickson H, Laurenzana E, Owens SM |title=Quantitative determination of total methamphetamine and active metabolites in rat tissue by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection |journal=The AAPS Journal |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=E709–17 |year=2006 |pmid=17233534 |pmc=2751367 |doi=10.1208/aapsj080480}}</ref> Other drugs metabolized to amphetamine and methamphetamine include ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marsel J, Döring G, Remberg G, Spiteller G |title=Methamphetamine--a metabolite of the anorectics Benzphetamine and Furfenorex |journal=Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin. Journal of legal medicine |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=245–50 |year=1972 |month= |pmid=5084766 |doi=10.1007/BF02079690}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Greenhill B, Valtier S, Cody JT |title=Metabolic profile of amphetamine and methamphetamine following administration of the drug famprofazone |journal=Journal of analytical toxicology |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=479–84 |year=2003 |month= |pmid=14607003 |doi=}}</ref> ] (marketed as Deprenyl, EMSAM, and others) is metabolized into the less active L-isomer of amphetamine and the inactive L-isomer of methamphetamine.<ref name="Schep"/> Although only the D-Isomer of selegiline will metabolize into active metabolites, both isomers may cause a positive result for methamphetamine and amphetamine on a drug test, in certain cases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/research/job185drugs/methamphetamine.htm |title=Drugs and Human Performance FACT SHEETS – Methamphetamine (and amphetamine) | National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) |publisher=Nhtsa.gov |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| It is excreted by the kidneys, with the rate of excretion into the urine heavily influenced by urinary pH. Between 30-54% of an oral dose is excreted in urine as unchanged methamphetamine and 10-23% as unchanged amphetamine. Following an intravenous dose, 45% is excreted as unchanged parent drug and 7% amphetamine.<ref> {{Dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref> The ] of methamphetamine is variable with a mean value of between 9 and 12 hours.<ref name="Schep">{{cite journal |author=Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Beasley DM |title=The clinical toxicology of metamfetamine |journal=Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) |volume=48 |issue=7 |pages=675–94 |year=2010 |month=August |pmid=20849327 |doi=10.3109/15563650.2010.516752|issn=1556-3650}}</ref> | |||
| === Detection in biological fluids === | |||
| Methamphetamine and amphetamine are often measured in urine, sweat or saliva as part of a drug-abuse testing program, in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims, or in whole blood to assist in a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a case of sudden death. Chiral techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug, whether obtained legally (via prescription) or illicitly, or possibly as a result of formation from a prodrug such as famprofazone or selegiline. Chiral separation is needed to assess the possible contribution of l-methamphetamine (Vicks Inhaler) toward a positive test result.<ref>de la Torre R, Farré M, Navarro M, Pacifici R, Zuccaro P, Pichini S. Clinical pharmacokinetics of amphetamine and related substances: monitoring in conventional and non-conventional matrices. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 43: 157-185, 2004.</ref><ref>Paul BD, Jemionek J, Lesser D, Jacobs A, Searles DA. Enantiomeric separation and quantitation of (+/-)-amphetamine, (+/-)-methamphetamine, (+/-)-MDA, (+/-)-MDMA, and (+/-)-MDEA in urine specimens by GC-EI-MS after derivatization with (R)-(-)- or (S)-(+)-alpha-methoxy-alpha-(trifluoromethy)phenylacetyl chloride (MTPA). J. Anal. Toxicol. 28: 449-455, 2004.</ref><ref>R. Baselt, ''Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man'', 9th edition, Biomedical Publications, Seal Beach, CA, 2011, pp. 1027-1030.</ref> In 2011, researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of methamphetamine and other drugs in urine.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} Similar claims have been made in web forums on that topic.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Venkatratnam|first=Abhishek|coauthors=Nathan H. Lents|title=Zinc Reduces the Detection of Cocaine, Methamphetamine, and THC by ELISA Urine Testing|journal=Journal of Analytical Toxicology|year=2011|month=July|volume=35|issue=6|pages=333–340|doi=10.1093/anatox/35.6.333|url=http://jat.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/6/333.short|pmid=21740689}}</ref> | |||
| == Pharmacology == | |||
| A member of the family of ]s, methamphetamine is ], with two ]s, ] and ].<ref name="Schep"/> The levorotatory form, called ], is an ] used in ]s for nasal decongestion. Levomethamphetamine (a ] derivative) does not possess any significant central nervous system activity or ] properties. This article deals only with the dextrorotatory form, called dextromethamphetamine, and the ] form. | |||
| Methamphetamine is a potent central nervous system ] that affects neurochemical mechanisms responsible for regulating heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, appetite, attention, mood and emotional responses associated with alertness or alarming conditions.<ref name="Schep"/> The acute physical effects of the drug closely resemble the physiological and psychological effects of an ]-provoked ], including increased heart rate and blood pressure, ] (constriction of the arterial walls), ], and ] (increased blood sugar). Users experience an increase in focus, increased mental alertness, and the elimination of fatigue, as well as a decrease in appetite. It is known to produce central effects similar to the other ], but at smaller doses, with fewer ].<ref name="turningpoint.org. au"/> Methamphetamine's ] also allows it to enter the brain faster than other stimulants, where it is more stable against degradation by ] (MAO). | |||
| ] of the methamphetamine molecule]] | |||
| The ] is responsible for the potentiation of effects as compared to the related compound ], rendering the substance more lipid-soluble, enhancing transport across the ], and more stable against enzymatic degradation by ] (MAO). Methamphetamine causes the norepinephrine, dopamine, and ] (5HT) transporters to reverse their direction of flow. This inversion leads to a release of these transmitters from the vesicles to the cytoplasm and from the cytoplasm to the synapse (releasing monoamines in rats with ratios of about NE:DA = 1:2, NE: ] = 1:60), causing increased stimulation of post-synaptic receptors. Methamphetamine also indirectly prevents the reuptake of these neurotransmitters, causing them to remain in the synaptic cleft for a prolonged period (inhibiting monoamine reuptake in rats with ratios of about: NE:DA = 1:2.35, NE:5HT = 1:44.5).<ref>Rothman, et al. "Amphetamine-Type Central Nervous System Potently than they Release Dopamine and Serotonin. " (2001): Synapse ''39'', 32-41 (Table V. on page 37)</ref> Methamphetamine also interacts with ] to trigger phosphorylation of ] and ], ultimately resulting in the internalization of ]s.<ref name="Xie and Miller 2009">{{cite pmid|19364908}}</ref> The presynaptic cell is less able to effectively remove dopamine from the synapse. The binding of methamphetamine to TAAR1 also activates ], which allows for increased intracellular cAMP.<ref name="Xie and Miller 2009"/><ref name="Bunzow">{{cite pmid|11723224}}</ref> Taken together, the binding of methamphetamine to TAAR1 results in a massive efflux of neurogenic monoamines with a sustained synaptic presence. | |||
| Methamphetamine is a potent neurotoxin, shown to cause dopaminergic degeneration.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Itzhak Y, Martin JL, Ali SF |title=Methamphetamine-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity in mice: long-lasting sensitization to the locomotor stimulation and desensitization to the rewarding effects of methamphetamine |journal=Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry |volume=26 |issue=6|pages=1177–83 |year=2002 |month=October |pmid=12452543 |doi=10.1016/S0278-5846(02)00257-9}}</ref><!-- This corresponds to a human equivalent dose of at least 100 mg! Even higher on a simple mg/kg basis, which is probably a better measure for acute toxicity. --><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Davidson C, Gow AJ, Lee TH, Ellinwood EH |title=Methamphetamine neurotoxicity: necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms and relevance to human abuse and treatment |journal=Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–22|year=2001 |month=August |pmid=11516769 |doi=10.1016/S0165-0173(01)00054-6}}</ref> High doses of methamphetamine produce losses in several markers of brain dopamine and serotonin neurons. Dopamine and serotonin concentrations, dopamine and 5HT uptake sites, and tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylase activities are reduced after the administration of methamphetamine. It has been proposed that dopamine plays a role in methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity, because experiments that reduce dopamine production or block the release of dopamine decrease the toxic effects of methamphetamine administration. When dopamine breaks down, it produces ] such as hydrogen peroxide. | |||
| It is likely that the approximate twelvefold increase in dopamine levels and subsequent ] that occurs after taking methamphetamine mediates its ].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yamamoto BK, Zhu W |title=The effects of methamphetamine on the production of free radicals and oxidative stress|journal=The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics |volume=287 |issue=1 |pages=107–14|year=1998 |month=October |pmid=9765328 |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9765328}}</ref> The lab of ] and colleagues at ] developed a technique known as "intracellular patch electrochemistry" to measure concentrations of dopamine in the cytosol,<ref>{{cite pmid|12843288}}</ref> and found massive increases following methamphetamine,<ref>{{cite pmid|19409267}}</ref> leading to the "cytosolic dopamine hypothesis" of neurotoxicity, in which dopamine oxidation, particularly close to ], produce oxidative stress that in turn leads to exacerbation of ] that can destroy ] and ].<ref>{{cite pmid|12388602}}</ref> | |||
| Recent research published in the ''Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics'' (2007)<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Reese EA, Bunzow JR, Arttamangkul S, Sonders MS, Grandy DK |title=Trace amine-associated receptor 1 displays species-dependent stereoselectivity for isomers of methamphetamine, amphetamine, and para-hydroxyamphetamine |journal=The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics |volume=321|issue=1 |pages=178–86 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17218486 |doi=10.1124/jpet.106.115402}}</ref> indicates that methamphetamine binds to and activates a ] called ]1.<ref name="pmid17888514">{{Cite journal|author=Grandy DK |title=Trace amine-associated receptor 1-Family archetype or iconoclast? |journal=Pharmacology & Therapeutics |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=355–90 |year=2007|month=December |pmid=17888514 |pmc=2767338 |doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.06.007}}</ref> ]s are a newly discovered receptor family<ref name="pmid11459929">{{Cite journal|author=Borowsky B, Adham N, Jones KA, Raddatz R, Artymyshyn R, Ogozalek KL, Durkin MM, Lakhlani PP, Bonini JA, Pathirana S, Boyle N, Pu X, Kouranova E, Lichtblau H, Ochoa FY, Branchek TA, Gerald C |title=Trace amines: identification of a family of mammalian G protein-coupled receptors |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. |volume=98 |issue=16|pages=8966–71 |year=2001 |pmid=11459929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.151105198 |pmc=55357}}</ref><ref name="pmid11723224">{{Cite journal |unused_data=pmid11723224 |author=Bunzow JR, Sonders MS, Arttamangkul S, Harrison LM, Zhang G, Quigley DI, Darland T, Suchland KL, Pasumamula S, Kennedy JL, Olson SB, Magenis RE, Amara SG, Grandy DK |title=Amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, lysergic acid diethylamide, and metabolites of the catecholamine neurotransmitters are agonists of a rat trace amine receptor |journal=Mol. Pharmacol. |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1181–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11723224}}</ref> whose members are activated by a number of amphetamine-like molecules<ref name="pmid11723224"/> called ], ]s,<ref name="pmid15146179">{{Cite journal|author=Scanlan TS, Suchland KL, Hart ME, Chiellini G, Huang Y, Kruzich PJ, Frascarelli S, Crossley DA, Bunzow JR, Ronca-Testoni S, Lin ET, Hatton D, Zucchi R, Grandy DK |title=3-Iodothyronamine is an endogenous and rapid-acting derivative of thyroid hormone|journal=Nat. Med. |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=638–42 |year=2004 |pmid=15146179 |doi=10.1038/nm1051}}</ref> and certain volatile odorants.<ref name="pmid16878137">{{Cite journal|author=Liberles SD, Buck LB |title=A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium |journal=Nature |volume=442 |issue=7103|pages=645–50 |year=2006 |pmid=16878137 |doi=10.1038/nature05066}}</ref> | |||
| It has been demonstrated that a high core temperature is correlated with an increase in the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yuan J, Hatzidimitriou G, Suthar P, Mueller M, McCann U, Ricaurte G |title=Relationship between temperature, dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and plasma drug concentrations in methamphetamine-treated squirrel monkeys |journal=The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics|volume=316 |issue=3 |pages=1210–8 |year=2006 |month=March |pmid=16293712|doi=10.1124/jpet.105.096503}}</ref> | |||
| == Natural occurrence == | |||
| Methamphetamine has been reported to occur naturally in '']'', and possibly '']'', trees that grow in ].<ref>BA Clement, CM Goff, TDA Forbes, Phytochemistry Vol.49, No 5, pp 1377–1380 (1998) "Toxic amines and alkaloids from Acacia rigidula"</ref> Methamphetamine and amphetamine were long thought to be strictly human-synthesized,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cognitiveliberty.org/shulgin/adsarchive/acacia.htm |title=Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine |publisher=Cognitiveliberty.org |date=2001-09-26 |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> but ''Acacia'' trees contain these and numerous other psychoactive compounds (e. g., ], ], ]), and the related compound ] is known to occur from numerous ''Acacia'' species.<ref>{{Cite journal|author= Siegler, D. S.|title=Phytochemistry of ''Acacia—sensu lato'' |journal= Biochemical Systematics and Ecology |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=845–873 |year=2003 |month=August |doi=10.1016/S0305-1978(03)00082-6 |url=}}</ref> The findings, however, have never been confirmed or repeated, leading some researchers to believe the results were the result of cross-contamination. {{citation needed|date=May 2011}} | |||
| == Routes of administration == | |||
| ] | |||
| Studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drug increases. These findings suggest the route of administration used affects the potential risk for psychological addiction independently of other risk factors, such as dosage and frequency of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/301/2/690.full.pdf |title=Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (JPET) | Onset of Action and Drug Reinforcement |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> Intravenous injection is the fastest route of drug administration, causing blood concentrations to rise the most quickly, followed by smoking, ] (anal or vaginal insertion), ] (snorting), and ] (swallowing). Ingestion does not produce a ], an ] ] state of euphoria as forerunner to the high experienced with the use of methamphetamine, which is most pronounced with the intravenous route of administration. While the onset of the rush induced by injection can occur in as little as a few seconds, the oral route of administration requires approximately half an hour before the high sets in.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abstemious.org/Meth.htm |title=Methamphetamine | Abstemious Outpatient Clinic, Inc |publisher=Abstemious.org |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> | |||
| === Injection === | |||
| ] carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. The hydrochloride salt of methamphetamine is soluble in water. Intravenous users may use any dose range, from less than 100 ]s to over one ], using a ], although it should be noted that typically street methamphetamine is “cut,” or diluted, with a water-soluble cutting material, which constitutes a significant portion of a given street methamphetamine dose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elkhorn.unl.edu/epublic/live/g1748/build/g1748.pdf |title=Methamphetamine: One of America's Greatest Challenges Part I | University of Nebraska-Lincoln |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> Intravenous users risk developing ] (PE), a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches, and commonly develop skin rashes (also known as "speed bumps") or infections at the site of injection. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users ] without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis, can be transmitted. | |||
| === Smoking === | |||
| Smoking amphetamines refers to vaporizing it to inhale the resulting fumes, not burning it to inhale the resulting smoke. It is commonly smoked in glass pipes made from ] ] and light bulbs. It can also be smoked off aluminium foil, which is heated underneath by a flame. This method is also known as "chasing the ''white'' dragon" (whereas smoking ] is known as "]").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smokingmeth.net/ |title=Smoking Meth, the beginner and expert guide to chase the white dragon |publisher=Smokingmeth.Net |date=2010-04-24 |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biopsychiatry.com/heroin.htm |title=Heroin: a history of chasing the dragon |publisher=Biopsychiatry.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-29}}</ref> There is little evidence that methamphetamine inhalation results in greater toxicity than any other route of administration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Methamphetamine_Toxicity_Secondary_to_Intravaginal_Body_Stuffing.pdf |title=Methamphetamine Toxicity Secondary to Intravaginal Body Stuffing | University of Hawaii System |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://addiction.lovetoknow.com/Short_Term_Effects_of_Smoking_Crystal_Meth |title=Short Term Effects of Smoking Crystal Meth | LoveToKnow Recovery |publisher=Addiction. lovetoknow.com |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> Lung damage has been reported with long-term use, but manifests in forms independent of route (] (PH)), or limited to injection users (] (PE)). | |||
| === Insufflation === | |||
| Another popular route of administration to intake methamphetamine is insufflation (snorting). This method allows methamphetamine to be absorbed through the soft tissue of the ] in the ], and then directly into the bloodstream, bypassing ]. | |||
| === Suppository === | |||
| ] (anal or vaginal insertion) is a less popular method of administration used in the community with comparatively little research into its effects.<ref name="Foobar">{{cite web|url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/drugstrategy/publishing.nsf/Content/mono69-l~mono69-l-ch1~mono69-l-ch1.9 |title=National Drug Strategy - 1.9 Routes of administration | Department of Health and Ageing |publisher=Health.gov.au |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> Information on its use is largely anecdotal with reports of increased sexual pleasure and the effects of the drug lasting longer,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alltreatment.com/meth-addiction/meth-facts |title=Meth Facts |publisher=All Treatment |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> though as methamphetamine is centrally active in the brain, these effects are likely experienced through the higher bioavailability of the drug in the bloodstream (second to injection) and the faster onset of action (than insufflation).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6SYR-48362JR-1HS&_user=10&_coverDate=01/01/1987&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1623447584&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=1424ffb9a560445ad5fa52c2e96b4c36&searchtype=a |title=Ascorbic acid-deficient condition alters central effects of methamphetamine |publisher=ScienceDirect |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> Nicknames for the route of administration within some methamphetamine communities include a "butt rocket", a "booty bump", "potato thumping", "turkey basting", "plugging", "boofing", "suitcasing", "hooping", "keistering", "shafting", "bumming", and "shelving" (vaginal).<ref name="Foobar"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urbandictionary.com/ |title=Urban Dictionary |publisher=Urban Dictionary |date= |accessdate=2011-11-26}}</ref> | |||
| == History == | |||
| ] methamphetamine was first ] in 1919 by ]]] | |||
| === Discovery === | |||
| Shortly after the first synthesis of amphetamine in 1887,<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=http://healthvermont.gov/adap/meth/brief_history.aspx |title=Historical overview of methamphetamine|publisher= Vermont Department of Health |date= |accessdate=2012-01-29}}</ref> methamphetamine was synthesized from ] in 1893 by Japanese ] ].<ref>, 2011, A. Bardow, ''Oral & Dental Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, ]''</ref> The term "methamphetamine" was derived from elements of the chemical structure of this new compound: ] ]-] ] ] ''']'''. In 1919, crystallized methamphetamine was synthesized by pharmacologist ] via ] of ephedrine using red ] and ].<ref name="history" /> | |||
| === Military use === | |||
| One of the earliest uses of methamphetamine was during ], when it was used by Axis and Allied forces<!-- Axis use of meth per se emphasized in source -->.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Grinspoon | first = |authorlink = | coauthors = Hedblom | title = Speed Culture: Amphetamine Use and Abuse in America | publisher = Harvard University Press | date = 1975-01-01 | location = | page = 18 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=LyStWcRD6QIC&lpg=PT1&pg=PA18 | doi = | isbn = 978-0-674-83192-6 }}</ref> The company ] produced methamphetamine under the trademark ''Pervitin'' and so did the German and Finnish militaries. It was also dubbed "Pilot's chocolate" or "Pilot's salt".<ref name="EMCDDA perspective">{{cite web|url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_82097_EN_Methamphetamine_final.pdf|title=Methamphetamine|publisher=EMCDDA}}</ref> It was widely distributed across rank and division, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel, with many millions of tablets being distributed throughout the war.<ref name=Pervitin>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,354606,00.html |title=The Nazi Death Machine: Hitler's Drugged Soldiers – SPIEGEL ONLINE – News – International |accessdate=2009-11-17|last=Andreas Ulrich |first=Andreas |work=Spiegel Online }}</ref> Its use by German Panzer crews also led to it being known as "Panzerschokolade" ("Panzer chocolate" or "tankers' chocolate").<ref name=addictionsearch>{{cite web|url=http://www.addictionsearch.com/treatment_articles/article/the-history-of-crystal-meth_58.html|title=The History of Crystal Meth|publisher=Addictionsearch|accessdate=21 November 2012}}</ref><ref name=tooze>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xcekWzXFmo8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=panzer+chocolate+methamphetamine&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eaqsUI6AJoeb1AWy8oCQCA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=chcolate%20panzer&f=false|title=]: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy|author=]|publisher=]|location=London, UK|year=2007|accessdate=21 November 2012}}</ref> More than 35 million three-milligram doses of Pervitin were manufactured for the German army and air force between April and July 1940.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,354606,00.html|title=Hitler's Drugged Soldiers|publisher=Der Spiegel|date=2005-05-06|author=Andreas Ulrich}}</ref> From 1942 until his death in 1945, ] was given intravenous injections of methamphetamine by his personal physician ]. It is possible that it was used to treat Hitler's speculated ], or that his Parkinson-like symptoms that developed from 1940 onwards resulted from using methamphetamine.<ref>{{Cite journal| last= Doyle | first = D | year= 2005 | title= Hitler's Medical Care | url=http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/journal/issue/journal_35_1/Hitler%27s_medical_care.pdf | journal = Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh | volume=35 | pages=75–82 | format = PDF | accessdate=2006-12-28 | pmid= 15825245 | issue= 1}}</ref> In Japan, methamphetamine was sold under the registered trademark of Philopon (ヒロポン<ref name=Translate1RH>.</ref> hiropon<ref name=Translate2RH>.</ref>) by Dainippon Pharmaceuticals (present-day ] ) for civilian and military use. As with the rest of the world at the time, the side effects of methamphetamine were not well studied, and regulation was not seen as necessary. In the 1940s and 1950s the drug was widely administered to Japanese industrial workers to increase their productivity.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Philip Jenkins |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/378259/methamphetamine |title=methamphetamine (drug) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2012-01-29}}</ref> | |||
| Methamphetamine and amphetamine were given to ] bomber pilots during ] to sustain them by fighting off fatigue and enhancing focus during long flights. The experiment failed because soldiers became agitated, could not channel their aggression and showed impaired judgment.<ref name="history" /> Rather, dextroamphetamine (]) became the drug of choice for American bomber pilots, being used on a voluntary basis by roughly half of the ] pilots during the ], a practice which came under some media scrutiny in 2003 after a mistaken attack on Canadian troops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2003/01/04/MN191592.DTL|title='Go' pills for F-16 pilots get close look: Amphetamines prescribed in mission that killed Canadians|author=Greg Miller|date=2003-01-04|publisher=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> | |||
| === Medical and legal over-the-counter sales === | |||
| Following the use of amphetamine (such as ], introduced 1932) in the 1930s for asthma, narcolepsy, and symptoms of the common cold,<ref name="history" /> in 1943, ] requested U.S. FDA approval of methamphetamine for treatment of ], mild ], ], chronic ], cerebral ], and ], which was granted in December 1944.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} | |||
| Sale of the massive postwar surplus of methamphetamine in Europe, North America, and Japan stimulated civilian demand.<ref name="EMCDDA perspective" /> After World War II, a large Japanese military stockpile of methamphetamine, known by its trademark Philopon, flooded the market.<ref name=Philopon>{{cite web| url =http://www.yama-arashi.com/medical/antidepressants.htm | title = 抗うつ薬いろいろ (Various Antidepressants) |accessdate = 2006-07-14 | author = Digital Creators Studio Yama-Arashi | date= 2006-04-16 | work = 医療情報提供サービス | language = Japanese |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20071221115601/http://www.yama-arashi.com/medical/antidepressants.htm |archivedate = 2007-12-21}}</ref> Post-war Japan experienced the first methamphetamine epidemic, which later spread to Guam, the U. S. Marshall Islands, and to the U. S. West Coast.<ref name="history" /> | |||
| In 1948, the Philopon trademark came under a well-publicized lawsuit by ] Corporation.<ref name=Philopon>{{cite web| url = http://www.yama-arashi.com/medical/antidepressants.htm | title = 抗うつ薬いろいろ (Various Antidepressants) | accessdate = 2006-07-14 | author = Digital Creators Studio Yama-Arashi | date= 2006-04-16 | work = 医療情報提供サービス | language = Japanese |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20071221115601/http://www.yama-arashi.com/medical/antidepressants.htm |archivedate = 2007-12-21}}</ref> Philips, under its Koninklijke division, filed suit against Dainippon Pharmaceuticals to cease using Philipon as the commercial name for methamphetamine. Philips claimed the exclusive right to use the trademark as a ] of Philips and Nippon, the Japanese name of the country. DSP's attorneys challenged Philips' standing to sue as a foreign (Dutch) corporation. The matter was ultimately settled out of court in 1952, with Dainippon Pharmaceuticals agreeing to pay Philips a 5% royalty on worldwide sales of methamphetamines sold by DSP under the Philopon label. The Japanese Ministry of Health banned production less than a year later.<ref name="banning_in_1951"/> | |||
| In the 1950s, there was a rise in the legal prescription of methamphetamine to the American public. In the 1954 edition of ''Pharmacology and Therapeutics'', conditions treatable by methamphetamine included "], ] ], alcoholism, certain depressive states, and in the treatment of ]."<ref>{{Cite book| last = Grollman | first = Arthur | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Pharmacology and Therapeutics: a Textbook for Students and Practitioners of Medicine | publisher = Lea & Febiger | year = 1954 | location = | page = 209 | isbn = 0-8121-0105-7}}</ref> Methamphetamine constituted half of the amphetamine salts for the original formulation for the diet drug ], which later became the ] drug ]. Methamphetamine was also marketed for sinus inflammation or for non-medicinal purposes as "]" or "bennies".<ref name="history" /> | |||
| === Recreational use and prohibitive regulations === | |||
| In 1950 the Japanese Ministry of Health banned stimulant production, but drug companies continued to produce stimulants and they wound up on the black market. From 1951 to 1954 a series of acts were passed by the Japanese government to try to stop production and sale of stimulants; however, the production and sale of stimulant drugs continued through criminal syndicates such as ] criminal organizations.<ref name=banning_in_1951>{{cite web| url =http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1989-01-01_1_page007.html | title = Japan: stimulant epidemics past and present | accessdate = 14 July 2006 | first= M. |last=Tamura | date= 1989-01-01 |work = Bulletin on Narcotics | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | pages = 83–93}}</ref> On the streets, it is also known as S, Shabu, and Speed, in addition to its old trademarked name. | |||
| The 1960s saw the start of significant use of clandestinely manufactured methamphetamine, most of which was produced by ]. It was also prescribed by San Franciscan drug clinics to treat heroin addiction.<ref name="history" /> Beginning in the 1990s, the production of methamphetamine in users' own homes for personal and recreational use became popular. | |||
| In 1970, methamphetamine was regulated in the ] in the U. S., and a public education campaign was mounted against it.<ref name="history" /> | |||
| By the 2000s, the only two FDA approved marketing indications remaining for methamphetamine were for ] (ADHD) and the short-term management of ], although the drug is clinically established as effective in the treatment of narcolepsy.<ref name="Mitler MM, Hajdukovic R, Erman MK 1993 306–17">{{Cite journal|author=Mitler MM, Hajdukovic R, Erman MK |title=Treatment of narcolepsy with methamphetamine |journal=Sleep |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=306–17 |year=1993 |month=June |pmid=8341891|pmc=2267865}}</ref> | |||
| === Current status === | |||
| {{Main|Legal status of methamphetamine}} | |||
| The production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many ]s. Methamphetamine has been placed in Schedule II of the ] ] treaty.<ref name=incb /> <!-- Please add only information that contributes to the general, global overview of legality. Details like country-specific laws may be appropriate, but the main article is probably the best place for that. --> | |||
| ==== North Korea ==== | |||
| ] might be facing one of the world's worst meth epidemics. Although the secrecy of the ] means that any report may be only approximate, there have been an increasing number of signs that meth is very widespread throughout the country, used both recreationally and as medicine.<ref>{{Cite news |title=North Korea's Addicting Export: Crystal Meth |author= |first=Isaac |last=Stone Fish |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/china-meth-north-korea-addicting-export|newspaper=Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting |date=20 June 2011 |accessdate=2011-06-27}}</ref> Methamphetamine is called ''Bingdu'' ({{korean|hangul=빙두|hanja=氷毒}}; "ice poison") in the ].<ref name=bingdu>{{cite web|title='Bingdu' Prevalence Difficult to Grasp|url=http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?cataId=nk00100&num=7723|publisher=]|accessdate=22 October 2011|author=Cho Jong Ik|date=2011-05-23}}</ref> | |||
| ==== United States ==== | |||
| {{Main |Methamphetamine in the United States}} | |||
| ] (]). Anhydrous ammonia is used in the production of farm fertilizer and is also a critical ingredient in making methamphetamine. In 2005, the state of Iowa gave out thousands of locks in order to prevent criminals from accessing the tanks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://thegazette.com/2009/10/06/anhydrous-ammonia-tank-locks-have-flaws |title=Anhydrous ammonia tank locks have flaws|author=The Gazette Staff|publisher=Cedar Rapids Gazette|date=6 Oct 2009}}</ref>]] | |||
| In 1983, laws were passed in the United States prohibiting possession of precursors and equipment for methamphetamine production. This was followed a month later by a bill passed in Canada enacting similar laws. In 1986, the U.S. government passed the Federal Controlled Substance Analogue Enforcement Act in an attempt to curb the growing use of ]s. Despite this, use of methamphetamine expanded from its initial base in California throughout the rural United States, especially through the ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/209730.pdf |title=Methamphetamine Use: Lessons Learned|publisher=National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS)|format=PDF |date=|accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| Government officials in many U.S. counties now report that meth is their most serious drug problem. Meth use is said to be particularly common in the American western states, where the substance is in high demand. States like ], ], ], ] and ] have all launched extensive efforts – both private and public – to stop meth use.<ref name=Roots>{{cite web | last=Roots | first=Roger | date=5 April 2011 | url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig8/roots6.1.1.html | title=Cooking Meth: How Government Manufactured a Drug Epidemic | publisher = '']''}}</ref> | |||
| == Illicit production == | |||
| === Synthesis === | |||
| ] | |||
| {{see also|Substituted amphetamine#Synthesis}} | |||
| Methamphetamine is most structurally similar to ] and amphetamine. Synthesis is relatively simple, but entails risk with flammable and corrosive chemicals, particularly the solvents used in extraction and purification; therefore, illicit production is often discovered by fires and explosions caused by the improper handling of volatile or flammable solvents. The six major routes of production begin with either ] (P2P) or with one of the isomeric compounds ] and ].<ref name="Remberg">{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1999-01-01_1_page008.html|title=Drug characterization/impurity profiling, with special focus on methamphetamine: recent work of the United Nations International Drug Control Programme|author=B. Remburg and A. H. Stead|publisher=Bulletin on Narcotics (UNODC)|volume=51|number=1-2|year=1999}}</ref> | |||
| ] and ] in the presence of ]<ref name="Snow">{{cite book|author =Otto Snow|title = Amphetamine syntheses|year = 2002|publisher = Thoth Press|isbn = 0-9663128-3-X}} p. 90.</ref>]] | |||
| One procedure uses the ] of phenyl-2-propanone (phenylacetone) with ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/amph.alhg.html |title=A Synthesis of Amphetamine. J. Chem. Educ. 51, 671 (1974) |publisher=Erowid.org |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> P2P was usually obtained from ] and ],<ref name="Snow">{{cite book|author =Otto Snow|title = Amphetamine syntheses|year = 2002|publisher = Thoth Press|isbn = 0-9663128-3-X}} p. 127.</ref> though many other methods have been considered,<ref>Many literature citations for such examples can be found in an anonymous manuscript authored by "U. P. Yourspigs" which is archived at ]: {{cite web|url=http://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/tcboe/chapter5.html|title=The Complete Book Of {{sic|hide=y|Ecs|tacy}}|chapter=5}}</ref> and phenylacetic acid might arise from ], benzylcyanide, or ].<ref name="Makino" /> Methylamine is crucial to all such methods, and is produced from the model airplane fuel ], or ] and ], or ] with ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Secrets of methamphetamine manufacture|author=]|edition=8|publisher=Festering Publications|url=http://www.unclefesterbooks.com}}</ref> This was once the preferred method of production by ] in California,<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=8lWBixJv0QAC |title=No Speed Limit: The Highs and Lows of Meth |first=Frank |last=Owen |publisher=Macmillan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-312-35616-3 |chapter=Chapter 1: The Rise of Nazi Dope |pages=17–18}}</ref> until DEA restrictions on the chemicals made the process difficult. Pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, phenylacetone, and phenylacetic acid are currently ] list I and acetic anhydride is list II on the ] subject to regulation and control measures. This method can involve the use of ] and leaves behind ] and ] environmental wastes.<ref name="mappsd" /> The methamphetamine produced by this method is ], consisting partly of the unsought ] isomer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.justice.gov/ndic/pubs1/1540/meth.htm|title=Methamphetamine|publisher=U. S. Department of Justice|author=National Drug Intelligence Center}}</ref> | |||
| The alternative Leuckart route also relies on P2P to produce a racemic product, but proceeds via ] in ] to an intermediate N-formyl-methamphetamine, which is then decarboxylated with ].<ref name="Remberg" /><ref name="Makino" /> | |||
| Two infrequently used reductive amination routes have also been reported. The "nitropropene route", in which ] is condensed with ] to produce 1-phenyl-2-nitropropene, which is subsequently reduced by ] of the double bond and reduction of the ] using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or ]. The "oxime route" reacts phenyl-2-propanol with ] to produce an oxime intermediate which likewise is hydrogenated using hydrogen over a ] catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride.<ref name="UNODC2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/scientific/stnar34.pdf|title=Recommended methods of the identification and analysis of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and their ring-substituted analogues in seized materials|year=2006|publisher=UNODC}}</ref> | |||
| Illicit methamphetamine is more commonly made by the ] of ] or ], which produces the more active d-methamphetamine isomer. The maximum conversion rate for ephedrine and pseudoephedrine is 92%, although typically, illicit methamphetamine laboratories convert at a rate of 50% to 75%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.ucsc.edu/~cdobkin/Papers/Methamphetamine.pdf |title=The War on Drugs: Methamphetamine, Public Health, and Crime | University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> Most methods of illicit production involve ] of the ] group on the ephedrine or pseudoephedrine molecule. | |||
| ] in the presence of ]]] | |||
| Though dating back to the discovery of the drug, the ] route<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Uhth0Sp6ZrgC&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq="nagai+route"|title=Recommended methods for the identification and analysis of amphetamine, methamphetamine and their ring-substituted analogues in seized materials|author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Laboratory and Scientific Section | |||
| | date=2006-03-01}}</ref> did not become popular among illicit manufacturers until ca. 1982, and comprised 20% of production in Michigan in 2002<ref name="Michigan">{{cite web|url=http://www.michigan.gov/documents/Harrison_Meth_Lab_HC_Nov04_122529_7.pdf|title=Potential Health Effects at a Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratory using the Red Phosphorus Production Method|author=Michigan Department of Community Health | |||
| Under a Cooperative Agreement with Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|date=2004-11}}</ref> It involves ] and ] (also known as hydroiodic acid or iohydroic acid). (The hydrogen iodide is replaced by iodine and water in the "Moscow route"<ref name="Inoue">{{cite journal|url=http://jhs.pharm.or.jp/data/54%286%29/54_615.pdf|title=http://jhs.pharm.or.jp/data/54%286%29/54_615.pdf|author=Hiroyuki Inoue ''et al. ''|journal=Journal of Health Science|volume=54|issue=6|pages=615–622|year=2008}}</ref>) The hydrogen iodide is used to reduce either ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine.<ref name="mappsd" /> On heating the precursor is rapidly ] by the hydrogen iodide to form iodoephedrine. The phosphorus assists in the second step, by consuming iodine to form ] (which decomposes in water to ], regenerating hydrogen iodide). Because hydrogen iodide exists in a ] with iodine and hydrogen, the phosphorus reaction shifts the balance toward hydrogen production when iodine is consumed.<ref name="Cantrell">{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0379073888901168|title=A study of impurities found in methamphetamine synthesized from ephedrine|author=T. S. Cantrell ''et al. ''|publisher=Forensic Science International|volume=39|issue=1|date=1988-10|pages=39–53}} (online version, 2005, at )</ref> In Australia, criminal groups have been known to substitute "red" phosphorus with either ] or ] (the "Hypo route").<ref name="Inoue" /><ref>{{Dead link|date=August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=A single step process for methamphetamine manufacture using hypophosphorus acid|journal=Journal of the Clandestine Laboratory Investigating Chemists Association|volume=5|pages=14–15|year=1995}} (cited in )</ref> This is a hazardous process for amateur chemists because ] gas, a side-product from ] hydrogen iodide production,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022328X96065588|title=Regenerative role of the red phosphorus in the couple ‘HIaq/Pred’|author=Dominique Albouy ''et al. ''|publisher=Journal of Organometallic Chemistry|volume=529|issue=1–2|date=1997-02-15|pages=295–299|doi=10.1016/S0022-328X(96)06558-8}} (archived online 2005 at )</ref> is extremely toxic to inhale. The reaction can also create toxic, flammable ] waste.<ref name="mappsd" /> Methamphetamine produced in this way is usually more than 95% pure.<ref>"{{cite journal|author=Skinner, H. F.|year=1990|title=Methamphetamine Synthesis via HI/Red Phosphorus Reduction of Ephedrine|journal=Forensic Science International|volume=48|pages=128–134}} Reprinted at http://www.rhodium.ws/chemistry/meth.hi-rp.html (dead link)" (cited in )</ref> | |||
| ] synthesis]] | |||
| The conceptually similar Emde route involves reduction of ephedrine to chloroephedrine using ] (SOCl<sub>2</sub>), followed by ] ]. The catalysts for this reaction are ] or ].<ref name="Remberg" /><ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1016/0379-0738(89)90086-8|author = Andrew Allen and Thomas S. Cantrell|title = Synthetic Reductions in Clandestine Amphetamine and Methamphetamine Laboratories|url = http://www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/amphetamine.reduction.html|year = 1989|volume = 42|pages = 183–199|journal=Forensic Science International|issue = 3}}</ref> The Rosenmund route also uses hydrogen gas and a palladium catalyst poisoned with ] (]), but uses ] instead of thionyl chloride.<ref name="Makino">{{cite journal|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/Bulletin07/bulletin_on_narcotics_2007_Makino.pdf|title=Investigation of the origin of ephedrine and methamphetamine by stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry: a Japanese experience|author=Y. Makino|publisher=Bulletin on Narcotics|volume=52|number=1-2|year=2005}}</ref> | |||
| The ], also called the "Nazi method", became popular in the mid-to-late 1990s and comprised the bulk of methamphetamine production in Michigan in 2002.<ref name="Michigan" /> It reacts pseudoephedrine with liquid ] and an alkali metal such as ] or ]. The reaction is allowed to stand until the ammonia evaporates.<ref name="UNODC2006" /> However, the Birch reduction is dangerous because the alkali metal and ammonia are both extremely reactive, and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added. It has been the most popular method in ]ern states of the U. S. because of the ready availability of liquid ammonia fertilizer in farming regions.<ref name="mappsd">{{cite web|url=http://www.mappsd.org/Types%20of%20Labs.htm|title=Types of Meth Labs|publisher=METH Awareness and Prevention Project of South Dakota}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.illinoisattorneygeneral.gov/methnet/understandingmeth/basics.html |title=Illinois Attorney General | Basic Understanding Of Meth |publisher=Illinoisattorneygeneral.gov |date= |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| In recent years, a simplified "Shake 'n Bake" ] has become more popular. The method is suitable for such small batches that pseudoephedrine restrictions are less effective, it uses chemicals that are easier to obtain (though no less dangerous than traditional methods), and it is so easy to carry out that some addicts have made the drug while driving.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/lifestyle/health/2009/08/25/2009-08-25_new_method_for_making_crystal_meth_gets_around_drug_laws.html |title=New 'shake-and-bake' method for making crystal meth gets around drug laws but is no less dangerous |agency=Associated Press |publisher=New York Daily News |date=August 25, 2009}}</ref> It involves placing crushed pseudoephedrine tablets into a nonpressurized container containing ], water, and a ] solvent such as ]<ref name="Ziegelman">{{cite web|url=http://packet-media.com/2011/02/03/meth-lab-busted-on-warpath/|title=Meth Lab Busted on Warpath|author=Evan Ziegelman|publisher=The Columbus Packet|date=2011-02-03}}</ref> or automotive ], to which ] and ] (from ]) is added. ] gas produced by a reaction of salt with ] is then used to recover crystals for purification. The container needs to be "burped" periodically to prevent failure under accumulating pressure, as exposure of the lithium to the air can spark a flash fire; thus an abandoned reaction becomes a severe hazard to firefighters.<ref name="Michael">{{cite web|url=http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/print/volume-161/issue-6/features/firefighting-in-clandestine-drug-labs.html|title=Firefighting in Clandestine Drug Labs|author=Jay D. Michael|publisher=Fire Engineering}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DnT2jfgSllI&feature=related|title="Shake and bake" meth technique raises concerns|publisher=KCCI Newschannel 8|publisher=YouTube|date=2010-10-07}} (includes Kansas state drug lab illustration of the shake-and-bake reaction)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0kq7zj8Kd_Q|title=Tulsa Police Meth Explosion|publisher=Tulsa Police Department|date=2011-03-03|publisher=YouTube}}</ref> The battery lithium can react with water to shatter a container and potentially start a fire or explosion.<ref name="Ziegelman" /> | |||
| Producing methamphetamine in this fashion can be extremely dangerous and has been linked to several fatalities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alcoholism.about.com/od/meth/a/shake_and_bake.htm |title=Shake and Bake Meth | New 'Shake and Bake' Meth Method Explodes |accessdate=2009-12-01 }}</ref> Because users frequently carry out the reaction in a ] held close to their bodies, which can explode if the cap is removed too soon or if it accidentally perforates, the procedure has led to a large number of severe burns — for example, approximately 70 in ] during 2010 and 2011. As 90% of these cases in the ] lack ], and the average cost for their treatment is $130,000 (60% more than the average), which is only partially compensated by ], this method of synthesis has been blamed for the closure of hospital burn units and a cost to taxpayers of tens or hundreds of millions of dollars.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alcoholism.about.com/b/2012/01/25/meth-shakers-overwhelm-burn-units.htm|title=Meth Shakers Overwhelm Burn Units|date=2013-02-23}}</ref> | |||
| === Production and distribution === | |||
| {{see also|Illegal drug trade}} | |||
| ] methamphetamine and ] ] (Cikande, ])]] | |||
| ] (454 ]) of methamphetamine found on a passenger at ] (LAX)]] | |||
| Until the early 1990s, methamphetamine for the U.S. market was made mostly in labs run by drug traffickers in ] and California. ] ] found 1,260 labs in 2003, compared to just 6 in 1995, although this may be partly a result of increased police activity.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.in.gov/cji/methfreeindiana/enforce.html | archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070926225227/http://www.in.gov/cji/methfreeindiana/enforce.html |archivedate=2007-09-22 |title=Law Enforcement Facts |year=2007 |publisher=Indiana State Government |location=U.S.}}</ref> As of 2007, drug and lab seizure data suggests that approximately 80 percent of the methamphetamine used in the United States originates from larger laboratories operated by Mexican-based syndicates on both sides of the border and that approximately 20 percent comes from small toxic labs (STLs) in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book | |||
| | url=http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/cngrtest/ct032207attach.html | |||
| | title=DEA Congressional Testimony, "Drug Threats And Enforcement Challenges" | |||
| | publisher=U. S. Drug Enforcement Administration | |||
| | date=March 22, 2007 | |||
| | accessdate=2008-05-03}}</ref> | |||
| Mobile and motel-based methamphetamine labs have caught the attention of both the U. S. news media and the police. Such labs can cause explosions<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOdE_iQawUw&feature=related|title=Meth Explosion Caught On Tape|author=Tiffany Craig|publisher=YouTube (WKRGNews)}}</ref> and fires and expose the public to hazardous chemicals. Those who manufacture methamphetamine are often harmed by toxic gases. Many police departments have specialized task forces with training to respond to cases of methamphetamine production. The National Drug Threat Assessment 2006, produced by the ], found "decreased domestic methamphetamine production in both small and large-scale laboratories", but also that "decreases in domestic methamphetamine production have been offset by increased production in Mexico." The report concluded that "methamphetamine availability is not likely to decline in the near term. "<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs11/18862/meth.htm |title=Methamphetamine | National Drug Threat Assessment 2006 |accessdate=2009-08-25 |date = January 2006|publisher=National Drug Intelligence Center }}</ref> | |||
| Methamphetamine labs can give off noxious fumes, such as ] gas, ] gas, solvent vapors, ] or ], iodine vapors, white phosphorus, anhydrous ], ]/], hydrogen iodide, lithium and ] gases, ], or methamphetamine vapors.<ref name="Michigan" /><!-- - note this ref only covers red P method, not all of the other stuff- --> If performed by amateurs, manufacturing methamphetamine can be extremely dangerous. If the red phosphorus overheats, because of a lack of ventilation, phosphine gas can be produced. This gas is highly toxic and, if present in large quantities, is likely to explode upon autoignition from ], which is formed by overheating phosphorus. {{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} | |||
| In July 2007, Mexican officials at the port of ] seized a ship carrying 19 tons of pseudoephedrine, a raw material needed for methamphetamine.<ref>{{dead link|date=January 2011}} AP, The Telegram (The Canadian Press), July 26, 2007. Olga R. Rodriguez</ref> The shipment originated in ] and passed through the United States at the port of ] prior to its arrival in Mexico. | |||
| The Australian Crime Commission's illicit drug data report for 2011–2012 was released in western Sydney, Australia on 20 May 2013 and revealed that the average strength of crystal methamphetamine doubled in most Australian jurisdictions within a 12-month period and the majority of domestic laboratory closures involved small "addict-based" operations.<ref>{{cite news|title=Purity on the rise as ice tops the drugs wave|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/purity-on-the-rise-as-ice-tops-the-drugs-wave/story-e6frg6nf-1226646323941|accessdate=20 May 2013|newspaper=The Australian|date=20 May 2013|author=MARK SCHLIEBS}}</ref> | |||
| === Impurities and adulterants === | |||
| In Japan, methamphetamine seizures are usually white crystals of high purity, but contain impurities that vary according to the means of production, and are sometimes adulterated. | |||
| Diagnostic impurities are the ]s 1-benzyl-methylnaphthalene and 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenylnaphthalene,<ref name="Cantrell" /> arising in the Nagai and Leuckart routes, and ''cis-'' or ''trans-'' 1,2-dimethyl-3-phenylaziridine, ephedrine, or erythro-3,4-dimethyl- | |||
| 5-phenyloxazolidine, arising in the Nagai and Emde routes; these are absent in the reductive amination route.<ref name="Makino" /> Characteristic impurities of the Birch route include N-methyl-1-(1-(1,4-cyclohexadienyl))-2-propanamine.<ref name="UNODC2006" /> Methamphetamine produced by the Birch route contains phenyl-2-propanone, the precursor for the reductive amination route, as a degradation product.<ref name="Cantrell" /> However, specific diagnostic impurities are not very reliable in practice, and it is generally preferable for forensic technicians to evaluate a larger profile of trace compounds.<ref name="Remberg" /> | |||
| A common adulterant is ], a solvent and cosmetic base without known effect on the nervous system; other adulterants include ] HCl, ephedrine HCl, ], ], ], and a mixture of ] with ].<ref name="Inoue" /> | |||
| In the United States, illicit methamphetamine comes in a variety of forms with prices varying widely over time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/price_purity/ |title=The Price and Purity of Illicit Drugs: 1981 Through the Second Quarter of 2003 |publisher=WhiteHouseDrugPolicy.gov |month=November |year=2004 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20051027062908/http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/price_purity/ |archivedate=2005-10-27}}</ref> Most commonly, it is found as a colorless ] solid. Impurities may result in a brownish or tan color. Colorful flavored pills containing methamphetamine and ] are known as ] (Thai for "crazy medicine"). | |||
| An impure form of methamphetamine is sold as a crumbly brown or off-white rock, commonly referred to as "peanut butter crank".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Ice Epidemic |url=http://www.wctu.com.au/pages/education_papers/Education+Paper+2007-09.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080719104248/http://www.wctu.com.au/pages/education_papers/Education+Paper+2007-09.pdf |archivedate=2008-07-19 |publisher=Woman's Christian Temperance Union |location=Australia |work=WCTU.com.au |first=Glenda |last=Amos |date=September 2007 |accessdate=2010-11-17}}</ref> It may be diluted or ] with non-psychoactive substances like ], ] or ]. Another popular method is to combine methamphetamine with other ], such as caffeine or ], into a pill known as a "Kamikaze", which can be particularly dangerous due to the ] of multiple stimulants. Reports in 2007 of the appearance of flavored "]" circulated in the media and local law enforcement,<ref>{{cite web|first=Lloyd |last=De Vries|date=May 2, 2007 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/05/02/health/main2752266.shtml |title=Candy Flavored Meth Targets New Users| work= CBS News |accessdate=2012-08-09}}</ref> but were debunked in 2010 by the DEA, although meth of varying ''colors'' has been seized.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.snopes.com/horrors/drugs/candymeth.asp |title=Strawberry Meth |publisher=Snopes.com |accessdate=2009-08-25 |last=Mikkelson |first=Barbara }}</ref> | |||
| Rarely, the impure reaction mixture from the hydrogen iodide/red phosphorus route is used without further modification, usually by injection; it is called "ox blood".<ref name="UNODC2006" /> "Meth oil" refers to the crude methamphetamine base produced by several synthesis procedures. Ordinarily it is purified by exposure to hydrogen chloride, as a solution or as a bubbled gas, and extraction of the resulting salt occurs by precipitation and/or recrystallization with ether/acetone.<ref name="UNODC2006" /> | |||
| === Slang terms === | |||
| ] for methamphetamine, especially common among illicit users, are numerous and vary from region to region. Some names are "crystal meth", "meth", "speed", "crystal", "clavo", "ice", "shards", "shabu/shaboo", "glass", "jib", "crank", "batu/batunas", "scanté", "schizznit", "gack", "tweak", "rizz", "rock", "tina" and "cold". Some terms vary by region or subculture.<ref></ref> | |||
| Some regional terms are based on the original trade names; thus "필로폰" ("Pilopon") in ], "Пико" for pure methamphetamine in ] or "piko" in the ], ], and ] after the trade name "Pervitin". Also "peří" ("feathers", phonetically similar to "Pervitin") and "perník" ("gingerbread", phonetically similar to "Pervitin" in the Czech Republic. In New Zealand it is called "''P''".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.police.govt.nz/safety/meth.html |title=What is methamphetamine? | New Zealand Police |publisher=Police.govt.nz |date=2004-10-15 |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> | |||
| Other local names include “冰毒” (''Bīng Dú'', Chinese for "Ice drug") in China, "]" (Thai for "Crazy Medicine", ]), "ya ice" (Thai for "Ice drug", ]), "đá" (Vietnamese for "ice", ]), "batu kilat" (Malaysian for "shining rocks", ]),<ref name=nicknames>{{cite web|url=http://www.methhelponline.com/meth-slang.htm |title=Meth Slang Names for Meth, Meth Jargon | Meth Addiction and Recovery |publisher=Methhelponline.com |date=2007-02-09 |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> "bato" (Filipino for "rock" or "stone", ])<ref name="nicknames"/> "شیشه" (in translation "Glass", transliterate to "Shishe", ]), "tik" (]),<ref name="UCT">{{Cite news|work=UCT|accessdate=2009-08-13 |last=Plüddemann|first=Andreas| date=2005-06|title=Tik, memory loss and stroke|journal=Science in Africa|publisher=Science magazine for Africa CC|location=South Africa|url=http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/june/tik.htm}}</ref> "dimineata speciala aurie" ("Special golden morning", ]), "bala" in ], "tjäck" in ], "ספיד" in ] and "Teeft" ]. | |||
| "Vint", Russian for "a screw", specifically refers to a very impure homemade form of methamphetamine in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.drugtext.org/count/Russia_drugtext_ENG.htm |title=Drugs and HIV infection in the Russian Federation |last1= Smirnov |first1=Alexander |date=March–April, 2001 |publisher=drugtext foundation |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090501065749/http://www.drugtext.org/count/Russia_drugtext_ENG.htm |archivedate=1 May 2009 |accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref> The name originally comes from "Pervitin," a pharmaceutical trademark. | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * '']'' - An award winning television series involving the criminal production of methamphetamine | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| * {{Cite book |last=Yudko |first=Errol |coauthors=McPherson, Sandra; Hall, Harold |title=Methamphetamine Use: Clinical and Forensic Aspects |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, FL |date=2008-10-29 |edition=2nd |series=408 |isbn=978-0-8493-7273-5}} | |||
| The DSM IV has amphetamine defined in two ways: Amphetamine dependence (304.40) and Amphetamine abuse (305.70) | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist|colwidth=35em}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Commons category|Methamphetamine}} | |||
| * —Entry for d-methamphetamine | |||
| * (2007) | |||
| * (2009) | |||
| * —A comprehensive thematic index of methamphetamine research published in academic and scientific journals with links from citations to the PubMed abstracts. | |||
| * (PIM 334: Methamphetamine) | |||
| * —A thorough review on the effects of chronic use (American College of Neuropsychopharmacology) | |||
| * | |||
| ; Documentaries | |||
| * by ]—Australian methamphetamine use. | |||
| * —'']'' episode | |||
| * —National Geographic. | |||
| * —] (Louis Theroux) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * | |||
| * by ] | |||
| ; Academic sources | |||
| * {{cite book|last=KLEE|first=|title=Amphetamine Misuse: International Perspectives on Current Trends |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2r-4jwz-hbwC |year=1997 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9789057020797 }} | |||
| {{Methamphetamine}} | |||
| {{Drug use}} | |||
| {{Stimulants}} | |||
| {{Antihyperkinetics}} | |||
| {{Anorectics}} | |||
| {{Adrenergics}} | |||
| {{Euphoriants}} | |||
| {{Dopaminergics}} | |||
| {{Sigmaergics}} | |||
| {{TAAR ligands}} | |||
| {{Phenethylamines}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 23:54, 7 June 2013
Meth makes you happy. It may be bad, but you happy. Meth illegal. Do not buy if want to stay out jail. But makes you happy. Smoke it. Eat it. Snort it. Shove it up you pee hole. Do whatever happy. Makes happy. The End.
- My Dealer